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Teache s’ si ua ional physiological s ess and affec
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Jõgi, Anna-Liisa; Malmbe g, La s-E ik; Paka inen, Eija; Le kkanen, Ma ja-K is iina
Jõgi, A.-L., Malmbe g, L.-E., Paka inen, E., & Le kkanen, M.-K. (2023). Teache s’ si ua ional
physiological s ess and affec . Psychoneu oendoc inology, 149, A icle 106028.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2023.106028
2023
Psychoneu oendoc inology 149 (2023) 106028
A ailable online 13 Janua y 2023
0306-4530/© 2023 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie L d. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY license (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/).
Teache s’ si ua ional physiological s ess and a ec
Anna-Liisa J˜
ogi
a
,
c
,
*
, La s-E ik Malmbe g
b
, Eija Paka inen
c
,
d
, Ma ja-K is iina Le kkanen
c
,
d
a
Tallinn Uni e si y, Es onia
b
Uni e si y o Ox o d, UK
c
Uni e si y o Jy ¨
askyl¨
a, Finland
d
Uni e si y o S a ange , No way
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
Physiological s ess
Co isol
A ec
S uc u al equa ion modeling
In aindi idual ela ions
Teache s
ABSTRACT
Since eaching is a demanding and s ess ul p o ession, he s udy o eache s’ physiological s ess in he class-
oom se ing is an eme ging ield. In c oss-sec ional s udies sel - epo ed s ess and a ec a e ela ed, bu less is
known abou he in aindi idual ela ions be ween si ua ional physiological s ess and co esponding posi i e
and nega i e a ec . The aim o ou s udy was o in es iga e he associa ions be ween si ua ional physiological
s ess (six sali a y co isol samples pe day) and sel - epo ed si ua ional a ec (Posi i e and Nega i e A ec
Schedule ou imes a day) among 61 Finnish p ima y school eache s o e wo wo kdays. We p esen a no el
mul ile el s uc u al equa ion model (MSEM) ha includes co isol, wi h ime since awakening as a lexibly
coded ime- a ying co a ia e and a ec wi h ime since co isol measu emen as a ime- a ying co a ia e.
Highe le els o eache s’ si ua ional physiological s ess we e ela ed o lowe si ua ional posi i e a ec (e.g.,
en husiasm) and highe nega i e a ec (e.g., ne ousness), demons a ing he acu e/si ua ional e ec s o s ess
on a ec . In ou discussion, we emphasize he impo ance o he sequence o sampling and obse a ions o
u he heo e ical modeling o ela ions be ween s ess and a ec . We also p opose p ac ical implica ions o
imp o ing eache s’ awa eness o hei well-being.
1. In oduc ion
The eaching p o ession is conside ed mo e s ess ul han o he oc-
cupa ions, impac ing bo h eache s’ physical and psychological well-
being (Johnson e al., 2005), which has consequences o bo h hem-
sel es and hei s uden s. Lowe le els o eache s’ well-being ha e been
associa ed wi h poo e s uden ou comes and less posi i e s u-
den – eache ela ionships (Ald up e al., 2018; A ens and Mo in, 2016).
Teache s’ posi i e emo ions (e.g., enjoymen ) ha e been associa ed wi h
s uden engagemen while nega i e ones (e.g., anxie y) wi h s uden
disengagemen (F enzel e al., 2020; Li e al., 2022). Thus a , mos
s udies in es iga ing eache s’ well-being ha e u ilized sel - epo ed
s ess (e.g., Kelle e al., 2014) and ha e ocused on indi idual
di e ences be ween eache s (e.g., Hamama e al., 2013). We go beyond
p e ious s udies o eache s’ s ess and a ec by in es iga ing he
ime-dependen wi hin-le el ela ionship be ween eache s’ physiolog-
ical s ess and a ec .
We apply mul ile el s uc u al equa ion models (MSEMs) o in es-
iga e he wi hin-pe son associa ions be ween eache s’ si ua ional
co isol le els and si ua ional posi i e and nega i e a ec o e wo
wo kdays. Bo h physiological and a ec i e eac ions a e conside ed as
esponses o s ess (Schlo z, 2019). Thus a , esea ch on si ua ional
co isol and a ec has mos ly u ilized mul ile el models (MLMs) ha
allow o only one ( ime) dependen a iable (Doane and Adam, 2010;
Hoppmann and Klumb, 2006). S uc u al equa ion modeling (SEM) has
been used in combining di e en co isol samples om di e en ime-
poin s and/o days wi h la en ai s (Doane e al., 2015; Mille e al.,
2016). We speci ied MSEMs ha pa i ioned a iances in o wi hin-
( imepoin s) and be ween-le el a iances ( eache s), bu allowed o
co a ia e e ec s on bo h he dependen (a ec ) and independen
(co isol) a iables, p o iding mo e lexibili y in he model-speci ica ion
han MLMs o e all (Aspa ouho and Mu h´
en, 2020).
1.1. Physiological s ess and a ec
Physiological s ess has majo nega i e consequences on one’s
physical and men al heal h, and well-being in gene al (Schneide man
e al., 2005). Howe e , s udies hus a ha e indica ed ha physiological
s ess as measu ed by exc e ion o he co isol ho mone migh be weakly
o no a all ela ed o sel - epo ed s ess o exhaus ion (e.g., Belling a h
* Co espondence o: School o Educa ional Sciences, Tallinn Uni e si y, Na a mn 25, Tallinn 10120, Es onia.
E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (A.-L. J˜
ogi).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Psychoneu oendoc inology
jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/psyneuen
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2023.106028
Recei ed 28 Augus 2022; Recei ed in e ised o m 1 Decembe 2022; Accep ed 12 Janua y 2023
Psychoneu oendoc inology 149 (2023) 106028
2
e al., 2008), which makes i especially impo an o add ess physio-
logical s ess sepa a ely.
