This is a sel -a chi ed e sion o an o iginal a icle. This e sion
may di e om he o iginal in pagina ion and ypog aphic de ails.
Au ho (s):
Ti le:
Yea :
Ve sion:
Copy igh :
Righ s:
Righ s u l:
Please ci e he o iginal e sion:
CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
How Theo y Shapes Pe spec i e, O When Did Democ acy Become Rep esen a i e?
© 2024 he Au ho s
Published e sion
Bonin, Hugo
Bonin, H. (2024, 25.6.2024). How Theo y Shapes Pe spec i e, O When Did Democ acy Become
Rep esen a i e?. Geschich s heo ie am We k. h ps://g w.hypo heses.o g/27841
2024
OpenEdi ion Sea ch
All OpenEdi ion
#ENGLISH / THEORY OF HISTORY (RE)READ
How Theo y Shapes Pe spec i e, O
When Did Democ acy Become
Rep esen a i e?
BY HUGO BONIN · PUBLISHED 25/06/2024 · UPDATED 24/06/2024
Illus a ion om Daniel Fou nie , A ea ise o he heo y and p ac ice o pe spec i e, London 1761, p. 94.
Image Righ s: Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain.
The Cen e o In ellec ual His o y a he Uni e si y o Helsinki and he “Poli ical
Rep esen a ion” P ojec a he Uni e si y o Jy äskylä ecen ly o ganised a
wo kshop en i led “W i ing he Long- e m His o y o Democ acy”. While he e we e
mul iple poin s o con e gence be ween he pa icipan s, some o he deba es
o e a glimpse o he di e gences be ween di e en app oaches o in ellec ual
his o y, namely be ween a mo e con ex ualis amewo k and one in o med by
concep ual his o y. Wi h espec o he o me , I am b oadly e e ing o
in e p e a ions ha emphasise he impo ance o g asping ideas wi hin hei
speci ic his o ical con ex s, an app oach especially associa ed wi h igu es such as
Quen in Skinne and J.G.A. Pocock. Wi h espec o he la e , I am e e ing o a
cons ella ion o schola s, o en in luenced by Reinha Koselleck, who ocus on how
and why concep s ha e e ol ed o e ime, acing hei o igins, ans o ma ions,
and in e ac ions wi hin di e en cul u al, social, and poli ical con ex s.
My goal in con as ing hese wo pe spec i es is no o oppose hem, o o call o
some kind o a ema ch o Skinne e sus Koselleck. No is i an exe cise in how o
o mally econcile bo h pe spec i es — some hing a emp ed by se e al o he
schola s.1Ra he , I would like o ake his oppo uni y o illus a e how heo e ical
amewo ks s ongly guide and shape empi ical wo k and in e p e a ions. I will do
so by looking a a speci ic example explo ed on ha day, ep esen a i e
democ acy. In doing so, I will b ie ly ou line mains eam ideas o how
ep esen a ion and democ acy came o be associa ed, be o e p esen ing and
con as ing a con ex ualis in e p e a ion o he opic (based on Ma kku Pel onen’s
p esen a ion), as well as a concep ual one (based on PasiIhalainen’s ongoing
wo k). In he hi d pa , I aise h ee poin s ha wa an u he in es iga ion:
ecep ion, he ela ionship be ween a ocus on ideas e sus wo ds, and he issue o
quali ie s o key poli ical concep s.
Be o e di ing in, a wo d o cau ion: he ollowing is based on my own
unde s anding o he posi ions and ideas o he pa icipan s. Anybody who has
ied o summa ise he con en s o a ull-day wo kshop is awa e ha such an
unde s anding is always pa ial and p one o e o . This is no in ended as he
o icial eco d, and I look o wa d o any di e ging in e p e a ions.
