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Explo ing he No ma i e Founda ion o Jou nalism Educa ion : No dic Jou nalism
Educa o s’ Concep ions o Fu u e Jou nalism and P o essional Quali ica ions
© 2022 by he au ho s. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
Published e sion
Jaakkola, Maa i ; Uo ila, Panu
Jaakkola, M., & Uo ila, P. (2022). Explo ing he No ma i e Founda ion o Jou nalism Educa ion :
No dic Jou nalism Educa o s’ Concep ions o Fu u e Jou nalism and P o essional Quali ica ions.
Jou nalism and media, 3(3), 436-452. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/jou nalmedia3030031
2022
Ci a ion: Jaakkola, Maa i , and Panu
Uo ila. 2022. Explo ing he
No ma i e Founda ion o Jou nalism
Educa ion: No dic Jou nalism
Educa o s’ Concep ions o Fu u e
Jou nalism and P o essional
Quali ica ions. Jou nalism and Media 3:
436–452. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
jou nalmedia3030031
Academic Edi o : And eu
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Recei ed: 14 Feb ua y 2022
Accep ed: 12 July 2022
Published: 21 July 2022
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A icle
Explo ing he No ma i e Founda ion o Jou nalism Educa ion:
No dic Jou nalism Educa o s’ Concep ions o Fu u e Jou nalism
and P o essional Quali ica ions
Maa i Jaakkola 1,* and Panu Uo ila 2
1Depa men o Jou nalism, Media and Communica ion, Uni e si y o Go henbu g, P.O. Box 713,
SE-40530 Go henbu g, Sweden
2Depa men o Language and Communica ion S udies, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, P.O. Box 35,
FI-40014 Jy äskylä, Finland; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac :
This a icle deals wi h No dic jou nalism educa o s’ concep ions o jou nalism by placing
he concep o no ma i i y a he cen e . The alues, no ms and ideas conce ning jou nalism and
jou nalis ic p ac ice ha e p e iously been s udied by jou nalis s and jou nalism s uden s a ound he
wo ld and in he No dics, while he No dic jou nalism educa o s’ concep ions ha e emained mo e
o less wi hou a en ion. Ne e heless, jou nalism educa o s play a c ucial ole in de ining wha
jou nalism is and wha i is no , and hus la gely a ec u u e p ac i ione s’ ideas o jou nalism. Using
a ques ionnai e ha has been employed in p e ious s udies, jou nalism educa o s wi hin he academic
jou nalism aining in Denma k, Finland, Iceland, No way and Sweden (n= 115) we e su eyed in
e ms o hei concep ions. I was ound ha he jou nalism educa o s, o which 35 pe cen had a
doc o al deg ee, s ill la gely subsc ibe o he ideas o he wel a e s a e. In addi ion, he ideas o slow,
in es iga i e, cons uc i e and solu ions-based jou nalism ha e gained high popula i y among he
No dic educa o s, which, we a gue, do e ails well wi h he pedagogical aims o jou nalism educa ion.
Keywo ds:
jou nalism educa o s; jou nalism educa ion; jou nalis ic alues; p o essional iden i ies;
no ma i i y; he No dic coun ies
1. In oduc ion
This a icle ocuses on jou nalism educa o s’ no ma i e concep ions and u u e an ici-
pa ions o jou nalism. Jou nalism educa o s play a c ucial ole in de ining and media ing
he cen al ideas o jou nalism, p o essionalism and p o essional p ac ice o aspi ing jou -
nalis s. Jou nalism educa o s a e o a la ge deg ee in he posi ion o a ec ing s uden s’ ideas
o wha jou nalism is and wha i should be, o wha i is no and wha i should no be. In
his o he pedagogical ac i i ies, he indi idual educa o is, o cou se, bound by cu icula
and eache s’ communi ies, as well as ins i u ional s a egies and academic no ms. E en
he indus y and p o essional communi ies la gely a ec jou nalism s uden s, o example,
h ough in e nships and pedagogical collabo a ion on jou nalism cou ses. Howe e , i
is he jou nalism educa o who ypically deli e s he o e all ideas and summa izes he
accumula ed expe iences in o a amewo k ha he s uden s adop . Jou nalism educa o s
ha e hus always had he po en ial o being in luen ial no ma i e ac o s and changemake s.
While jou nalis s and news o ganiza ions, jou nalis ic cul u es, p o essional p ac ices
and jou nalism s uden s ha e been in ensi ely and sys ema ically s udied du ing ecen
yea s, jou nalism educa o s ha e no ecei ed much a en ion. The s udy o jou nalism
educa ion as an educa ional and academic p ac ice has become a dis inc s ain o esea ch
wi hin jou nalism s udies (see e.g., Deuze 2006;Josephi 2019;Solkin 2020). Jou nalism
educa ion e e s o he s udy p og ams ha ha e an objec i e o educa e u u e p o ession-
als; in his s udy, we ocus on academic ins i u ions wi hin highe educa ion. The deg ee
Jou nal. Media 2022,3, 436–452. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/jou nalmedia3030031 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/jou nalmedia
Jou nal. Media 2022,3437
p og ams wi hin jou nalism educa ion ha e pe manen s uc u es ha need o be o icially
accep ed o acc edi ed wi hin he s uc u es o highe educa ion, ollowing o mal cu icula,
in con as o jou nalism aining ha is a sho - e m, p ojec -based educa ion connec ed o
he wo k li e o employed jou nalis s. The No dic coun ies, wi h democ a ic socie ies wi h
adi ions o wel a e s a es, a e o e unne s in jou nalism educa ion. Jou nalism educa ion
was s a ed as ea ly as 1925 in Finland, which was also he i s No dic coun y o es ablish
a p o esso ship in newspape s udies in 1947.