A ec is a eeling o s a e o mind o which one is conscious (F e-
d ickson, 2001). Posi i e a ec as a ai is all-inclusi ely ela ed o
be e heal h and well-being in gene al, and as a s a e, i mi iga es
si ua ional physical o psychological dis ess (Lyubomi sky e al., 2005).
In con as , nega i e heal h ou comes a e ela ed o nega i e a ec
(Diene e al., 2017). In labo a o y s udies, he physiological and a -
ec i e (i.e., sel - epo ed) s ess esponses measu ed in si ua ion end o
be weakly and a he inconsis en ly ela ed (Campbell and Ehle ,
2012). Fu he mo e, he supp ession o physiological s ess esponse
does no in ol e he dec ease in emo ional esponse (Ali e al., 2017).
Inconsis en associa ions a e pa ly explained by me hodological issues
(see Campbell and Ehle , 2012 o a e iew) and migh be pa ly due o
he he e ogenei y o he sample o pa icipan s as shown in Simon e al.
(2022).
Ambula o y s udies o da e ha e mos ly ocused on associa ions be-
ween physiological s ess and a ec a he be ween-pe son le el (e.g.,
Mille e al., 2016). In mos cases, i has been concluded ha highe
posi i e a ec is ela ed o lowe daily co isol le els (see S ep oe, 2019
o a e iew; Polk e al., 2005 o he excep ion), while be ween-pe son
ela ions be ween nega i e a ec and co isol ha e shown ei he posi-
i e (e.g., Polk e al., 2005) o no ela ions (e.g., Mille e al., 2016). A
ecen me a-analysis by Joseph e al. (2021) emphasized he need o
clea ly dis inguish si ua ional wi hin-pe son ela ions be ween physio-
logical s ess and a ec om be ween-pe son ones. They also showed
ha wi hin-pe son ela ions be ween co isol and a ec a e qui e ho-
mogeneous and in he same di ec ion as be ween-pe son ela ions (Jo-
seph e al., 2021).
1.2. Teache s’ s udies
Teaching is deemed as a e y s ess ul job (B ough on, 2010) and
eache s’ sel - epo ed s ess is he e o e widely s udied. In gene al, he
sel - epo ed s ess is nega i ely ela ed o posi i e a ec and posi i ely
ela ed o nega i e a ec (Hamama e al., 2013; Mon gome y and Rupp,
2005). Howe e , s udying eache s’ physiological s ess in he class oom
en i onmen is s ill in i s ea ly s ages. To da e, i has been ound ha
eache s’ physiological s ess is highe a he end o he school yea ,
compa ed o he beginning o he school yea (Ka z e al., 2018).
Teache s’ co isol le els a e also highe on wo kdays han on weekends
(We s ein e al., 2020). Teache s’ physiological s ess does no appea
o co ela e wi h hei sel - epo ed s ess o bu nou (Ka z e al., 2016;
Nislin e al., 2016).
Thus a , e y ew s udies on eache s ess ha e di e en ia ed be-
ween in e - and in ape sonal le els o analyses, al hough i is s ongly
ecommended in he analy ical li e a u e (Hamake , 2012). Using hea
a e as a s ess indica o has shown ha lowe s uden engagemen
coupled wi h eache -cen e ed ins uc ional p ac ice is ela ed o
eache s’ highe si ua ion-speci ic physiological s ess (Junke e al.,
2021). Highe physiological a ousal, also measu ed by hea a e, in
associa ion wi h class oom agency is ela ed o highe enjoymen in he
class oom (Donke e al., 2020). To he bes o ou knowledge, no p e-
ious s udies ha e explo ed he in aindi idual ela ions be ween
eache s’ si ua ional physiological s ess measu ed by co isol and a ec
du ing he wo kday.
1.3. The cu en s udy
Taken oge he , he associa ion be ween physiological s ess and
a ec has been qui e widely s udied, bu hus a , mos ly as associa ions
in c oss-sec ional s udies. When MLMs ha e been speci ied, models ha e
only included one dependen a iable a a ime, limi ing he ways in
which mo e complex ela ionships be ween a iables can be speci ied.
In he cu en s udy, we ollow an in aindi idual app oach o modeling,
in which ime-poin s a e nes ed in pe sons. Speci ying mul ile el
s uc u al equa ion models (MSEM) allows us o sepa a ely model as-
socia ions and di ec ional ela ionships (he e, co isol p edic ing expe-
ienced a ec ) a he wi hin and be ween le els. This is consis en wi h
he e godici y-assump ion (Molenaa , 2004), ha i is no possible o
d aw conclusions abou in aindi idual p ocesses, changes, and a i-
abili y based on indi idual di e ences (i.e., mean-le el di e ences be-
ween pe sons). Be ween-pe son ela ions do no allow making claims
abou he co a ia ions be ween wo indica o s wi hin one pe son
(Molenaa , 2004). Indica o s ha a e posi i ely ela ed in
be ween-pe son analysis, migh be nega i ely ela ed in wi hin-pe son
le el and ice e sa (Cu an and Baue , 2011; Hamake , 2012).
Also, he MLMs impede using wo o mo e dependen a iables and,
consequen ly, manage he disc epancies in co isol measu emen s and
a ec obse a ions. S udies using a ec o p edic co isol le els ha e
mos ly measu ed a ec and co isol a exac ly he same ime, wi hou
conside ing he ime di e ence be ween co isol sampling and a ec
obse a ions (Doane and Adam, 2010; Hoppmann and Klumb, 2006).
We assumed ha on wo kdays and in ambula o y se ings, i would be
di icul o ensu e he exac same ime s amps o bo h co isol and
a ec , a isk also acknowledged by Joseph e al. (2021). This wa an s
aking he ime lag in o accoun when modeling co isol and a ec .
Speci ically, we aimed o in es iga e wi hin-pe son ela ions be-
ween eache s’ physiological s ess and a ec du ing he wo kday.
