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Towa ds he Essence o And agogy : A He meneu ical Reading o G und ig, Knowles,
Lindeman and Sa iće ić
© 2023 Ani a Malinen, A ja Pii ainen
Published e sion
Malinen, Ani a; Pii ainen, A ja
Malinen, A., & Pii ainen, A. (2023). Towa ds he Essence o And agogy : A He meneu ical
Reading o G und ig, Knowles, Lindeman and Sa iće ić. And agoska Spoznanja, 29(2), 19-37.
h ps://doi.o g/10.4312/as/14421
2023
Scien i ic a icle
And agoška spoznanja/S udies in Adul Educa ion and Lea ning, 2023, 29(2), 19-37
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.4312/as/14421
Ani a Malinen, A ja Pii ainen
TOWARDS THE ESSENCE OF ANDRAGOGY –
A HERMENEUTICAL READING OF GRUNDTVIG,
KNOWLES, LINDEMAN AND SAVIĆEVIĆ
ABSTRACT
The aim o his s udy is o sea ch o he essence o and agogy h ough a c i ical examina ion o and agogy
heo is s and he eby inc ease he heo e ical unde s anding o and agogy. Sys ema ic e iews in 2013 and
in 2021 led us o p obe mo e deeply in o and agogical w i ings in sea ch o he essence o and agogy. W i ings
by ou classic heo is s ep esen ing di e en and agogical app oaches – G und ig, Knowles, Lindeman and
Sa iće ić – we e selec ed o he meneu ic ex in e p e a ion. Based on he esul s, we o mula ed, as cons i u -
ing he essence o and agogy, h ee in e wined p inciples: 1) li ed expe ience, 2) ecip ocal in e ac ion, and 3)
“powe wi h”. Each p inciple exp esses he quali ies ha desc ibe i s na u e. These h ee p inciples a e necessa y
and su icien condi ions o he and agogy o be p esen . I one o hese p inciples is lacking, he wholeness o
and agogy is absen , and he phenomenon does no exis .
Keywo ds: and agogy, heo y building, he meneu ical in e p e a ion
V ISKANJU BISTVA ANDRAGOGIKE – HERMENEVTIČNO BRANJE GRUNDTVIGA,
KNOWLESA, LINDEMANA IN SAVIĆEVIĆA – POVZETEK
Namen p ispe ka je iskanje bis a and agogike p ek k i ičnega p euče anja del eo e iko and agogike in po-
globljenega eo e ičnega azume anja pod očja. Sis ema ična p egleda iz le 2013 in 2021 s a nas iskanju
bis a and agogike spodbudila k bolj poglobljenemu b anju and agoških del. Za he mene ično b anje in in e -
p e acijo so bila izb ana besedila š i ih klasičnih eo e iko G und iga, Knowlesa, Lindemana in Sa iće ića,
ki p eds a ljajo azlične and agoške p is ope. Na podlagi ezul a o smo obliko ali i med seboj p eple ena
načela, ki p eds a ljajo bis o and agogike: 1) ži ljenjska izkušnja, 2) zajemna in e akcija in 3) »moč z« (ang.
powe wi h). Vsako od načel iz aža las nos i, ki opisujejo njego o na a o. Ta i načela so nujni in zados ni
pogoji, da lahko go o imo o and agogiki. Če manjka eno od načel, ne g e za and agogiko, enomen ne obs aja.
Ključne besede: and agogika, az ijanje eo ije, he mene ična in e p e acija
Ani a Malinen, PhD, Lec u e , Depa men o Educa ion, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, [email p o ec ed]
A ja Pii ainen, PhD, Lec u e , Facul y o Spo and Heal h Sciences, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland,
a ja.l.pii [email p o ec ed]
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20 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 2/2023
INTRODUCTION
This s udy is mo i a ed by a heo e ical cu iosi y owa ds and agogy. I s aim is o sea ch
o he essence o and agogy h ough a c i ical examina ion o he wo k o ou and ago-
gy heo is s and he eby inc ease he heo e ical unde s anding o and agogy. As adul
educa o s and and agogy p ac i ione s, we ha e been in e es ed in and agogy o o e
wen y yea s. Ten yea s ago, we unde s ood ha we need o e u n o he oo s o he
phenomenon. Fi s , we ead amilia and agogical ex s wi h esh eyes and soon ealised
ha mo e sys ema ic esea ch is needed. Hence, we s a ed wi h a sys ema ic scien i ic
li e a u e e iew.