An o -no ed e olu ion o he concep o democ acy in he mode n e a is i s usion
wi h he idea o ep esen a ion. The s anda d na a i e goes some hing like his:
al hough democ acy was bo n in Ancien G eece, and in A hens speci ically, i was
a “di ec democ acy”, which acco ding o i s c i ics was diso de ly, uns able, and
unsui able o la ge poli ical en i ies. The eigh een h-cen u y e olu ions (in
Ame ica, F ance, and ac oss he A lan ic) we e a decisi e b eak in many espec s,
pa ly because hey me ged democ acy and ep esen a ion h ough elec ions,
he eby ans o ming i in o i s mode n poli ical o m. This is when he seeds o
ep esen a i e democ acy we e sown, be o e blossoming du ing he nine een h
and wen ie h cen u ies. In his accoun “ ep esen a i e democ acy” became he
no m, wi h i s “di ec ” o m subsequen ly equi ing an explici quali ie .2
Such a na a i e es s on a numbe o p econcep ions in e ms o empo ali ies,
geog aphies, and ansmissions. I c ea es an almos my hical link be ween G eek
An iqui y and mode n poli ics, usually wi h a s ong eleological pe spec i e:
“ ep esen a i e democ acy” is he accomplishmen o a cen u ies-long s o y. I s
ocus is also qui e Eu ocen ic and di usionis , wi h democ acy eme ging in he so-
called Wes , and la e sp eading ac oss he globe. A his o ical s andpoin mo e
sensi i e o pos colonial hough , among o he s, would p obably examine he
a ious p ac ices and concep ualiza ions o ‘democ acy’ ha lou ished ac oss he
wo ld.3 Bu wha I wan o show he e is ha e en wi hou undamen ally
Plan o he p incipal loo o he Palace o Wes mins e in London. Collec ion o a chi ec u al
d awings o med by F ede ick C ace. Image Righ s: Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain.
ques ioning se e al o hese assump ions, e en in wo app oaches as simila as
con ex ualism and concep ual his o y, he ange o disag eemen on his speci ic
issue can be qui e b oad.
Du ing he abo e-men ioned wo kshop, one o he key poin s made by Ma kku
Pel onen (Helsinki) was ha his o ians should pay mo e a en ion o he a ious
democ a ic p ac ices and concep s o democ acy ha lou ished be o e he
eigh een h cen u y. In o he wo ds, wha happened wi h democ acy a e A hens,
bu be o e he A lan ic e olu ions?In line wi h his p e ious wo k, he a gued ha he
English Ci il Wa con ained some o he mos inno a i e uses o democ acy,
especially wi h ega d o poli ical ep esen a ion. Th ough a ine-g ained analysis
o a ew selec publica ions, he explained how some publicis s and
pa liamen a ians ac ually de ended a democ acy based on ep esen a ion as he
bes o m o go e nmen du ing he English F ee S a e (1649-1653).4
La e in
he
day,
PasiIhalainen (Jy äskylä) o e ed a
longue du ée
pe spec i e on he uses o
democ acy and ep esen a ion in pa liamen a y deba es wi hin nume ous
No hwes Eu opean coun ies om he la e eigh een h o he wen y- i s cen u y.5
Using he Uni ed Kingdom’s Pa liamen as an “analy ical nexus” ( ha is, a
placewhe e a wide a ie y o poli ical discou ses and concep s mee ), he a gued
ha in he B i ish case, he wo d “democ acy” emained nega i ely cha ged o
mos o he nine een h cen u y.6 While MPs migh a ou a “ ep esen a i e
pa liamen ” o “go e nmen ”, he concep o “ ep esen a i e democ acy” i sel only
ook hold in Wes mins e a e he Second Wo ld Wa . Mos ly used by Ame icans in
he 1930s, “ ep esen a i e democ acy” has become mo e common since he pos -
wa e a, al hough i has emained a a he echnical e m wi hin he B i ish con ex .