Consis en wi h p e ious s udies (Hoppmann and Klumb, 2006; Joseph
e al., 2021), we expec ed ha eache s’ highe physiological s ess is
ela ed o lowe posi i e and highe nega i e a ec a he wi hin-pe son
le el (Hypo hesis 1). Ou heo e ical wo-le el model wi h wo
ime- a ying indica o s is p esen ed in Fig. 1 (see also Sec ions 2.2.3 and
2.3).
2. Me hod
2.1. Sample and p ocedu e
Ou s udy was pa o a la ge longi udinal esea ch p ojec (Le k-
kanen and Paka inen, 2016-2022) in es iga ing p ima y school each-
e s’ and s uden s’ s ess in e ac ions in he class oom. Ou s udy sample
consis ed o 61 p ima y school eache s (5 male) om Cen al Finland.
Fo y-nine o hem augh 8–9-yea -old s uden s in G ade 2, and 12 o
hem augh 9–10-yea -olds in G ade 3. The mean age o he pa ici-
pa ing eache s was 45.3 yea s (SD =9.4), and hei mean wo k expe-
ience was 17.8 yea s (SD =10.1).
Da a we e collec ed o e wo wo kdays du ing he sp ing semes e o
he yea 2019 (49 eache s) o 2020 (12 eache s). O e all, da a
Fig. 1. Theo e ical model o wo-le el associa ions be ween co isol and posi-
i e o nega i e a ec . No e.
a
Time a e awakening o co isol sampling in
hou s.
b
Time lag be ween he a ec sel - epo and he co isol sampling
in hou s.
A.-L. J˜
ogi e al.
Psychoneu oendoc inology 149 (2023) 106028
3
collec ion las ed om la e Feb ua y o he beginning o May in 2019 and
om la e Feb ua y o he middle o Ma ch in 2020. Fo 47 eache s, he
wo wo king days we e consecu i e; in 9 cases, hey we e h ee days
apa , including o e a weekend; in 5 cases, he e we e 3–6 days be-
ween wo measu emen s, and 2 eache s did no p o ide da a on Day 2.
P io o da a collec ion, he pa icipan s ecei ed w i en ins uc ions o
collec ing co isol samples and esponding o a ec ques ionnai es, and
hey we e pe sonally ins uc ed by ained esea ch assis an s. The
esea ch assis an s we e p esen in class du ing he i s day o da a
collec ion o o e suppo . The eache s could also ge in ouch wi h a
esea ch assis an ia phone a any ime.
The da a collec ion and analysis p ocedu es ollowed he p inciples
o The Decla a ion o Helsinki. The uni e si y e hics commi ee
app o ed he s udy be o e he da a collec ion s a ed. All eache s p o-
ided hei w i en consen o pa icipa e in he s udy.
2.2. Measu es
2.2.1. Physiological s ess
Sali a y co isol was used as an indica o o he eache s’ physio-
logical s ess. I is ecommended as an ecologically alid measu e o
ambula o y assessmen s (Kudielka e al., 2012). Co isol is eleased in
he body du ing he s ess esponse and i a ec s a wide ange o issues.
The main aim o co isol is o suppo o ganisms o cope wi h s ess and
main ain homeos asis (de Kloe e al., 1998). Co isol elease in he body
has a ce ain diu nal hy hm—co isol le els inc ease apidly in he
mo ning, a e awakening (i.e. co isol awakening esponse—CAR), hen
ollowed by a sha p decline and hen dec ease smoo hly du ing he day
(Kudielka e al., 2012).
The eache s we e asked o p o ide six sali a samples (a he ime o
awakening, 30 and 45 min a e awakening, a 10 am., a he end o he
school day app oxima ely a 12–13 pm, and be o e bed ime) pe day
o e wo wo kdays o a o al o 12 samples pe eache . Teache s e-
po ed hei ime o awakening and he ime o each co isol sampling.
Syn he ic Sali e e® Co isol swabs (by Sa s ed ) we e used o sali a
sampling. The eache s we e ins uc ed no o ea o d ink any hing
o he han wa e , b ush hei ee h, o smoke 30 min be o e sampling.
The pa icipan s we e asked o gen ly chew he swabs o one minu e
immedia ely upon awakening, 30 and 45 min a e awakening, a
10 am, a he end o he wo kday (a ound 12–1 pm), and a bed ime.
Sali a samples we e s o ed in he deep eeze a e he sampling.
Resea ch assis an s collec ed samples om schools a e he Day 2
sampling, labeled and s o ed hem in a deep eeze a he uni e si y.
Samples we e anspo ed o he lab by cou ie se ice in 1–2 days.
Sali a samples we e assayed a he D esden LabSe ice GmpH acili ies,
using Co isol Luminesence Immunoassay (CLIA RE62011 by IBL In-
e na ional) o de e mine co isol concen a ions. O he samples, 20%
we e andomly selec ed o be assayed wice, gi ing an in e -assay co-
e icien o a ia ions below 7%.
Upon sc eening he quali y o he da a, he ollowing co isol samples
we e excluded om analyses (see Fig. 2): 3 co isol samples we e
collec ed on an e oneous sampling day; 15 samples iola ed ea ing
es ic ions, as de e mined by sel - epo ed meal o snack imes; and 12
samples had co isol concen a ions la ge han 73 nmol/l (equal o 60
nmol/l assayed by andem mass-spec ome y [LC-MS/MS] as a e e -
ence me hod (Mille e al., 2013)) and we e excluded as physiologically
implausible. The i s h ee mo ning samples om wo eache s om one
day we e excluded because he gap be ween awakening and he i s
Fig. 2. Da a exclusion c i e ia.
A.-L. J˜
ogi e al.