Using “and agogy” as he keywo d, his sys ema ic e iew was conduc ed in wo phases, in
2013 and 2021 (Malinen & Pii ainen, 2018). A o al o 213 i les and abs ac s we e iden-
i ied in he i s phase and 251 in he second phase. Fi s , i is no ewo hy ha esea ch-
e s ha e shown inc easing in e es in and agogy du ing he las decade. A e he 2013
da a sc eening p ocess, 42 o he 213 a icles emained o quali y assessmen . The analy-
sis showed ha he mos widely used heo e ical ounda ion – in 30 o he 42 publica ions
– was Malcolm Knowles’ in e p e a ion o and agogy. Fu he mo e, he esea che s who
had based hei empi ical esea ch design on Knowles’ in e p e a ion mainly d ew on his
six well-known assump ions abou adul lea ne s. Howe e , hese assump ions cons i u e
only a ac ion o Knowles’ in e p e a ion. The heo e ical ounda ion o he emaining
12 s udies was ei he he T ans o ma i e Theo y, Expe ien ial Lea ning Theo y, Ac ion
Lea ning Theo y, o c i ical pedagogy. Ano he inding was ha he s udy designs and
me hodological choices we e mainly su eys wi h big da a. A ew s udies had been im-
plemen ed as ac ion esea ch o quasi-expe imen al esea ch. Quali a i e s udies, which
we e clea ly in he mino i y, we e based on, o example, g ounded heo y me hodology,
o a phenomenological o na a i e me hodology. Empi ical esea ch in e es s ocused on
such domains as e-lea ning, s o y elling, sel - e lec ion, mo i a ion, and lea ning s yle.
The heo e ical pape s, in u n, ocused on he concep ual di e ences be ween and agogy
and pedagogy.
This sys ema ic e iew p omp ed us o p obe mo e deeply in o and agogical w i ings and
o sea ch o he essence o and agogy. The need o a heo e ical examina ion o and ago-
gy o his kind has been egula ly poin ed ou in and agogical pape s (e.g. Hol on III e al.,
2009; Loeng 2018; Rachal, 2002, 2015; Sa iće ić 2012; S . Clai & Käpplinge , 2021).
Hence, his s udy, which is based on he wo k o wo well-known and agogical schola s,
Malcolm Knowles and Dušan Sa iće ić, and wo o he s less di ec ly linked o and agogy,
N. F. S. G und ig and Edua d Lindeman (see Fische & Podeschi, 1989; Wa en, 1989).
The ou ep esen di e en pe spec i es, di e en cul u es and di e en e as. G und ig
(1783–1872) was a Danish heologian philosophe -poe , who sough o cla i y he ela-
ionship be ween eligion, his o y and poe y and hei ela ionship o people’s li es (Wa -
en, 1989), and whose w i ings cen e a ound he concep s o he li ing wo d and li ing
in e ac ion. Lindeman (1885–1953) is gene ally ecognized as a gian in he ield o adul
educa ion. Some e en e e o him as “ he a he o mode n adul educa ion” (Wa en,
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21Ani a Malinen, A ja Pii ainen: Towa ds he Essence o And agogy...
1989). Knowles (1913–1997) is he bes -known mode n in e p e e and ad oca e o an-
d agogy. Knowles’ in e p e a ion was in luenced by he wo k o Lindeman and Sa iće ić.
In u n, Sa iće ić (1929–2015) was a well-known Eu opean p o esso o and agogy, who
con ibu ed signi ican ly o he cla i ica ion o he concep s o and agogy and li elong
lea ning. Why selec hese ou heo is s? Fi s , he w i ings o all ou a e acknowledged
classics. Second, hey ep esen di e en geog aphical a eas, languages, and e as. Thi d,
hei ideas seem o ha e p o ound in e connec ions ha dese e o be cla i ied.
B ook ield (1992) p oposed ha building a o mal heo y should sa is y i e c i e ia. The
i s , he c i e ion o assump i e awa eness, asks i he assump ions unde lying o mal
heo e ical elabo a ions a e made explici . In he case o and agogical heo y, assessmen
o i s unde lying heo e ical oo s and ounda ions is a ma e o immedia e u gency (see,
e.g., S . Clai & Käpplinge , 2021). The second, he c i e ion o disc e eness, e e s o
he ex en o which a body o heo e ical ideas is seen o e e o a phenomenon ha is
disc e e, dis inc , and sepa a e by concen a ing on speci ic aspec s o p ac ice which a e
obse able ac oss di e se con ex s. The hi d, he c i e ion o comp ehensi eness, e e s
o he ex en o which any o mal heo y accoun s o all aspec s o he phenomenon
s udied. Many heo e ical pe spec i es su ound he heme o and agogy, bu a mo e com-
p ehensi e heo y con inues o be lacking. These c i e ia a e na u ally ollowed by he
ou h c i e ion o e- o mula i e consis ency, which e e s o he ex en o which a heo y
changes o e ime in esponse o new esea ch, o c i ical analyses, and o he heo is ’s
own in e p e i e leaps o wa d. Finally, he i h c i e ion o connec edness demands ha
heo e ical asse ions can be unde s ood by p ac i ione s, in his case p ac i ione s in an-
d agogical con ex s.
