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Local knowledge and global jus ice : F om hegemonic de elopmen o plane a y well-
being
© 2024 selec ion and edi o ial ma e , Me ja Elo, Jonne Hy önen, Sanna Ka kuleh o, Teea Ko e mäki, Janne S. Ko iaho, Mikael Puu inen, and Miikka Salo; indi idual chap e s, he con ibu o
Published e sion
Eskelinen, Teppo; Jo o, Vee a; Obeng, God ed
Eskelinen, T., Jo o, V., & Obeng, G. (2024). Local knowledge and global jus ice : F om hegemonic
de elopmen o plane a y well-being. In M. Elo, J. Hy önen, S. Ka kuleh o, T. Ko e mäki, J. S.
Ko iaho, M. Puu inen, & M. Salo (Eds.), In e disciplina y Pe spec i es on Plane a y Well-Being
(pp. 113-127). Rou ledge. h ps://doi.o g/10.4324/9781003334002-12
2024
In oduc ion
The plane a y well-being app oach emphasizes he need o p o ec i al na u al
p ocesses in o de o secu e he well-being o bo h human and nonhuman na u e.
While he cu en hegemonic concep aming he balance be ween human needs
and en i onmen al p o ec ion is e iden ly “sus ainable de elopmen ”, plane a y
well-being depa s om his idea, o e ing a mo e holis ic app oach and a s onge
emphasis on nonhuman na u e (he ea e na u e) beyond i s ins umen al alue.
Bu o ap he ull po en ial o he plane a y well-being concep , insigh s om
o he disciplines should be used o complemen i s co e ideas. In his chap e ,
we lay ou a pe spec i e om c i ical de elopmen s udies. C i ical de elopmen
s udies assis s us o unde s and he sho comings o he sus ainable de elopmen
app oach. I highligh s how “de elopmen ” as a p ac ice and a mindse has shaped
ou unde s anding o socie al p oblems and solu ions, and how cu en ideas abou
de elopmen (and hence also sus ainable de elopmen , despi e he ecen b oaden-
ing o i s agenda) s and in he way o p og ess owa ds he aims o plane a y well-
being. C i ical de elopmen s udies also p o ides ideas ha a e complemen a y o
plane a y well-being by emphasizing he need o ecognize he di e si y o knowl-
edge sys ems and hence o ele an ways o ela ing o he na u al en i onmen ,
as well as he ole o global economic pa e ns in c ea ing and sus aining inequali-
ies. These insigh s assis plane a y well-being heo y o unde s and he sys ems o
powe and inequali y which cu en “de elopmen ” sub ly ad oca es and ope a es
wi hin, as he heo y mo es owa ds add essing he needs o human socie ies and
he plane .
This chap e explica es and illus a es he c i ical de elopmen s udies app oach
and how i can con ibu e o plane a y well-being. We begin wi h a c i ical
8
LOCAL KNOWLEDGE AND
GLOBAL JUSTICE
F om hegemonic de elopmen
o plane a y well-being
Teppo Eskelinen, Vee a Jo o and God ed Obeng
DOI: 10.4324/9781003334002-12
114 Teppo Eskelinen e al.
assessmen o he meaning o de elopmen , ocusing on i s ole as an epis emic
monocul u e and hie a chical sys em. This is done by means o a li e a u e e iew.
Then we apply ideas om he e iewed li e a u e o a case s udy on clima e change
and cash c op cul i a ion, o illus a e he di e ences be ween sus ainable de elop-
men and plane a y well-being app oaches. The chap e closes wi h a discussion
and conclusions.
The p oblems o de elopmen as we know i
As a concep , de elopmen appea s o cap u e he human s i ing o p og ess,
and i desc ibes bo h a cul u e o mode ni y and an economic policy p og amme.