Psychoneu oendoc inology 149 (2023) 106028
4
sample was longe han 60 min, as indica ed by he sel - epo s. One
eache ’s i s sampling ime was 30 min a e awakening; he e o e, he
i s and second samples we e ede ined as he second and hi d samples,
espec i ely, and he ac ual hi d sample was emo ed om he da a. In
o al, 691 sali a y co isol samples we e included in he analyses. The
dis ibu ions o he eache s’ co isol le els o e wo days a e p esen ed
in Fig. 3. Raw co isol alues (nmol/l) we e na u al loga i hm ans-
o med o he analyses because o he posi i e skewness (Adam and
Kuma i, 2009).
2.2.2. Posi i e and nega i e a ec
A Finnish e sion o he Posi i e and Nega i e A ec Schedule
(PANAS) was adminis e ed (C aw o d and Hen y, 2004; Hie alah i e al.,
2016), which included i e i ems cap u ing he eache s’ si ua ional
posi i e a ec (e.g., “a en i e,” “en husias ic”) and i e i ems ep e-
sen ing nega i e a ec (e.g., “ne ous,” “sca ed”). The eache s
esponded using sma phones o in one case pe sonal compu e s ou
imes a day (upon awakening, a 10 am, a he end o he wo kday, and
be o e bed ime), ega ding o wha ex en each emo ion bes desc ibed
hem a ha pa icula momen (1 =“does no desc ibe me a all,” 5=
“desc ibes me e y well”). Teache s we e asked o comple e he PANAS
ques ionnai e app oxima ely a he same ime as hey ga e a co isol
sample. The esponse ime was eco ded in he de ice.
The mean o i e i ems was used as a posi i e a ec indica o
(C onbach’s
α
anged om.74 o.94 o 8 imepoin s). The i ems
measu ing nega i e a ec we e highly skewed, wi h ou ou o i e
i ems ha ing he answe “does no desc ibe me a all” 83–94% o he
ime. Two easons migh be plausible o he skewness. Fi s , he PANAS
scales ask abou e y in ense emo ions (Diene e al., 2017), which end
o occu less equen ly (see Hoy e al., 2016 o a compa ison). Second,
linguis ic and cul u al di e ences migh be p esen , as emo ions a e less
easily exp essed in Finnish han in English (Chen e al., 2012). In
conclusion, we used nega i e a ec as a bina y indica o , coding i as 0 i
he eache had no el any nega i e emo ions a all a pa icula ime
poin , and coding i as 1 i he eache indica ed ha a leas one
nega i e a ec i em desc ibed hem a a pa icula ime poin . In e nal
consis ency o he nega i e a ec scale (o dinal
α
) anged om.50 o.96
o 8 ime poin s.
In o al, we ecei ed 412 a ec epo s, up o ou epo s o each o
wo days om each pa icipan , in o al up o eigh epo s pe pa ici-
pan . The ollowing obse a ions we e excluded be o e he analyses (see
Fig. 2 o he igh ): obse a ions close han 15 min o he p e ious
obse a ion, which we e conside ed epea measu emen s (n =35 e-
po s); one obse a ion on he w ong day (n =1), and iming was no
a ibu able o any imepoin (n =15). Fo example, i a eache had
illed in he ques ionnai e upon awakening and also an hou la e , and
again a 10 am, one o he i s wo epo s was omi ed. In o al, 361
a ec epo s we e included in he analyses. The dis ibu ion o he
means o posi i e a ec o e he day a e p esen ed in Fig. 3 and aw da a
in Table 1.
2.2.3. Linking co isol and a ec obse a ions
We linked co isol obse a ions wi h sel - epo s so ha he i s
co isol sample coincided wi h he i s PANAS obse a ion, and he
second and hi d co isol samples we e un ela ed wi h he a ec epo s.
The h ee emaining co isol samples coincided wi h h ee PANAS ob-
se a ions. The esul ing da ase included up o 12 samples o each
eache ’s co isol (six samples pe day), and up o eigh esponses o
posi i e and nega i e a ec ( ou epo s pe day). This linkage ga e a
da a s uc u e wi h wo a ec epo s missing pe day by design.
The lexibly coded ime indica o o co isol was he ime o sam-
pling om he ime o awakening in hou s. Fo sel - epo ed a ec , he
ime o obse a ion om awakening was e y highly co ela ed o he
co isol ime indica o . In o de o a oid mul icollinea i y in ou models,
we used he lexibly coded ime indica o , gi ing he ime lag om he
co isol measu emen . Fo example, i he ou h co isol sample was
aken a 12 pm, 5.5 h since awakening, and he sel - epo ed a ec a
12:10, he wo ime- a ying co a ia es would be 5.5 o co isol and
0.167 h since he co isol sample. Fi e eache s we e missing wake-up
ime da a on day 1 and 10 eache s on day 2; he e o e, hei wake-up
Fig. 3.. Va iabili y o sali a y co isol (A) and posi i e a ec (B) du ing wo measu emen days. No e. The hick ed- illed line ep esen s he mean co isol le els (A)
and posi i e a ec (B) o e he day.
A.-L. J˜
ogi e al.

Psychoneu oendoc inology 149 (2023) 106028
5
ime was eplaced wi h ime o he i s co isol sampling.
Ou da a-s uc u e had up o 12 imepoin s o co isol (6 pe day)
and up o eigh imepoin s o a ec (up o ou pe day). In p e ious
esea ch, co isol da a om di e en measu emen days ha e been
agg ega ed o la en co isol indica o s o es ima e be ween-pe son
di e ences (Doane e al., 2015; Mille e al., 2016). Ou app oach en-
ables us o answe esea ch ques ions conce ning in aindi idual
di e ences. P elimina y inspec ion o he da a (we eg essed co isol on
day) sugges ed no wi hin-pe son di e ence in co isol esponse be ween
he wo days, suppo ing his decision. A ec esponses di e ed on he
wo days, necessi a ing he need o include day as a co a ia e in he
models. In conclusion, o modeling, we hus used h ee indica o s o he
ime s uc u e: con inuous ime o co isol sampling elapsed since
awakening in hou s, he ime lag be ween he co isol esponse and
sel - epo ed a ec , and day (0 =Day 1, 1 =Day 2).