HERMENEUTICAL TEXT INTERPRETATION
This s udy is a pa icula o m o ex ual analysis (Ricoue , 1991, pp. 156–165). In e p e-
a ion o ex ual sou ces – in his case, and agogical ex s – is needed in o de o speci y
concep s and o e-cons uc heo e ical o mula ions. The he meneu ical ex in e p e-
a ion p ocess consis s o h ee in e wined phases: 1) eading, 2) unde s anding, and 3)
e-s uc u ing. Acco ding o Ricoeu (1991, p. 113), a he meneu ical eading is a dialec ic
o wo ac i i ies, explana ion and unde s anding. To explain is o e eal he s uc u e, i.e.,
he in e nal ela ions o dependence ha cons i u e he ex . To in e p e is o ollow he
pa h o hough opened by he ex , o place onesel en ou e owa d he o ien o he ex
(Ricoeu , 1991, pp. 112–122.). Ricoeu conside s his dialec ic in wo di e en ways: as
p oceeding om unde s anding o explana ion, and as p oceeding om explana ion o
unde s anding. The ela ion be ween explana ion and unde s anding, and be ween un-
de s anding and explana ion is he “he meneu ical ci cle” (Ricoeu , 1991, pp. 162–167).
The ex is a whole, open o se e al eadings and o se e al cons uc ions. In his sense,
p oblems o in e p e a ion a e due o he ex i sel , which is mo e han a linea succession
o sen ences (see Ricoue , 1991, pp. 158–159). In e p e a ions a e always open o change
and c i icism, especially on accoun o wo basic cha ac e is ics. Fi s , an in e p e a ion is
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22 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 2/2023
always “wholly in e p e a i e”: i is possible o a gue o o agains i , o oppose i , o a -
bi a e be ween in e p e a ions o i , o o seek al e na i es (Palonen, 1988, p. 15; Ricoeu ,
1991, pp. 157–159). Second, an in e p e a ion is “inexhaus ible”: no in e p e a ion p o-
ides an all-su icien concep ion o a phenomenon (Palonen, 1988, p. 15; Ricoue , 1991,
pp. 159–160). And agogy and he and agogical ex s unde in e p e a ion a e complex
and mul idimensional phenomena. Consequen ly, ou in e p e a ion is also “wholly in-
e p e a i e” and “inexhaus ible”. I o e s only one concep ual “lens” – and a necessa ily
selec i e one, owing o he quali ies o in e p e a ion – o iewing and agogy, which is
ca ied ou om a speci ic pe spec i e wi h speci ic aims and speci ic analy ical ools (see
Salne , 1989).
In e p e a ion is always p ejudiced (Gadame , 1988). Hence, and agogical ex s a e no
“pu e” objec s o esea ch ha a e independen o us as esea che s and ou esea ch p o-
cess. The esea che is always pa o wha is being s udied (Denzin, 1989, p. 31). In
ou case, we ha e been wo king on he he meneu ical ci cle in cons an dialogue wi h
selec ed and agogical ex s and – o cou se – wi h each o he . We ha e b ough ou p io
expe iences, ou own pe spec i es and unde s anding o he ex s unde s udy, and hus
he esul ing in e p e a ion is a c ea i e p ocess in which ou p ejudgmen s ha e been ex-
panded h ough in e ac ion wi h he ex s and each o he (see Gadame , 1988). I is also
impo an o emembe ha a ex is au onomous in ela ion o he subjec i e in en ions
o i s au ho . Al hough he ex pu s ques ions o he in e p e e and hus has he powe o
igge new knowledge and assump ions abou i , he ex also cons ains he in e p e e
(Ricoue , 1991). To sum up, in his s udy, and agogical ex s we e in e p e ed in dialogue
be ween he ou heo is s, hei ex s, and he esea che s. The aim was o disco e con-
cep s and s uc u es and he eby achie e a be e unde s anding o and agogy as a phe-
nomenon. In e p e a ion was p esen in all phases o his s udy om he selec ion and he
e-cons uc ion o sou ces o ex in e p e a ion and heo y gene a ion (Palonen, 1988, p.
13, 191; Siljande , 1982, pp. 5–6). The mos essen ial dis inc ion in hese p ocesses is ha
be ween he “al eady unde s ood” and “unde s anding be e ” (Palonen, 1988, pp. 14–15).
F om his s andpoin , his esea ch o e s one sugges ion o a heo e ical o mula ion o
and agogy, ha is, o a e-cons uc ion o he essences o and agogy.
We sough o inc ease he objec i i y o ou in e p e a ion o he selec ed ex s by lean-
ing on ce ain ema ks by Ricoue (1991, p. 157). Fi s , we ixed meaning by eading he
chosen heo is s’ w i ings many imes o unde s and hei meanings om an and agogical
pe spec i e. Second, we ied o dissocia e he ex s om wha we unde s ood o be he
men al in en ion o he heo is s (c . Siljande , 2011). A e eading we ex ac ed he ex s
o analysis: G und ig (1836/1991, 1838/1991, 1840/1991, 1847/1991, 1854/1991);
Knowles (1980, 1989, 1990, 2002, 2019); Lindeman (1926, 1932, 1935, 1938/1987,
1944, 1945, 1951/1987); Sa iće ić (1999, 2008, 2012). We hen a anged he ex s in
able o ma o acili a e analysis o he simila i ies and di e ences be ween he heo is s.