Thanks o hese associa ions, de elopmen easily becomes sel -jus i ica o y: As
de elopmen is equa ed wi h p og ess, e e y hing ha alls unde he label o
de elopmen can claim o be posi i e. Mo eo e , i is he basis o policy in e en-
ions. When p oblems such as pe sis en po e y and en i onmen al des uc ion a e
no ed, de elopmen eme ges as he sugges ed amewo k o design he emedies.
Fo hese easons, i is pa icula ly impo an o sc u inize he concep c i ically.
De elopmen is adi ionally unde s ood as economic g ow h, and as ins umen-
al in o eg ounding he g and a ge o achie ing “ he end o po e y” (Sachs,
2005). I is associa ed wi h he Enligh enmen adi ion along wi h ad ances in sci-
ence, anspo , heal hca e, and he like. Bu he cul u e unde lying hese ad ances
also en ails he pe cep ion o human beings as supe io , “es anged” and “sepa-
a ed” om na u e (Diaz C uz, 2020), leading o a emp s o domina e na u e as
human beings see hemsel es as he only measu e o ue alue (Pu se , Pa k
and Mon uo i, 1995). Th ough he p ocess, na u e has come o be seen as p ima -
ily a esou ce s ock (Abedi-Se as ani and Shah ali, 2008), leading o a eckless
exploi a ion o he en i onmen .
Abili ies o explain and con ol he na u al wo ld ha e also impac ed upon he
a i ude o he “de eloped” owa ds o he knowledge sys ems (Nyg en, 1999).
A my iad o cul u es and ela ed knowledges abou local na u e ha e been deemed
“backwa ds”, in e io , o e en incapable o eason. Du ing he colonial e a, sub-
jec s in he colonies aced disc imina ion as hei supposed p oximi y o na u e
cons i u ed an excuse o hei domina ion. While less explici and appea ing in
a mo e bene olen guise oday, he no ion o “ he hi d wo ld” (Escoba , 1995)
and he pe cep ion o “unde de elopmen ” as an undigni ied condi ion (Es e a,
1992) con inue o legi imize in e en ions among he “unde de eloped” o bo h
he implemen e s and ecipien s o his in e en ion (Escoba , 1995).
Fu he mo e, jus i ying policy p ocesses in e ms o de elopmen has mean he
en o cemen o ma ke ela ions and igh s, as well as a shi o owne ship pa e ns
away om communal owne ship (B yan , 1998). Wi hin cul u es o mode ni y, he
s a e and he ma ke a e o en seen as mu ually exclusi e domains, and in p ac ical
e ms de elopmen has mean p ecisely he en o cemen o hese wo loca ions o
powe a he expense o he communi y.
Local knowledge and global jus ice 115
No only a p ocess bu also a c i e ion, de elopmen became he epis emological
basis o how “good quali y o li e” was unde s ood in e ms o a command o goods
wi h ma ke alue as well as speci ic kinds o ela ionships be ween s a es and indi-
iduals (Ris , 2007), ende ing o he ela ionships in isible. The esul ing meas-
u es and app oaches e lec ed he a emp o uni e salize he li es yles o he global
No h. La e , hese ideas abou quali y o li e we e a ionalized in o echnical indi-
ca o s (Bhu a, Mali o and Umbach, 2018), he mos p ominen being o cou se he
G oss Domes ic P oduc . As he s anda ds and benchma ks used o measu e “high
quali y o li e” di ec ly e lec No he n li es yles, in e ec maximizing consump-
ion, hey a e in di ec con lic wi h many o he alue sys ems. Anecdo ally, o
example, many Andean popula ions c i ique Wes e n no ions o de elopmen as
inc eased ma e ial p oduc ion and consump ion (Ca bonnie e al., 2017). Ra he ,
he e exis s he mul i-le el wo ld heo ies which in luence and en ich he o e a ch-
ing concep o “buen i i ” o “good li ing” which gene ally depic s de elopmen
no as an end o achie emen o he s a e bu as an ongoing p ocess o enhancing
na u e-communi y li ing (ibid.).