2.3. S a is ical p ocedu es
Fi s , we inspec ed he wi hin- and be ween-le el a ia ions in he
eache s’ physiological s ess and a ec . We speci ied h ee sepa a e
MLMs o change o a) co isol (Eq. 1), b) posi i e a ec , and c) nega i e
a ec (Eq. 2) in he MSEM amewo k, using MPlus 8.6 (Mu hen and
Mu hen, 1998–2017). Wi h imepoin s ( ) nes ed in indi iduals (i) and a
alue o co isol le el o indi idual (i) a ime ( ) as a dependen a i-
able, Eq. (1) was as ollows:
Co isol
i
=β0 +β1Time
i
+β2Timepoin 2
i
+β3Timepoin 3
i
+β4Day
i
+
υ
0i
+
ε
1i
(1)
β0 is he o e all co isol in e cep , β1 is he slope (change in co isol
o e ime),
υ
0i
is he andom pa o he in e cep , and
ε
1i
is he esidual.
We also speci ied he CAR by including wo dummy-coded a iables, β2
and β3 (co isol samples aken 30 and 45 min a e awakening) o e lec
CAR (Doane and Adam, 2010; Ka z e al., 2018).
Fo a ec , we speci ied a simila eg ession model wi hou dummies
o e lec CAR. In o de o inspec whe he he ime lag be ween he
sali a sample and sel - epo had an e ec on a ec obse a ions, we
es ed he model wi h wo ime indica o s, including β2ΔTime
i
(see Eq.
2) o explain posi i e o nega i e a ec , as ollows:
A ec
i
=β0 +β1Time
i
+β2ΔTime
i
+β3Day
i
+
υ
0i
+
ε
1i
(2)
In o de o answe ou main esea ch ques ion—how physiological
s ess is ela ed o a ec in wi hin-le el—we speci ied a join MSEM
model as shown in Fig. 1. A he wi hin-le el, we eg essed co isol on
ime a e awakening and day, and we eg essed a ec on co isol, ime
o sel - epo ed a ec since he co isol sample, and day. Co isol sam-
pling ime a e awakening and ela i e ime o PANAS obse a ion we e
allowed o co ela e.
We used he maximum likelihood (ML) es ima o o he co isol only
model, and co isol and posi i e a ec models; and we used ML wi h
Mon e Ca lo in eg a ion o acili a e con e gence o modeling co isol
and he bina y nega i e a ec ou come. Raw es ima ed pa ame e s and
s anda d e o s a e epo ed in he Resul s sec ion, as we used nega i e
a ec as a bina y dependen a iable. MPlus does no p o ide s an-
da dized pa ame e es ima es o wo-le el models wi h wi hin le el
eg essions on bina y ou comes.
3. Resul s
Desc ip i e s a is ics o un ans o med co isol concen a ions and
PANAS obse a ions a each imepoin as well as ime lags om awak-
ening o co isol and he ime di e ences be ween PANAS and co isol
measu emen s a e p esen ed in Table 1. Raw co isol concen a ions and
he le els o eache s’ posi i e a ec o e he wo measu emen days a e
shown in Fig. 3.
We i s p esen indings o physiological s ess and posi i e and
nega i e a ec sepa a ely, and hen p esen indings o posi i e and
nega i e a ec eg essed on physiological s ess.
3.1. Teache s’ physiological s ess and a ec du ing he wo kday
The co isol-only model (Eq. 1) indica ed a decline o co isol le els
(B = − 0.11, p <.001 o ime a e awakening) and highe co isol
Table 1
Desc ip i es o indica o s o each imepoin .
Indica o Day 1 Day 2
N M o % SD ange N M o % SD ange
Co isol (nmol/l) TP1 59 27.07 12.67 6–67 56 26.91 10.79 9–58
Co isol (nmol/l) TP2 58 41.85 11.78 13–67 58 40.60 14.05 12–69
Co isol (nmol/l) TP3 59 40.50 12.91 10–71 59 39.89 14.34 11–72
Co isol (nmol/l) TP4 60 13.75 9.15 5–62 56 10.77 5.32 4–31
Co isol (nmol/l) TP5 61 9.28 4.88 4–34 57 9.87 7.83 2–53
Co isol (nmol/l) TP6 56 3.79 1.91 1–11 52 5.78 9.72 1–70
Posi i e a ec TP1 48 3.62 0.75 1.8–5.0 53 3.31 0.84 1.6–5.0
Posi i e a ec TP4 36 4.03 0.55 2.5–4.8 41 4.07 0.78 1.2–5.0
Posi i e a ec TP5 54 3.85 0.71 2.2–5.0 49 3.65 0.88 1–5.0
Posi i e a ec TP6 51 2.70 0.97 1.0–5.0 49 2.66 0.94 1.2–4.6
Nega i e a ec
a
TP1 48 83 53 59
Nega i e a ec
a
TP4 36 72 41 51
Nega i e a ec
a
TP5 54 43 49 59
Nega i e a ec
a
TP6 51 43 49 31
Co isol ime
b
TP1 59 0.02 0.04 0.0–0.3 56 0.01 0.02 0–0.1
Co isol ime
b
TP2 58 0.50 0.06 0.3–0.8 58 0.51 0.07 0.3–0.8
Co isol ime
b
TP3 59 0.79 0.08 0.8–1.3 59 0.78 0.06 0.7–1.0
Co isol ime
b
TP4 60 3.90 0.48 3.1–5.7 56 4.03 0.84 3.0–7.8
Co isol ime
b
TP5 61 7.05 0.67 5.9–9.0 57 7.07 0.97 4.1–10.3
Co isol ime
b
TP6 56 16.01 0.82 13.9–17.6 52 15.98 1.14 13.4–19.5
PANAS ime
c
TP1 46 1.15 0.58 0.3–2.8 49 1.04 0.42 0.4–2.5
PANAS ime
c
TP4 36 0.33 0.52 -0.6–2.1 40 0.40 0.74 -0.8–2.6
PANAS ime
c
TP5 54 0.86 1.26 -0.9–5.6 46 0.39 0.82 -0.9–4.4
PANAS ime
c
TP6 48 -0.17 0.65 -2.4–1.0 42 -0.21 0.68 -1.9–1.0
No e.
a
Due o skewness o he scale-sco e (i.e., he mean o he i e i ems eco ded on 1–5 scales) nega i e a ec was ecoded in o 0 =all esponses a “1”, 1 =one o
mo e esponses a “2” o abo e).
b
Time a e awakening o co isol sampling in hou s.
c
Time lag be ween he a ec sel - epo and he co isol sampling in hou s. TP
= imepoin .