G adually, h ee p inciples o and agogy began o eme ge. Based on he he meneu ical
ex analysis and e-cons uc ion p ocess, we concluded ha h ee in e wined p inciples
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23Ani a Malinen, A ja Pii ainen: Towa ds he Essence o And agogy...
cons i u e he essence o and agogy: 1) li ed expe ience, 2) ecip ocal in e ac ion, and 3)
“powe wi h”. Each o hese p inciples is in o med by quali ies desc ibing i s na u e. The
o igins o hese quali ies a e mani es ed in he o iginal ex s. In he ollowing sec ion, he
ci a ions om he ou heo is s’ w i ings a e p esen ed in i alics. Finally, we e-cons uc -
ed a holis ic desc ip ion o he essence o and agogy.
THE FIRST PRINCIPLE: LIVED EXPERIENCE
The i s p inciple – li ed expe ience – e e s o he lea ne ’s expe ience. This concep
seems o be a he co e o he w i ings o G und ig, Knowles and Lindeman. While
Sa iće ić does no use p ecisely his wo d, he idea o li ed expe ience is implici in his
w i ings.
G und ig’s philosophy is known o his concep s o “li ing in e ac ion” and “li ing wo d”.
The wo d “li ing” can be seen as pa allel in meaning wi h he wo d “li ed”. G und ig
emphasizes “li ing” o li ed expe ience h oughou his w i ings, al hough he also uses
wo ds o he han li ed and some imes also uses hem me apho ically. Fo G und ig,
one’s li e his o y as a whole is he basis o all lea ning, de elopmen and educa ion.
G und ig (1836/1991) e e s o “ he single pe son’s own li e”: “Fu he mo e i mus be
added ha o be genuine, ‘enligh enmen ’ mus o igina e mos ly om he single pe son’s own li e
o a leas be ied o see i i i s” (p. 42). He con inues:
I main ain ha i he school eally is o be an educa ional ins i u ion o he bene i
o li e, i mus i s o all make nei he educa ion no i sel i s goal bu he equi e-
men s o li e, and secondly i mus ake li e as i eally is and only s i e o shed ligh
on and p omo e i s use ulness. Fo no school can c ea e a new li e in us, and i mus
he e o e nei he des oy he old one no was e ime de eloping ules which a di e -
en and be e li e would supposedly ollow, i such we e o be ound. (G und ig,
1838/1991, p. 82)
G und ig’s “li ed” is e y holis ic, and includes sensa ions, emo ions and ones:
bu he ‘sen imen ’ which o ms his own li e, ‘ he eye’ h ough which he concei es o i s
e en s, and ‘ he one’ in which he exp esses his expe ience, all o hem he needs om
his you h o b ing wi h him in o li e, and ha is one o he main easons o a Folk
High School. (G und ig, 1836/1991, pp. 42–43)
B ie ly, “li ed”, o G und ig, e e s o one’s li e his o y as a whole, while enligh enmen
o li e is a he co e o his philosophy. This happens h ough a kind o awakening p ocess:
an ins i u ion o enligh enmen ha is by which he People g adually would be awak-
ened o sel -consciousness, and whe e he leade s we e lea ning jus as much om he
you h as hey lea ned om hem, such a li ing in e ac ion and mu ual eaching whe e-
by a b idge was laid ac oss he yawning abyss […] (G und ig, 1840/1991, p. 57).
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24 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 2/2023
To ealise his g adual awakening o sel -consciousness and enligh enmen o li e e-
qui es a ce ain kind o en i onmen :
As I say, I would p e e o end now, bu I da e no o do so be o e I ha e exp essed as
kindly and ankly as I can, my con ic ions conce ning he school cu iculum o li e
which appea s o ha e he oice o he people behind i e en hough i assu edly has
bo h he na u e o he people and he expe ience o his o y agains i . (G und ig,
1838/1991, p. 90)
Fo Knowles “ he ole o he adul ’s expe ience” is one o he basic cha ac e is ics o adul
lea ne . He w i es:
Adul s come in o an educa ional ac i i y wi h bo h a g ea e olume and a di e en
quali y o expe ience om you hs. By i ue o simply ha ing li ed longe , hey ha e
accumula ed mo e expe ience han hey had as you hs [...]. The ac o g ea e expe i-
ence also has some po en ially nega i e e ec s. As we accumula e expe ience, we end
o de elop men al habi s, biases, and p esupposi ions ha end o cause us o close ou
minds o new ideas, esh pe cep ions and al e na i e ways o hinking [...]. The e is
ano he , mo e sub le eason o emphasizing he u iliza ion o he expe ience o he
lea ne s; i has o do wi h he lea ne ’s sel -iden i y [...]. To adul s, hei expe ience is
who hey a e. They de ine who hey a e in e ms o he accumula ion o hei unique
se s o expe ience (e.g. occupa ions, wo k, a elling). Adul s a e wha hey ha e done.