In addi ion o o ganising and assessing s a es’ pe o mance, de elopmen can
be also seen as he name and jus i ica ion o he exis ing global poli ical o de . In
his sense i shapes and upholds exis ing global ela ions, such as he lock-in o he
colonized coun ies’ ole as p oduce s o a single un e ined c op. While de elop-
men is jus i ied as a discou se based on he no ion o poo e coun ies “ca ching
up” economically wi h weal hie ones, he global economic sys em has pushed
economic dispa i ies o an unp eceden ed le el. Ma ke ela ions, which a e a he
hea o cul u es o de elopmen , mean ha dis ibu i e logics do no ollow human
needs bu ma ke demands, which is s ic ly con a y o he idea o plane a y well-
being. Economic dispa i ies a e also in e wined wi h dispa i ies in poli ical powe
and epis emological dominance.
Recen ly, he e has been a u he expansion o economic ela ions. The de el-
opmen o he mode n ma ke socie y has mean a globaliza ion o esou ces and
ex e nali ies, wi h nega i e ex e nali ies alloca ed o al eady disad an aged social
ca ego ies and egions (Ho nbo g, 2009). The cul u al ideas unde lying mode ni y
and capi alism, acco ding o which na u e can be ea ed as “ esou ces” o “ aw
ma e ial”, ha e been combined wi h he globaliza ion o hose ideas and he ma -
ke s o hose esou ces. This has led o new and des uc i e pa e ns o ela ing o
na u e. Such p ocesses ha e also pa ed way o phenomena such as land-g abbing
and cap u e (Abe ne hy e al., 2017), and he p i a iza ion o s a e p ope y a ound
he global Sou h.
Al e na i e pa hways: De elopmen as usual o some hing else?
To sum up, despi e he p og ess associa ed wi h de elopmen , seeing he wo ld as
essen ially comp ising na ions a di e en “de elopmen le els” implici ly jus i ies
he downplaying o global hie a chies and a cul u e ha is des uc i e o he na u al
116 Teppo Eskelinen e al.
en i onmen . De elopmen is bo h a p ocess and a se o in e en ions, and o an
inc easing ex en also a go e nance sys em. I bo h sol es p oblems (as in e en-
ions and go e nance) and c ea es hem (as a p ocess), while jus i ying i sel as
comple ely apoli ical and echnical (Fe guson, 1994). Po e y alle ia ion is a key
goal o de elopmen , bu de elopmen as a p ocess also c ea es new o ms o po -
e y (Ris , 2007). En i onmen al p o ec ion is a he cen e o cu en de elopmen
go e nance, bu en i onmen al damage is also a p oduc o he p ocess o de elop-
men (e.g., No be g-Hodge, 2009).
F om his, he e ollows a choice be ween wo al e na i es: Ei he he app oaches
associa ed wi h de elopmen can be us ed o sol e exis ing p oblems—i
only enough unds a e p o ided, and enough e o s made—o al e na i es can
be sough . Many will be happy o op o he i s al e na i e. This is no leas
because de elopmen appea s o become an e e -mo e mul i ace ed and e ol -
ing idea as “non-con en ional” de elopmen heo ies o m an in ellec ual cu en
(Pee and Ha wick, 2009) and new de ini ions o de elopmen eme ge. Such new
app oaches ha e shi ed he ocus o de elopmen o eedoms (Sen, 2000), o ha e
simply aimed o massi ely b oaden he agenda, as is isible in he Sus ainable
De elopmen Goals (SDGs).