Those wo pe spec i es on “ ep esen a i e democ acy” seem a i s di icul o
econcile, especially in e ms o pe iodiza ion.The i s one a gues ha he
ideaeme ged in he mid-se en een h cen u y, while he o he poin s o a much
mo e ecen b eak h ough. The di e gences a e also s a k in me hodological
e ms. Pel onen uses anonomasiological app oach, meaning ha he akes a
con empo a y concep and explo es i s a ious inca na ions. He is in e es ed in
how “ ep esen a i e democ acy”, a concep ha was no ye coined, could be
exp essed h ough di e en linguis ic combina ions such as “popula go e nmen ”,
o how a “simple democ acy” di e ed om one whe e ep esen a i es had mo e
au ho i y. Ihalainen akes a semasiological pe spec i e ha s a s ou om wo ds
and explo es hei meaning. He ocuses speci ically on he signi ie “ ep esen a i e
democ acy”, and how i di e s in i s use om signi ie s such as “ ep esen a i e
go e nmen ” o “pa liamen a y democ acy”.
We can also see how he i s is in e es ed in a speci ic momen o poli ical c isis
and heo e ical inno a ion, while he second akes a longi udinal iew, ocusing on
p ac ical poli ical language. To pu i in ano he way, one unde sco es
b eak h oughs and i s occu ences, he o he ecep ions and no malisa ion.
These di e ences in heo e ical pe spec i es hus lead o qui e di e ging iews on
he his o y o “ ep esen a i e democ acy,” once again in e ms o empo ali ies
and ansmissions. Fo he o me , he con ex ualis app oach ends o concen a e
on smalle imespans, usually he leng h o an in ellec ual o poli ical con o e sy,
while concep ual his o y highligh s he long- e m—and o en slow—
ans o ma ions o a concep . As o ansmissions, while Pel onen’s case is a he
sel -limi ed, Ihalainen unde lines bo h he ans e s and pa icula i ies o na ional
cases.
Howe e , he e a e also con e gences be ween hese wo app oaches. Bo h a e
highly conce ned wi h language, and mo e p ecisely wi h ac o -based concep s
and ideas. Thei goal is o pay special a en ion o he wo ds used by his o ical
w i e s and poli icians, in o de o gain a mo e p ac ical unde s anding o wha
hese igu es we e doing when using speci ic concep s. Bo h also illus a e and
highligh he malleabili y o “democ acy”, which could be used o deno e a a ie y
o poli ical o ms, wi h a ange o conno a ions. Nei he Pel onen no Ihalainen
p e end o a i e a a wo king de ini ion o he concep ha could be used ac oss
cen u ies o coun ies. They he eby helped li he og o my hologies ha oo o en
p e en us om gaining a clea e iew o he pas .
Wha is he ou come o compa ing hese app oaches? In e ms o pe iodiza ion, i
seems o me ha ocusing oo much on he i s occu ence o an idea as
opposed o i s no malisa ion c ea es an a i icial opposi ion. One can ecognize
ha ep esen a i e democ acy was ( e)-in en ed mul iple imes (du ing he
English Ci il Wa , he F ench Re olu ion, and he Cold Wa ), be o e he exp ession
“ ep esen a i e democ acy” i sel became mo e common. This en ails adop ing a
mo e open-ended empo alisa ion, and being wa y o linea and eleological
na a i es. In o he wo ds, his o ians ha e been inc easingly awa e o paying
a en ion no only o he enuncia ion o ce ain ideas, bu o hei ecep ion as well.
The case o “ ep esen a i e democ acy” shows ha hey should con inue o do so.