Because o his hey ha e a deep in es men in i s alue. The implica ion o his ac is
ha in any si ua ion in which adul ’s expe ience is igno ed o de alued, hey pe cei e
his as no ejec ing jus hei expe ience, bu ejec ing hem as pe sons. (Knowles,
1990, pp. 58–60)
Knowles compa es adul s wi h you hs: adul s ha e mo e expe ience han you hs. He
also emphasizes he po en ial nega i e e ec s o mo e expe ience: adul s end o close
hei minds owing o hei men al habi s. Fu he mo e, Knowles eminds us ha adul s’
expe ience is ela ed o hei sel -iden i y: i adul s’ expe ience is igno ed o de alued,
hey a e ejec ed as pe sons. Knowles (1990) encou ages us o analyse ou expe iences:
“Expe ience is he iches esou ce o adul ’s lea ning: he e o e he co e me hodology o adul
educa ion is he analysis o expe ience” (p. 31). Th ough he analysis o expe ience “lea n-
e s disco e o hemsel es he gaps be ween whe e hey a e now and whe e hey wan o be”
(Knowles, 1990, p. 58).
Lindeman pu s adul s’ li ed expe ience a he hea o his w i ings. He says ha “adul
expe ience is al eady he e wai ing o be app op ia ed. Expe ience is he adul lea ne ’s li ing
ex book” (Lindeman, 1926, p. 10). This me apho o a li ing ex book encapsula es he
ole o li e his o y in adul educa ion. Wha , hen, is w i en in he pages o his ex book
ha awai app op ia ion? Lindeman has a holis ic, lowing iew o adul de elopmen
and g ow h:
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25Ani a Malinen, A ja Pii ainen: Towa ds he Essence o And agogy...
G ow h should be a p ocess o in eg a ing emo ions wi h hough , an e ol ing ca-
paci y o eeling mo e deeply and hinking mo e clea ly. Educa i e expe ience spans
he whole o li e. And expe ience p oceeds om any si ua ion o which adjus men
is made wi h accompanying men al elease. Expe iences can ne e happen wice o
we mo e o wa d in o ime as changing o ganisms; educa ion, by he same oken,
can ne e s op wi hou abandoning pe sonali y o he ba en exis ence o ins inc i e,
habi ual esponses. (Lindeman, 1926, p. 172)
Lindeman connec s his kind o g ow h p ocess o c ea i i y and eedom:
In elligence, powe , sel -exp ession and eedom come o ha e meaning only when we
see hem as coope a ing pa s o a unc ioning whole: he in eg a ed pe sonali y […]
[;] we expe ience hese aspec s o pe sonali y as concu ences, as o ces which low in o
each o he a momen s o c ea i i y. (Lindeman, 1926, p. 84)
He eminds his eade o he p ima y impo ance o he lea ne : “ he esou ce o highes al-
ue in adul educa ion is he lea ne ’s expe ience. I educa ion is li e, hen li e is also educa ion. Too
much o lea ning consis s o ica ious subs i u ion o someone else’s expe ience and knowledge”
(Lindeman, 1926, pp. 9–10). The adul ’s li ing ex book canno be eplaced wi h anyone
else’s, such as a eache ’s, expe ience o knowledge.
As men ioned ea lie , Sa iće ić does no use he e m expe ience o li ed expe ience as
such. He w i es abou sel -ins uc ion and li elong educa ion, a guing ha “li elong edu-
ca ion in luences changes o he en i onmen ( amily, wo king, cul u al), as well as pe sonali y.
Such changes a e in e dependen . Educa ion and sel -ins uc ion, besides hei p esence h ough-
ou he whole li e, should be an in e nal pa o li e” (Sa iće ić, 1999, p. 179). Fo him, sel -in-
s uc ion as an in eg al pa o he concep o li elong educa ion means ha “an indi idual
ne e s ops changing” (Sa iće ić, 1999, p. 179). Fu he mo e:
Sel -ins uc ion enla ges he possibili y o he engagemen and de elopmen o pe -
sonali y, social o ces can be ecognized, a eadiness and knowledge o manage hem
in li e ha e been c ea ed, and a g ea e le el o ma u i y and li e sel - egula ion ha e
been a ained […][;] wi hin he amewo k o educa ion, sel -ins uc ion has an
essen ial impo ance in he c ea ion o a iew o he wo ld. (Sa iće ić, 1999, p. 188)
The e-cons uc ion o “li ed expe ience” seems o ha e a leas ou undamen al quali ies:
li ed h ough, indi isible, awakening and g owing adul . Fi s , li ed- h ough expe ience
e e s o expe iences which one has al eady li ed h ough o passed, and no o someone
else’s expe iences. Li ed- h ough expe iences a e a esou ce o a li ing ex book o lea n-
e s, as unde lined by he heo is s. Lindeman (1926) e en a gues ha “in adul educa ion
he cu iculum is buil a ound he s uden ’s needs and in e es s” (p. 8).