Ye sus ainable de elopmen (B und land, 1987), bo h as a scien i ic idea and
as a policy p og amme, also accep s he adi ional s a ing poin s o de elopmen ,
despi e i s openness o new de ini ions and e en s uggles o e de ini ion (Eskelinen,
2021). This means ha i con uses a digni ied li e wi h a uni o m social model, and
i accep s he idea o na u e as a esou ce s ock. The e o e, sus ainable de elopmen
con inues o en o ce an h opocen ic ideas amid possible ways o o mula e human–
na u e ela ions (see Chap e 7). I asks how his uni o m social model can be main-
ained, and how he esou ce s ock can be managed esponsibly. The p ima y ocus is
on “e iciency” by educing was e and ex ac ing he maximum om non- enewable
esou ces (Ecke sley, 1992; o a ecen app oach, see J. Sachs, 2015), as well as
managing a ious o he ex e nali ies gene a ed by he con empo a y economy. In his
p ocess, en i onmen al conce ns become assimila ed in o he he o ic, dynamics, and
powe s uc u es o de elopmen (W. Sachs, 2015). I has been a gued ha behind
he “noble” in en ions o e en upda ed ideas abou de elopmen lies a design which
ma ginalizes discon en while allowing hie a chies, p o i maximiza ion, and “busi-
ness as usual” (Abe ne hy e al., 2017; B yan , 1998).
P ac ically, an al e na i e app oach would mean no ing he a ie y o epis e-
mologies and undoing hie a chical ela ions. The i s ask o esea ch is hen o
loca e and unde s and he di e si y o ways o desc ibing, pe cei ing, and ela ing
o na u e. Some cu en ly ma ginalized wo ld iews could in o m a heal hie ela-
ionship wi h he en i onmen (Dize ega, 1996). Bu his call o di e si y should
no be unde s ood only in e ms o undoing he des uc ion o adi ional socie ies
(Diaz C uz, 2020). Indeed, he concep o “g ass oo s pos mode nism”, e e ing
o bo h a di e si y o wo ld iews and a ejec ion o hie a chies associa ed wi h
de elopmen , has been sugges ed as an al e na i e (Es e a and P akash, 2014). Fo

Local knowledge and global jus ice 117
ano he possible pa h, he a ious concep ualiza ions o en i onmen al ela ions
o e ed by he en i onmen al mo emen s o he global Sou h (Ma inez-Alie
e al., 2014) o e a ich body o g ass oo s pe spec i es.
The impo ance, ele ance, and alidi y o local knowledge ha e gained inc eas-
ing ecogni ion and a en ion (Naess, 2013; Nyg en, 1999). Ba kin (2010) explains
ha scien is s ha e come o acknowledge he po en ial o expanding ho izons and
looking o insigh s om p emode n sou ces o knowledge. Ma in e al. (2016)
highligh he impo ance o ecognizing local popula ions’ cul u es and iden i ies
in en i onmen al conse a ion. Hinz e al. (2020) explain ha Indigenous commu-
ni ies in pa icula o en possess knowledge abou hei immedia e en i onmen ,
accumula ed o e cen u ies. These communi ies ha e also shown esilience in
o e coming ad e se si ua ions. They o e “al e na i e solu ions o ou con em-
po a y en i onmen al challenges” (Tosam, 2020, p. 283) and can help o iden i y
poin s o ension and con es a ion wi hin he dominan knowledge sys em. When a
p oblem is no amed acco ding o dominan knowledge o pe spec i es, he e is
oom o new iewpoin s and inno a i e solu ions.
I is impo an no o oman icize local knowledge, o o assume ha i is s a ic
and inhe en ly conse a i e. Local knowledge sys ems do no inhe en ly hold mo e
alue, and hey may be subjec o in e nal s uggles o e legi ima e ep esen a ions,
jus like any o he knowledge sys em. Bu he e should be a balanced iew o di -
e en knowledge sys ems, which will allow en i onmen al issues o be assessed
om mul iple angles. Fu he mo e, while local knowledge sys ems canno be
assumed o con ain na u e-cen ic app oaches, exposu e o al e na i e knowledge
sys ems is none heless pa amoun i we a e o b eak down dominan iews o how
he wo ld wo ks and ough o wo k. Exclusi ely ope a ing wi hin he domain o
dominan knowledge sys ems makes i di icul o en ision adically al e na i e
u u es, and hus an explo a ion o local knowledge sys ems—which may g ea ly
di e om he dominan wo ld iews—may help us o na iga e a c i ical engage-
men wi h plane a y well-being. In addi ion, unde s anding how de elopmen
sp eads, suppo s, and main ains a ce ain o m o knowledge dominance can help
us o unde s and whe e knowledge app op ia e o plane a y well-being needs o
in e ene. This is why c i ical de elopmen s udies calls o an unde s anding o
a ious knowledge sys ems.