Fu he mo e, we need o conside bo h onomasiological and semasiological
pe spec i es: democ acy could be linked o ep esen a ion e en i he quali ie
“ ep esen a i e” was no used clea ly. Fo example, one could a gue ha he
eme gence o a discou se ela ed o “di ec legisla ion/democ acy” in socialis and
ana chis mo emen s o he second hal o he nine een h cen u y implies ha
mo e mains eam unde s andings o democ acy we e always s ongly linked
o ep esen a ion. Ye , as p oponen s o semasiology a gue, he ac ha he
concep o “ ep esen a i e democ acy” became inc easingly exp essed h ough
hese speci ic wo ds is also o be ques ioned and in es iga ed. F om a heo e ical
pe spec i e, i seems ha a balancing and sel - e lec ing juggling ac be ween
onomasiology and semasiology is s ill necessa y.
Ano he issue conce ns he ques ion o adjec i es o key poli ical and social
concep s. One could a gue ha he mo e equen and olde hey a e, he mo e
concep s ha e a chance o acqui e quali ie s and nuances. Fo example, a poli ical
mo emen da ing back o he nine een h cen u y, such as socialism, has mo e
la ou s (democ a ic, e olu iona y, e c.) han a ecen one such as ans-
humanism. Again, aking democ acy as an example, i is wo h poin ing ou ha
he numbe o i s po en ial quali ie s now numbe s in he housands, om he well-
known “libe al” o he mo e puzzling “esp esso democ acy”.7 As bo h a consensual
and con es ed concep , we can expec democ acy o gain an inc easing numbe
o a ibu es, all while emaining subjec o deba e ega ding i s “ ue” o m. This is
pa ly he case because he need o a ibu es appea s especially when concep s
a e challenged. Adding a quali ie o a concep can enable one o end o
c i icism: hink o Be nie Sande ’s use o “democ a ic socialism” as a way o (pa ly)
a oid he nega i e conno a ion o socialism in US poli ics. Howe e , as I ha e
a gued elsewhe e, in F ance and he Uni ed Kingdom he no ion o “libe al
democ acy” became p eeminen only as a eac ion o he pa icipa o y c i ique o
ep esen a i e ins i u ions in he 1970s. Faced wi h a mo e ex ensi e concep ion o
democ acy, many igh -wing poli ical ac o s desc ibed he es ablished model o
democ acy as being “libe al,” ocusing on he de ence o he ule o law and
indi idual igh s.8
In conclusion, he examina ion o ep esen a i e democ acy h ough con ex ualis
and concep ual amewo ks e eals he in ica e in e play be ween heo y and
his o ical in e p e a ion. By jux aposing hese pe spec i es, his o ians na iga e
beyond linea na a i es, ecognizing he mul iplici y o ein en ions and
adap a ions inhe en in he e olu ion o poli ical concep s. This calls o an open-
ended empo aliza ion ha cap u es he genesis o ideas as well as hei
subsequen no malisa ion, while also acknowledging he dynamic na u e o
language in media ing poli ical discou se. I also calls o cons an sel - e lec ion
on ou own heo e ical assump ions.
Mo eo e , explo a ion o onomasiological and semasiological pe spec i es
highligh s he cen ali y o language in shaping concep ual unde s andings. As
concep s e ol e, acqui e quali ie s, and unde go seman ic shi s, hey become
a enas o con es a ion and nego ia ion, e lec ing b oade socio-poli ical
dynamics. Emb acing his complexi y enables his o ians o o e nuanced
in e p e a ions o he pas , he eby en iching ou unde s anding o he endu ing
signi icance o poli ical concep s in con empo a y discou se and p ac ice. Clea ly
ecognizing hese di e gen s a ing poin s, in addi ion o how hey shape ou wo k,
is cen al o ui ul schola ly dialogue.
Hugo Bonin is a pos doc o al esea che a he Uni e si y o Jy äskylä in Finland, specialising in
he his o ies, p ac ices, and heo ies o democ acy. He ecen ly published ‘
A he sound o he
new wo d spoken’: Le mo démoc a ieen G ande-B e agne, 1770-1920
(Rennes, P esses
uni e si ai es de Rennes). His cu en esea ch ocuses on he concep ual his o y o libe al
democ acy in wen ie h-cen u y F ench and B i ish poli ics. Be o e joining JYU, he conduc ed
esea ch a he Cen e o he S udy o he His o y o Poli ical Though a Queen Ma y Uni e si y
o London (2020-2022).