Second, indi isible e e s o he holis ic quali y o li ed expe ience as a wholly bodily ex-
pe ience. Thus, sensa ions and emo ions a e an in eg al pa o expe ience. In Lindeman’s
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26 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 2/2023
(1926, p. 49) hinking, we a e no ac ional pe sonali ies, bu dwell in expe iences (c .
Polanyi, 1964, pp. x–xi). This means ha li ed expe iences a e a na u al and undamen-
al pa o (adul ) li e and ha hey in o m daily ou ines. As no ed ea lie , Knowles
(1990, pp. 58–60) eminds us o he po en ial nega i e e ec s o li ed expe ience. Linde-
man (1926) has also no iced he limi ing powe o li ed expe ience: “The whole o li e is
lea ning, he e o e educa ion can ha e no endings. Adul hood, ma u i y, de ines i s limi s. The
concep is inclusi e” (p. 6). On he basis o hese wo quali ies he no ion o he “p i a e
mix u es” o li ed expe iences esembles he Husse lian concep o he li e-wo ld, he
wo ld o he na u al a i ude one’s e e yday li e, i.e., he wo ld one inds onesel in wi hou
hinking abou i , jus as he wo ld o hings su ounds us wi hou ou making a conscious
delibe a e e o o no ice i (see Dil hey, 1985, p. 223).
The hi d quali y o “li ed expe ience” – common o all ou heo is s – is some kind o
awakening p ocess. When, in he na u al cou se o day- o-day li e, we expe ience hings, we
“belie e” in hem and a ibu e eal exis ence o hem. Li ed expe iences a e aken o g an -
ed and we do no conside hem c i ically. The e o e, “awakening” is needed; we need o open
ou eyes o ou con inuous p ocess o de elopmen . In G und ig’s (1936) wo ds, “ people
would g adually be awakened o sel -consciousness” (p. 57) and Sa iće ić’s (1999) wo ds, “ o
‘awaken’ an indi idual o accep he undamen al esponsibili y o pe sonal de elopmen ” (p. 179).
The ou h quali y o “li ed” expe iences ollows qui e na u ally om he p eceding h ee. I
is a kind o (adul ) o e all g ow h p ocess, pe haps a kind o g owing adul p ocess. I includes
such p ocesses as b oadening one’s pe spec i es, managing one’s pe sonal de elopmen o
g owing in o eedom. G und ig w i es abou “Enligh enmen o Li e” and sel -conscious-
ness. Lindeman (1926) asse s ha “g ow h is he goal o li e” (p. 202). He uses exp essions
like “ he ques o li e’s meaning”, e e ing o indi idual changes owa ds sel -mas e y and
g owing in o eedom (Lindeman, 1926, p. 11, 70). Sa iće ić (1999, p. 179), in u n, w i es
abou he c ea ion o pe sonali y and he c ea ion o human happiness. Knowles (1989, p.
132) a gues ha lea ne s p og ess owa ds g ea e sel -ac ualisa ion and sel -di ec ion.
To sum up, li ed expe ience is a he co e o and agogy. Li ed expe ience is indi isible
and li ed h ough and cons i u es he basis o a p ocess o awakening and g owing in o
adul hood. “Awakenings” a e a c ucial pa o adul li e ha gene a e a kind o pe sonal
g ow h, a kind o becoming. Is i a mo e and mo e adul becoming? O is i a mo e and
mo e human becoming?
THE SECOND PRINCIPLE: RECIPROCAL INTERACTION
The second p inciple – named he e as ecip ocal in e ac ion – seems o be ano he co e
elemen o and agogy o G und ig, Knowles, Lindeman and Sa iće ić, al hough he
concep s hey use in hei w i ings on in e ac ion di e .
G und ig w i es abou in e ac ion using his “own”, amilia wo d “li ing” in di e en
combina ions, o example, “li ing ool”, “li ely alk”. G und ig’s ideas abou mu ual
eaching and dialogue a e cap u ed in he ollowing ci a ions:
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33Ani a Malinen, A ja Pii ainen: Towa ds he Essence o And agogy...