A.-L. J˜
ogi e al.
Psychoneu oendoc inology 149 (2023) 106028
6
le els o CAR imepoin s (B =0.71, p <.001 o bo h imepoin 2 and
imepoin 3). Teache s’ co isol le els did no di e by measu emen
day (B = − 0.02, p <.50). The co isol-only model was sa u a ed wi h
he pe ec model i .
In he posi i e a ec model (Eq. 2), eache s epo ed a lowe posi-
i e a ec la e in he day (B = − 0.07, p <.001), and his did no depend
on he ime lag o PANAS obse a ions om he co isol sampling (B =
−0.05, p =.36). Posi i e a ec was lowe on he second measu emen
day (B = − 0.51, p =.03). The posi i e a ec -only model was also
sa u a ed wi h he pe ec model i like he co isol-only model.
In he nega i e a ec model, he nega i e a ec was also lowe la e
in he day (B = − 0.13, p <.001), and i did no depend on he ime lag
om co isol sampling (B = − 0.30, p =.08). Simila o posi i e a ec ,
he eache s ended o epo ewe nega i e eelings on he second
measu emen day (B = − 0.56, p =.03).
3.2. In ape sonal ela ions be ween physiological s ess and a ec
Nex , we combined ini ial co isol-only and a ec -only models and
eg essed si ua ional a ec on si ua ional co isol. Co isol was
explained by con inuous ime o sampling a e awakening, wo dummy
CAR imepoin s, and day (see Model 1 in Fig. 2). Posi i e o nega i e
a ec was p edic ed by ime o co isol sample p io o he sel - epo
a e awakening, he di e ence be ween he ime o PANAS obse a-
ion and co isol sampling, and day. The same model was applied wice:
once o posi i e a ec as an ou come and ano he o nega i e a ec . In
bo h models, we ound he wi hin-le el e ec o physiological s ess on
a ec in expec ed di ec ions. As o models using Mon e Ca lo in eg a-
ion, he absolu e model i indices a e no a ailable; we could no
examine he i o he nega i e a ec model. Ne e heless, he i
indices o he posi i e a ec model did no demons a e good model i
(
χ
2
=213.47, d =9, p <.001, CFI =0.86, RMSEA =0.18, SRMR
wi hin
=0.14, SRMR
be ween
=0.17) (Hu and Ben le , 1999).
The e o e, we decided o emo e co isol imepoin s indica ing CAR
( imepoin s 2 and 3) om ou models and es ou hypo heses using he
da a om ou imepoin s in a day. We also speci ied he ime sequence
o ou si ua ion-speci ic da a collec ion by excluding bo h co isol and
PANAS da a i co isol samples we e collec ed a e he PANAS obse -
a ion o he co isol sampling ime was missing (N =74) om ou inal
model (see Model 2 in Fig. 2, n =403 co isol samples and n =307
PANAS obse a ions). The model i indices o co isol and he posi i e
a ec model we e e y good (
χ
2
=4.09, d =3, p =.25, CFI =0.99,
RMSEA =0.03, SRMR
wi hin
=0.03, SRMR
be ween
=0.18). Simila o he
co isol only model, eache s’ co isol le els did no di e be ween he
i s and second sampling day (see Table 2). Time a e awakening
nega i ely p edic ed he co isol le els, indica ing no mal physiological
co isol decline o e he day. Si ua ional posi i e a ec was explained by
ime and day o co isol sampling a e awakening, simila o he posi-
i e a ec only model. In acco dance wi h Hypo hesis 1, he si ua ional
co isol le el explained posi i e a ec in wi hin-le el (B = − 0.31,
p=.001). The highe he eache s’ physiological s ess he less hey el
posi i e a ec . Combining physiological s ess and nega i e a ec , we
ound ha he p obabili y o eeling nega i e a ec di e ed on wo
obse a ion days, as in he nega i e a ec -only model (see Table 2).
Du ing he day, ime did no explain he p obabili y o eeling nega i e
a ec any mo e in he combined model. The ime disc epancy om
co isol sampling was ma ginally ela ed o nega i e a ec (B = − 0.38,
p=.051) showing ha close he a ec obse a ion was o he co isol
sampling, highe was he p obabili y o eeling nega i e a ec . Ou main
in e es was he in aindi idual associa ion be ween physiological s ess
and nega i e a ec . We ound a posi i e ela ion be ween hese wo
indica o s (B =0.94, p =.004, odds a io =2.55, 95% CI-s[1.35, 4.82]).
The highe he eache s’ physiological s ess he highe was he p oba-
bili y o eeling nega i e a ec a he same ime.
4. Discussion
We in es iga ed eache s’ daily physiological s ess and a ec and
he e ec o physiological s ess on a ec in a si ua ion. Ou s udy o e s
wo no el con ibu ions o he ield. Fi s , we applied a mul ile el SEM
model o in es iga e wo ime- a ying indica o s concu en ly. Second,
we showed ha a he in ape sonal le el, measu emen ime accoun ed
o bo h s ess and a ec indica o s; eache s’ physiological s ess has an
e ec on bo h posi i e and nega i e a ec du ing he wo kday.