Also, i is impo an o unco e hidden ecological imbalances. The ai ness and
un ai ness o global ade is ypically exp essed and assessed in mone a y e ms,
downplaying o he o ms o injus ice. Global ade in ol es ecological inequali ies
whe eby he global Sou h deple es i s na u al esou ces and uses i s na u al wo ld
as a dumping g ound o sa is y and main ain he li es yles o he global No h
(Pa ks and Robe s, 2010; Rice, 2007). While on he su ace he coun ies o he
global No h ha e been success ul in educing hei ca bon emissions and imp o -
ing hei en i onmen al policies, hey con inue o be hea ily elian on he ex ac-
i e economies o he global Sou h (Jo genson, 2006, 2016; Rice, 2007). In e ec ,
he “weal hy na ions o sho e he ene gy-, na u al esou ce- and pollu ion-in ensi e
118 Teppo Eskelinen e al.
s ages o p oduc ion” (Rice, 2007, p. 139). One concep ha can ake no e o
hie a chies, o ins ance, is “clima e deb ”, which e e s o he disp opo iona e
le el o ca bon emissions and low o esou ces be ween he global No h and he
global Sou h (Pa ks and Robe s, 2010).
So, while he idea o de elopmen sugges s ha we ake s a es as undamen-
al uni s and analyze hei de elopmen le els, i mus be acknowledged ha eco-
nomic hie a chies a e i s and o emos global, and ha hey ela e no only o
esou ces bu also o une en possibili ies o de ine and a ec one’s en i onmen .
Fo ins ance, he conse a ion pa adigm in o med by sus ainable de elopmen has
some imes led o cases whe e local communi ies a e no longe able o u ilize hei
en i onmen s in adi ional ways: As go e ning bodies es ic access o na u al
esou ces (Wisne , 2010), communi ies a e unable o de ine hei ela ionship o
na u e in app op ia e e ms.
Fu he mo e, an al e na i e app oach o en i onmen al p o ec ion also means
asking ques ions abou wha is p oduced in he i s place and who decides abou
his. Some discussions ha e poin ed ou ha he e is a need o di e en ia e be ween
luxu ies and necessi ies (cooking, hea ing, ligh ing), including in he con ex o
ca bon emissions and o he en i onmen al damage (Li e man, 2009). Cu en ly, a
mino i y o indi iduals a e d i ing he ex a agan demand o na u al esou ces,
wi h he es me ely unc ioning o mee ha demand. Thus, i is no accu a e o
blame he en i e human species equally o social and en i onmen al des uc ion.
Also, as Rä hzel and Uzzell (2009) highligh , i is impo an o ask ques ions abou
who decides wha goods a e p oduced and how. Who decides on he accep ed
social and ecological cos s o p oduc ion? Wha social ca ego ies a e in ol ed in
his decision-making p ocess? The challenge is no only o poin ou exis ing dis-
pa i ies, bu also o ques ion he alue sys em ha makes he possession o luxu ies
seem desi able—in o he wo ds, o ques ion ou unde s anding o high-quali y li e-
s yles and he unsus ainabili y hey p omo e (Kaijse and K onsell, 2014). As no ed
abo e, quali y o li e is cu en ly seen mos ly in e ms o consump ion; al e na i e
c i e ia a e needed he e. Mo eo e , e en i needs a e sepa a ed om me e desi es,
he e a e s ill good ques ions abou how needs can be sa is ied wi h less damage o
ea h sys ems (see Ko e mäki e al. 2021).