Sa iće ić (2008) also w i es abou g oups: “new social g oups, which a e impo an o see
and e lec ing o lea ning and educa ion in powe wi h ela ions, a e women, e hnic and acial
g oups, elde ly, mig an s, displaced pe sons and he poo ” (p. 363). Fo him, adul educa ion
is a ool o a ee and democ a ic socie y: “I is impossible o build a ee and democ a ic so-
cie y wi hou accomplished issues o adul educa ion” (Sa iće ić, 1999, p. 180). Fo Sa iće ić
(1999), “ he comple e human en i onmen – wo k, educa ion, socie y and amily – ul ils he
unc ion o educa ion” (p. 180).
Sa iće ić, like Lindeman, has a holis ic pe spec i e on o he cul u es and ci iliza ions. He
w i es abou “wo ld in e connec ions” (Sa iće ić, 2008):
Lea ning ac i i ies a e in e connec ing a local, egional and global le els […][;]
lea ning could help man and mankind in comple e unde s anding o o he cul u es
and o he ci iliza ions in meaning ul managemen o he inc eased numbe o p ob-
lems, in espec ing he elemen s o global iews and in espec ing he elemen s o
global sys ems. (p. 364)
The e-cons uc ion o “powe wi h” seems o ha e a leas h ee undamen al quali ies:
equali y, c ea ion o cul u e, and unde s anding o o he cul u es. Fi s , hese heo is s
w i e abou equal pa icipa ion in di e en si ua ions. Equali y is a necessa y condi ion
o “powe wi h” o be ealised. Fu he mo e, eedom is a necessa y condi ion o equali y.
Acco ding o G und ig, i one is no ee, one can ne e enjoy ue ellowship (Wa en,
1989, p. 216). Lindeman (1951/1987, p. 128), in u n, highligh s he equali y be ween
lea ne s as membe s o o ganisa ions, cul u es, and socie ies. Sa iće ić (2008, p. 363) e-
minds us ha when pa icipa ing in lea ning and educa ion, all social g oups (e.g., elde ly,
mig an , poo ) a e equal.
Second, “powe wi h” ela ions a e essen ial in he c ea ion o cul u e. How does he c e-
a ion o cul u e ake place? G und ig’s (1840/1991) “ olkelig” cul u e and i s c ea ion o
cul u e happens as a combina ion o his o y and poe y, which “in my eyes […] opens he
b igh es p ospec s” (p. 61). Lindeman (1951/1987, pp. 128–129) a gues ha c ea ing cul-
u es happens h ough social ac ion in local communi ies and en i onmen al ins i u ions
(e.g., educa ion, economic li e). Fo Sa iće ić (1999), in u n, “ he pe son […] is he one who
c ea es e e y hing and om whom e e y hing is being c ea ed. As such he is bo h he inal aim o
social de elopmen and he mos impo an ac i e elemen in i ” (p. 166). Knowles (2002, p.4)
connec s socie al ans o ma ion wi h he new o ms o educa ion.
Thi d, unde s anding o he cul u es demands pa icipa ion in lea ning ac i i ies and si -
ua ions om a di e si y o pe spec i es (e.g., di e en eligions and na ionali ies). Why is
unde s anding o he cul u es so impo an o hese heo is s? G und ig’s (1838/1991)
idea o eedom and educa ion conce ns all humani y: “wha we all a e in need o , bu he
p oposals o hese hings all ha e he same undamen al law in hem as Pla o’s Republic, whe e
he gua dians o eedom and educa ion hemsel es swallow up bo h” (p. 93). Knowles (2019),
in u n, w i es:
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34 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 2/2023
I don’ discoun he ac ha he e a e cul u al di e ences ha need o be aken in o
accoun in in e ac ing wi h people om di e en cul u es. Bu my cu en pe cep ion
is ha hese di e ences a e mo e in e ms o cus oms han in undamen al p ocesses,
such as lea ning. I hono hei cus oms and am willing o adap o hem, bu I accep
and espec hei basic humani y. (p. 45)
Lindeman uses he concep “in e na ionalism”. He w i es ha “we simply canno ha e his good
li e any longe unless he whole wo ld is mo ing in he same di ec ion” (Lindeman, 1951/1987, p.
130). Sa iće ić uses he concep “wo ld in e connec ions”. He a gues ha “lea ning could help
man and mankind in comple e unde s anding o o he cul u es and o he ci iliza ions” (Sa iće ić,
2008, p. 364). Lea ning leads o social de elopmen and human happiness.
To sum up, he essence o he “powe wi h” p inciple is equali y, he c ea ion o cul u e and
unde s anding o o he cul u es. And agogy, when “powe wi h” is ac ualised, can c ea e
equali y be ween and gi e a oice o di e en human beings, o ganisa ions, cul u es, and
socie ies. Howe e , equali y is no possible wi hou “ eedom-wi h”. Unde s anding o
o he cul u es can minimise con lic s be ween socie ies and c ea e well-being.