4.1. Modeling ime- a ying physiological s ess and a ec
Ha ing in aindi idual ela ions in physiological s ess in in e es ,
MLMs ha e been he mos p e alen analysis me hod ( o example see
Doane and Adam, 2010). Un o una ely, MLMs do no allow o mo e
han one dependen a iable in he model, no do hey p o ide model i
indices o es ing how consis en he model is wi h he da a. The e o e,
we p oposed a mul ile el SEM model o in es iga e he wi hin-le el
ela ions be ween wo ime- a ying indica o s—physiological s ess
measu ed by sali a y co isol, and si ua ional a ec . I was qui e
easonable o expec ha he physiological s ess and a ec measu e-
men s would no be exac ly ime complian , we needed o use wo ime
indica o s in ou s a is ical models. Fo a oiding mul icollinea i y o
ime indica o s ha had inc eased he Type II e o a es (G ewal e al.,
2004) we p oposed using wo ime indica o s o PANAS obse a-
ions— he ime o co isol sampling a e awakening and he ime o he
sel - epo ed a ec a e he co isol sampling.
Nex , as sample size and esul ing low powe is o en p oblema ic
issue in s udies collec ing physiological da a (Adam and Kuma i, 2009),
we modeled all a ailable da a wi hou agg ega ion, i.e., up o 12 co isol
and 8 a ec epo s pe pe son. In line wi h he cu en esea ch,
eache s’ co isol le els do no di e by wo kday (Belling a h e al.,
2008). Inco po a ing co isol samples om di e en ime poin s om
one day and/o om days o he same analysis le el has so a been used
in la en ai models (Doane e al., 2015; Mille e al., 2016). Ou esul s
Table 2
Pa ame e es ima es o wo-le el SEM models o ela ionships be ween co isol
and a ec .
Pa ame e Posi i e a ec Nega i e a ec
Es ima e SE p- alue Es ima e SE p- alue
Wi hin-pe son le el
Co isol on:
Co isol ime
a
-0.12 0.01 <0.001 -0.12 0.01 <0.001
Day 0.00 0.05 0.99 0.00 0.05 0.99
A ec on:
Co isol ime
a
-0.10 0.01 <0.001 -0.01 0.05 0.98
Δ PANAS -
Co isol ime
b
-0.02 0.06 0.76 -0.38 0.19 0.05
Day -0.15 0.08 0.04 -0.66 0.27 0.02
Co isol -0.31 0.08 <0.001 0.94 0.32 0.01
Residual
a iances
Co isol 0.22 0.02 <0.001 0.22 0.02 <0.001
A ec 0.40 0.04 <0.001 NA NA NA
Be ween-pe son
le el
Means/ h eshold
Co isol 3.03 0.05 <0.001 3.03 0.05 <0.001
A ec 3.90 0.12 <0.001 1.26 1.00 0.21
Va iances
Co isol 0.07 0.02 <0.001 0.07 0.02 <0.001
A ec 0.39 0.90 <0.001 0.90 0.48 0.06
Co a iance
Co isol wi h
a ec
0.02 0.03 0.42 -0.07 0.07 0.30
No e.
a
Time a e awakening o co isol sampling in hou s.
b
Time lag be ween
he a ec sel - epo and he co isol sampling in hou s. NA =no a ailable o
bina y ou come in MPlus.
A.-L. J˜
ogi e al.
Psychoneu oendoc inology 149 (2023) 106028
7
also showed ha eache s’ co isol le els a di e en ime-poin s did no
a y on he wo measu emen days. S ill, bo h posi i e and nega i e
a ec we e lowe on he second measu emen day.
Taking he modeling pa oge he , ou esul s i s showed he ex-
pec ed physiological co isol cu e du ing he day, and also in ape -
sonal changes in posi i e and nega i e a ec o e wo measu emen
days. This allowed us o me ge wo ime- a ying models in o de o
in es iga e he in ape sonal ela ions be ween eache s’ physiological
s ess and a ec .
4.2. Rela ions be ween eache s’ si ua ional physiological s ess and a ec
Nex , ou esul s shed ligh on he wi hin-le el ela ions be ween
eache s’ physiological s ess and a ec du ing he wo kday in au hen ic
class oom se ings. Labo a o y s udies o heal hy adul s ha e so a
indica ed a weak ela ionship be ween physiological s ess and
emo ional esponse (Campbell and Ehle , 2012). Recen ly, i has been
p oposed ha associa ions be ween physiological and psychological
indica o s migh be he e ogenous in he sample (Simon e al., 2022). In
mos s udies conduc ed in ambula o y se ings hus a , adul samples
ha e shown nega i e ela ions be ween si ua ional physiological s ess
and posi i e a ec , and posi i e ela ions be ween si ua ional physio-
logical s ess and nega i e a ec (Joseph e al., 2021).
Howe e , eache s’ physiological s ess s udies a e s ill in hei i s
s eps. I has been shown, o example, ha eache s’ physiological s ess
is highe on wo k days compa ed o he weekend (We s ein e al., 2020)
o ha eache s uden s expe ience physiological s ess esponse du ing
he labo a o y s ess es bu no emo ional esponse (Becke e al.,
2022). Consis en wi h s udies on he ela ionship be ween- eache s
sel - epo ed s ess and a ec (e.g. Hamama e al., 2013) and
wi hin-pe son ela ions be ween physiological s ess and a ec (Joseph
e al., 2021), ou indings con i med ha a he wi hin-pe son le el, i
eache s ha e highe physiological s ess, hey also ypically ha e lowe
posi i e a ec . And, ice e sa o nega i e a ec — he highe he si u-
a ional physiological s ess, he highe he nega i e a ec .
The e o e, ou s udy adds aluable si ua ional in o ma ion o p e-
ious esea ch abou eache s’ s ess and emo ions in he class oom (e.g
F enzel e al., 2020; Kelle e al., 2014). Teaching is a e y demanding
occupa ion in which s ess is conside ed o be a de aul ea u e
(B ough on, 2010). Teache s’ s ess depends on se e al ex e nal (e.g
s uden s’ beha io , wo kload, ela ions in o ganiza ion) and in e nal (e.
g coping skills, emo ions) ac o s (Mon gome y and Rupp, 2005).