This wo k is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial-
Sha eAlike 4.0 In e na ional License.
1. See, among o he s, Mel in Rich e ,
The His o y o Poli ical and Social Concep s: A C i ical
In oduc ion
. Ox o d: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess, 1995; Ka i Palonen,
Poli ics and Concep ual His o ies:
Rhe o ical and Tempo al Pe spec i es
. London: Bloomsbu y Publishing, 2016; Ch is ian Nadeau,
“L’his oi e Comme Cons uc ion Sociale Poli ique: Une Lec u e C oisée de Reinha Koselleck e
Quen in Skinne ,” in
La Philosophie de l’his oi e: Hommages O e s à Mau ice Lagueux
, ed.
Ch is ian Nadeau and Alexis Lapoin . Québec: P esses de l’Uni e si é La al, 2007, 279-300. [ ]
2. See, om widely di e en pe spec i es bu ollowing a simila pe iodiza ion: John Ma ko , “Whe e
and When Was Democ acy In en ed?,”
Compa a i e S udies in Socie y and His o y
41, no. 4
(1999), 660-690; Luciano Can o a,
Democ acy in Eu ope: A His o y o an Ideology
. New Je sey:
John Wiley & Sons, 2008; Da id G aebe ,
The Democ acy P ojec : A His o y, A C isis, A Mo emen
.
New Yo k: Spiegel & G au, 2013; Paul Ca ledge,
Democ acy: A Li e
. Ox o d: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess,
2016. Fo a coun e -na a i e, see Benjamin Isakhan and S ephen S ockwell,
The Sec e His o y o
Democ acy
. London: Palg a e Macmillan, 2011. [ ]
3. Temma Kaplan,
Democ acy: A Wo ld His o y.
Ox o d: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess, 2015. [ ]
Sea ch OpenEdi ion Sea ch
You will be edi ec ed o OpenEdi ion Sea ch
Exp ession o keywo d
In All OpenEdi ion
On Geschich s heo ie am We k
Sea ch
4. As pa ly co e ed in Ma kku Pel onen, ‘“All Go e nmen Is in he People, om he People, and o
he People’:Democ acy in he English Re olu ion,” in
Democ acy and An i-Democ acy in Ea ly
Mode n England 1603–1689
, ed. Cesa e Cu ica and Ma kku Pel onen. Leiden: B ill, 2019, 66-87. [ ]
5. As pa o his Academy o Finland P o esso ship, see he Poli ical Rep esen a ion P ojec websi e.
[ ]
6. This wo k is ongoing, bu see his la es monog aph as a pa ial example: PasiIhalainen,
The
Sp ings o Democ acy: Na ional and T ansna ional Deba es on Cons i u ional Re o m in he
B i ish, Ge man, Swedish and Finnish Pa liamen s, 1917-1919
. Helsinki: Finnish Li e a u e Socie y,
2017. [ ]
7. See Jean-Paul Gagnon’s Democ acy wi h Adjec i es Da abase, a 3539 en ies. [ ]
8. See Hugo Bonin, “The Las Poli eia?: A Sho (e ) His o y o Libe al Democ acy,”
JHI Blog
(12.06.2023),
URL: h ps://jhiblog.o g/2023/06/12/ he-las -poli eia-a-sho e -his o y-o -libe al-democ acy/
(30.04.2024). [ ]
OpenEdi ion sugges s ha you ci e his pos as ollows:
Hugo Bonin (June 25, 2024). How Theo y Shapes Pe spec i e, O When Did
Democ acy Become Rep esen a i e?
Geschich s heo ie am We k
. Re ie ed
July 18, 2024 om h ps://doi.o g/10.58079/11 w2