De elopmen as a mode o hough and se o hie a chies is ypically no an issue
in he ongoing s uggles be ween cul u al sphe es. Ra he , many o he wo ld iews
desc ibed abo e ha e been la gely in e nalized in he cul u es o he global Sou h. This
applies especially a he s a e le el, as many Sou he n coun ies a icula e hei goals
in e ms o economic g ow h and o he ideas o igina ing in de elopmen hough .
A di e si y o epis emologies and ela ionships o na u e exis a he g ass oo s le el
and o en ou o sigh , e en wi h di icul ies o be a icula ed; he e o e, ac i e an h o-
pological lea ning is necessa y. C i ical de elopmen s udies is an a emp o unco e
exis ing di e se ela ionships o na u e and concep ions o well-being ha a e cu -
en ly o e looked. Fu he mo e, i aims o e eal he pa e ns o powe ha impac on
he ex en o which people ha e au onomy o al e hei en i onmen .
Local knowledge and global jus ice 119
Case example: O ganic cocoa a me s in Ghana
Ha ing es ablished he need o ecognize pa e ns o cul u al, economic, and
poli ical domina ion as aspec s o de elopmen , we now go on o p esen an illus a-
i e case s udy o highligh how he de alua ion o local en i onmen al knowledge
is in e wined wi h global economic inequali y. This case s udy looks a o ganic
cocoa a me s in Ghana and hei pe cep ions o clima e change. I is a somewha
ypical case o de elopmen s udies, as i is based in sub-Saha an A ica, is el-
e an o global economic pa e ns, and aims o a pa icula sensi i i y o local
pe cep ions. This exempla y case s udy leans on bo h a li e a u e e iew and he-
ma ic in e iews (n = 10) ca ied ou by one o he au ho s o his chap e , using a
quali a i e pu posi e sampling app oach.
Cocoa- a ming, seen in con ex , is a ypical pos colonial ac i i y in he sense
ha cocoa is a cash c op o expo . I s pa e ns o p oduc ion a e cons uc ed
a ound he con inui y o he colonial di ision o labou , which employed c op
monocul u es o se e he impe ial economy. Fo Ghana, cocoa p oduc ion con in-
ues o con ibu e an es ima ed 25% o he g oss domes ic p oduc . The Wes A ica
egion accoun s o almos 70% o he global p oduc ion o cocoa. This implies ha
Wes A ica gene ally, Ghana, and a e y la ge numbe o smallholde a me s a e
highly dependen on cocoa cul i a ion. The Ghanaian go e nmen has in e nalized
de elopmen - amed g ow h objec i es, bu i ope a es wi hin he cons ain s o he
global economy, which make bo h he inc eased e inemen o aw ma e ials and
he di e si ica ion o he economy di icul . The go e nmen has he e o e made
e o s o u he inc ease he p oduc ion o aw cocoa h ough a ious a ming
in e en ions, such as he supply o e ilize s and he deploymen o pollina o s o
cocoa plan a ions (COCOBOD, 2021).
These e o s come in he con ex o clima e change, which is causing ex eme
high empe a u es and unp edic able ain pa e ns ha ha e a massi e impac on
a ming (De kyi e al., 2018). Economic ulne abili y is ela ed o and exace ba ed
by en i onmen al change and exis ing inequali ies. Cocoa h i es in empe a e o -
es zones, and so clima e change a ec s i s sus ainable p oduc ion. Many s udies
ha e poin ed o he impac o clima e change on cocoa p oduc ion in Wes A ica,
as well as o a me s’ awa eness and pe cep ions o he issue (Ameyaw e al., 2018;
Hu chins e al., 2015; O o i-Boa eng and Insah, 2014).