Physiological s ess is ela ed o he class oom en i onmen and each-
ing p ac ices a he in ape sonal le el (Junke e al., 2021). As eache s’
a ec is highly si ua ion-speci ic (Kelle e al., 2014) i is c ucial o g asp
he momen a y ela ions o s ess and a ec . Unde s anding in ape -
sonal ela ions be ween physiological s ess and a ec emphasizes he
necessi y o acili a e educa o s’ awa eness o hei own s ess and
a ec . I also helps wi h planning indi idual in e en ions o diminish
he nega i e pe cep ions o s ess ul e en s, and suppo eache s’ s ess
managemen skills and each eache ’s s ess egula ion du ing and a e
he school day. Teache s’ well-being can be suppo ed, o example, by
pee men o ing g oups ocused on de eloping hei pedagogical p ac-
ices in he class oom (Vasalampi e al., 2021). The impo an ole o
p ima y school p incipals on eache s’ well-being is also well ecognized
(e.g., Ael e man e al., 2007). Fo example, p incipals hold he key in
gi ing eache s’ oppo uni ies o in-se ice aining and supe ision
(B edeson and Johansson, 2000).
Ou esul s open se e al possible di ec ions o u he esea ch.
Fi s , as ou ocus was on in ape sonal ela ionships be ween physio-
logical s ess and a ec , we did no in es iga e possible be ween- eache
o -class oom le el p edic o s o s ess and a ec and he indi idual
di e ences in change in s ess and a ec du ing he day. In u he
s udies, o example, he e ec o eache s’ wo k expe ience, numbe o
s uden s in he class oom, and he p opo ion o s uden s wi h beha -
io al o lea ning di icul ies on eache s’ physiological s ess and a ec
should be in es iga ed. Nex , as eache s’ sel - epo ed s ess is ela ed
o hei class oom p ac ices (Pen inen e al., 2020), i is easonable o
in es iga e he e ec o physiological s ess on he quali y o class oom
in e ac ions and ins uc ion and, u he , on s uden ou comes. P omp-
ed by he esul s o he in e ac ions be ween physiological a ousal and
class oom en i onmen on eache s’ enjoymen (Donke e al., 2020),
he possible mode a o s on he associa ions be ween physiological s ess
and a ec in he class oom should be s udied.
4.3. Limi a ions
Ou s udy also has some clea limi a ions we need o aise. We ha e
s udied si ua ional s ess and a ec ideally measu ed simul aneously. In
ou s udy conduc ed in non-labo a o y se ings, he e a e o en dis-
c epancies in he iming o co isol sampling and a ec obse a ion.
Fi s , we ha e aken his in o accoun in ou model by adding he ime
di e ence indica o o explain si ua ional a ec . This di ec ed us o
exclude co isol da a ha we e sampled a e he sel - epo ed a ec
(PANAS) and a ec epo s ha we e answe ed be o e he linked co isol
sampling o enable speci ying he di ec ion o he ela ionship be ween
physiological s ess and a ec in he MSEM model. Al hough we ha e
speci ied he di ec ion o co isol le els o explain he a iance o a ec ,
we do ecognize ha he e is also heo e ical suppo o he opposi e
eg ession model and call o u he in es iga ions abou he di ec ion
o he ela ions be ween ime- a ying s ess and a ec . Fu he mo e, ou
solu ion inc eases he amoun o missingness in ou da a se .
Secondly, we combined da a om he same pa icipan s sampled and
obse ed on di e en days. This was he solu ion we used o add ess he
lack o powe p oblem, which o en occu s in ambula o y s udies col-
lec ing physiological da a. S ill, we a e e y open o discussion abou he
solu ion we p oposed. As a hi d limi a ion, da a collec ed wi h he
nega i e a ec scale was much skewed and we we e no able o use
nega i e a ec as a con inuous a iable as in he o iginal PANAS scale.
We also ha e o no e he limi a ion o inding ha eache s’ a ec , bo h
posi i e and nega i e, was lowe on Day 2. On Day 1 eache s we e
obse ed by he esea ch assis an s, he da a collec ion Day 2 was a
school day as usual. The e o e, we canno ell he eason o lowe a ec
on Day 2, we can only say ha he day was con olled in ou models. We
also used single co isol samples o wi hin-pe son analysis and no any
combined co isol indica o . This makes i impossible o d aw any
be ween-pe son conclusions abou he unc ionali y o ou sample’s
HPA-axis.
4.4. Conclusions
Taken oge he , de elopmen s in in aindi idual esea ch in educa-
ion and he inc eased a ailabili y o so wa e pose an in e es ing u u e
o his ield o esea ch. We ha e shown one op ion o modeling wo o
mo e ime- a ying indica o s in a mul ile el SEM amewo k, and we
hope o con inue academic discussions abou combining di e en in-
dica o s in in aindi idual esea ch. We also showed ha despi e
eache s’ a e age le els o physiological s ess and a ec , hei co isol
le els and posi i e and nega i e a ec a e ela ed a a si ua ional le el.
Ou indings emphasize he need o pay a en ion o each eache ’s s ess
and a ec egula ion skills.
Decla a ion o in e es
None.
Acknowledgemen s
This s udy was unded by g an s om he Finnish Wo k En i onmen
Fund (2017–2020 #117142), he Academy o Finland (2018–2022,
#317610), and he Facul y o Educa ion and Psychology, Uni e si y o
Jy ¨
askyl¨
a, Finland. The au ho s hank he EARLI Eme ging Field G oup,
A.-L. J˜
ogi e al.
Psychoneu oendoc inology 149 (2023) 106028
8
“The po en ial o biophysiology o unde s anding lea ning and eaching
expe iences,” o b inging us oge he and acili a ing inspi ing
discussions.
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