THE ESSENCE OF ANDRAGOGY: THE PRINCIPLES AND THEIR QUALITIES
To summa ise, ou e-cons uc ion comp ises h ee p inciples and hei quali ies (see Ta-
ble 1). The phenomenon e-cons uc ed he e as and agogy applies o all human beings
in ecip ocal “powe wi h” si ua ions in di e en g oups, cul u es and socie ies. I should
be no ed ha his e-cons uc ion is no linked o any speci ic con ex ; a he , any con ex
can be seen om an and agogical pe spec i e. Fu he mo e, hese p inciples and hei
quali ies a e in e wined. I one p inciple is missing, he wholeness o and agogy is also
missing, and we can no longe speak abou and agogy.
Table 1
Re-cons uc ion o and agogy: he p inciples and hei quali ies
P inciples o and agogy Quali ies o p inciples
Li ed expe ience Li ed h ough
Indi isible
Awakening
G owing adul
Recip ocal in e ac ion Li ing wo d
Mu ual connec ion
Cu ious oge he ness
Responsibili y
“Powe wi h” Equali y
C ea ion o cul u e
Unde s anding o he cul u es
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35Ani a Malinen, A ja Pii ainen: Towa ds he Essence o And agogy...
These p inciples a e necessa y and su icien condi ions o he ealisa ion o and agogy.
I we accep his e-cons uc ion o and agogy, i en ails a p o ound ans o ma ion in he
pe spec i e on educa ion in any con ex and a any human age.
CONCLUSION
Fo he pu poses o his s udy, we selec ed ou heo is s ep esen ing ou di e en ap-
p oaches o and agogy: he Folkbildung o G und ig om Denma k, he and agogical ap-
p oach o Knowles om No h Ame ica, he social heo y o and agogy de eloped by Lin-
deman, also om No h Ame ica, and he and agogy heo y o Dušan Sa iće ić om Se -
bia. This selec ion yielded su icien a ia ion and b ead h o he meneu ical in e p e a ion.
We conside he he meneu ical p ocess epo ed he e, i.e., he analysis, in e p e a ion, and
e-cons uc ion o w i ings by hese ou heo is s, o ha e been ui ul. To enhance he
us wo hiness o ou s udy, we ollowed Ricoue ’s (1991) ou ains o objec i i y: 1)
ìxa ion o he meaning o and agogy in he o m o h ee p inciples and hei quali ies
de i ed om 2) dissocia ion om he au hen ic w i ings o he selec ed heo is s’ ex s; 3)
pu ing aside non-os ensi e e e ences and disco e ing he uni e sal ange o and agogy;
and 4) awa eness o he limi a ions o he s udy. We we e only able o use w i ings o hese
ou heo is s ha ha e been published in Finnish, Swedish o English. Consequen -
ly, o he in luen ial heo is s (e.g., Alexande Kapp, Eugen Rosens ock-Huessy, Se guey
Zmeyo , Jos Reichmann, F anz Pöggele ) could no be included.
This e-cons uc ion o he essence o and agogy o ms he p oposi ion ou lined he e o
a heo e ical o mula ion o and agogy. This p oposi ion should, howe e , be esea ched
and alida ed u he by schola s who ha e no been pa y o his esea ch p ocess (c .
B ook ield, 1992). While we do no p esen di ec implica ions o p ac ice, p ac i ione s
wo king in di e en and agogical con ex s should e alua e he p ac ical consequences
and ans e abili y o his p oposi ion o hemsel es (c . B ook ield, 1992). Howe e ,
a la ge pu pose ha ing o do wi h imp o ing some aspec s o and agogy unde lies all
o mal heo ising. The pu pose o heo y is essen ially he p agma ic one o helping p ac-
i ione s o enhance and e ine hei unde s anding and p axis. I ou concep ualisa ion
is deemed use ul, i should enable p ac i ione s o be e unde s and and agogy and o
de elop hei own and agogical p ac ices.
As men ioned ea lie , mo e e ined, al e na i e heo e ical in e p e a ions a e always pos-
sible. Re o mula ion is in any case needed o u he de elop he heo y o and ago-
gy. He e, we ha e ocused on a e-cons uc ion based on he w i ings o ou heo is s.
We in end o con inue ou and agogy p ojec in a leas h ee di ec ions. Fi s , we aim
o p obe deepe in o he philosophical unde s anding o and agogy by add essing he
ques ion “Whe ein a e he philosophical oo s o and agogy?” Second, he p esen ind-
ings o e us a clue ha and agogy and expe ien ial lea ning heo ies ha e some hing in
common. This connec ion me i s ca e ul esea ch. Thi d, me hodological di e si y – es-
pecially mo e quali a i e esea ch – is needed. We challenge schola s o engage mo e in
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36 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 2/2023
phenomenon-based esea ch. Ou goal is o s eng hen and agogy as a scien i ic app oach
by deepening and b oadening i s heo e ical ounda ions. While a single heo y ha ex-
plains and agogy in i s en i e y may ne e eme ge, we a e hope ul ha his p ocess will
s imula e u he inqui y and esea ch.
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