Cocoa cul i a ion is na u ally an economic issue. Applying he sus ainable
de elopmen app oach would mean asking how p oduc ion can be maximized
gi en exis ing en i onmen al cons ain s and he need o conside he con inui y
o p oduc ion. While he SDGs en ail a b oade pe spec i e, wi h nume ous sub-
a ge s ela ed o en i onmen al p o ec ion, his co e app oach emains. Ye , o he
ocabula ies exis wi h which o unde s and hese ci cums ances. The ques ions
eme ging om c i ical de elopmen s udies ha ha e ele ance o plane a y well-
being a e as ollows: How do he sho - e m esponses o p oduc ion challenges
such as e ilize p o ision in luence la ge-scale p ocesses ha a e undamen al o
120 Teppo Eskelinen e al.
human and nonhuman well-being? How is well-being in his case condi ioned by
global economic s uc u es? Wha do a me s’ pe cep ions o he change in he na -
u al en i onmen ell us abou locally ele an human–na u e ela ionships? And
how a e hese ques ions ela ed?
Fa me s in he egion indeed poin ou an inc ease in empe a u es and occu -
ences o d ough (Ameyaw e al., 2018), changes in ain all pa e ns, which cause
a high incidence o black pod disease, esul ing in low yields (Anim-Kwapong and
F impong, 2008), and nega i e e ec s on soil heal h and e ili y, along wi h low
p oduc ion (Hu chins e al., 2015). The a me s in e iewed o ou case s udy also
e e ed o such expe iences, in addi ion o expe iences o po e y and hunge due
o he e ec s o clima e change on hei li elihoods and en i onmen . Gene ally,
he a me s saw he well-being o na u al sys ems as closely in e linked wi h hei
own li ing condi ions, in a sense no es ic ed o he economy. I bodies o wa e
an d y, his mean long walks in sea ch o wa e , which in u n dec eased he
ime a ailable o communi y de elopmen . Changes in he na u al en i onmen
included he disappea ance o li ing o ganisms such as plan s and mush ooms, less
wa e o animals, and diminishing soil nu ien s.
How can people eac o such changes in na u e and he eby in hei li es yles,
e en hei su i al? One possibili y is o y o adap . Much o he sus ainable
de elopmen discou se poin s in his di ec ion, and “ esilience”— e e ing o he
capaci ies o communi ies o li e h ough ex e nal shocks—has become a ashion-
able concep . Bu om he pe spec i e o indi idual a me s occupying a ma -
ginalized posi ion in he global economic sys em, possibili ies o adap a ion a e
limi ed. They could shi o o he economic en u es, an idea exp essed by many
a me s. Al e na i e li elihoods include oil palm plan a ion wo k, maize and cas-
sa a a ming, and o - a m ac i i ies such as ading o a isanal wo k such as
b icklaying and mason y (Anim-Kwapong and F impong, 2008). E en i cocoa
cul i a ion con inues, con inui y a he le el o indi idual a me s migh be e y
unp edic able. I has been es ima ed ha e en hough adap a ion measu es migh
allow Ghana’s cu en cocoa p oduc ion le el o be sus ained un il he 2050s, a m-
land in some a eas o he coun y may become unsui able (Bunn, Sch eye and
Cas o, 2018). Some analyses p edic a decline in he gene al p oduc ion le el
(O o i-Boa eng and Insah, 2014).
Howe e , he oppo uni ies and cons ain s wi h ega d o ac ing and adap ing
a e somewha unique in he case o o ganic a me s. O ganic a ming and label-
ling is clea ly one way o espond o he en i onmen al c isis, a means a ailable o
smallholde a me s, and e y much in line wi h he global sys em o sus ainable
de elopmen go e nance and ma ke ela ions. The in e iewed a me s exp essed
a de e mina ion o mi iga e clima e change ins ead o seeking o he subsis ence
s a egies. They men ioned ha in o de o p e en wa e sca ci y on hei a mland
and in hei communi y, hey we e plan ing ees and ege a i e co e o p o ec
bodies o wa e om d ying up. The plan ing o co e a he local le el posi i ely
e lec s he knowledge ha a o es a ion is one possible way o comba clima e
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