In his a icle, we ocus on jou nalism educa o s in he No dic coun ies—Denma k,
Finland, Iceland, No way and Sweden. The No dic coun ies ha e been ound o ha e
many simila i ies wi h each o he . They ha e a s ong jou nalis ic p o essionalism, s a e
in e en ion, wel a e-s a e ideology and a high newspape ci cula ion and eade ship and
ha e adop ed he same ype o media sys em (Hallin and Mancini 2004) and jou nalism
cul u e (Ah a e al. 2017;Hani zsch e al. 2019) suppo ed by ela i ely simila sys ems
o jou nalism educa ion (Ho den e al. 2016). The e a e s udies ha ha e ocused on he
educa ional in as uc u es in he No dic coun ies, such as he s udy p og ams wi hin he
na ional educa ional sys ems in compa ison (e.g., Ho den e al. 2016;Te zis 2009;Nowak
2019), jou nalism cu icula (Jaakkola 2019) and cou se li e a u e (Jaakkola and Uo ila 2020).
In his a icle, ins ead o ocusing on he s uc u es o pedagogical con en s, we concen a e
on he ela ionship ha jou nalism educa o s ha e o hei objec o eaching and s udy,
jou nalism. This a ea o inqui y is o pa icula in e es because i esona es wi h he ecen
s udies o jou nalis ic cul u e and wo k, as well as s uden s’ concep ions o jou nalism.
We will begin by aking a look a he ecen academic esea ch on jou nalis ic cul u es
and jou nalism educa o s in he No dic coun ies, b inging hese wo a eas oge he . The e-
a e , we will desc ibe ou s udy design be o e going u he o he esul s o a su ey (see
Supplemen a y Ma e ials) conduc ed in he No dic coun ies.
2. P e ious Resea ch
Du ing ecen yea s, he ield o jou nalism s udies has been o ganized o s udy he
ideas o p o essionalism and p o essional cul u es. Jou nalis s’ p o essional iden i ies
and he alues in jou nalism cul u es ha e been ichly s udied, abo e all because o
ansna ional compa a i e esea ch p ojec s. Building upon he p e ious e o s o inqui e
in o he p o essional p ac i ione s’ iden i ies ac oss he globe (Wea e 1998;Wea e and
Willna 2012;Willna e al. 2013), he Wo lds o Jou nalism S udy (WJS) conduc ed a
numbe o c oss-coun y compa isons o he cen al dimensions o jou nalis ic cul u es
ac oss he wo ld (Hani zsch e al. 2019), including he No dic coun ies. The Jou nalis ic
Role Pe o mance p ojec (JRP) s udied jou nalis s’ ole concep ions, pe o mances and
enac men s (Mellado e al. 2017), p o iding a mo e global con ex o egional examina ions.
These p ojec s dissec ed he ana omy o he jou nalis ic p o essionalism and poin ed ou
di e ences in di e en pa s o he wo ld; hus, also ma king a place o he No dic
jou nalism cul u e (Ho den and Väli e onen 2021;Ah a e al. 2017) and p o iding
amewo ks o inqui ing in o s akeholde s’ iews on jou nalism.
Complemen ing he s udies o jou nalis s and jou nalis ic cul u es, jou nalism s uden s
ha e also been su eyed. The p ojec Jou nalism S uden s ac oss he Globe: P o essional-
iza ion, Iden i y and Challenges in a Changing En i onmen (JSG) conduc ed simul aneous
su eys o jou nalism s uden s om 2011 o 2015, explo ing hei in e es s and expe iences
(see e.g., Hanusch and Mellado 2014;Hanusch e al. 2015a,2015b). Toge he wi h na ional
ini ia i es, he s udy has led o inc eased in o ma ion on No dic jou nalism s uden s, in-
cluding hei p e e ed u u e a eas o wo k, in e es in di e en jou nalis ic bea s, p ac ical
wo k and in e nship expe ience, s udy mo i a ions and assessmen o u u e h ea s o
jou nalism (Ho den and Espe ås 2014;Mäenpää and Ah a 2017;S igb and and Nyg en
2013). The Ho dab ekka p ojec collec ed No dic educa o s and esea che s o su ey
jou nalism s uden s in Denma k (incl. G eenland), Finland, Iceland, No way and Sweden,
which esul ed in an an hology (Ho den e al. 2016). In addi ion, he impac o jou nalism
educa ion on s uden s’ socializa ion in o indus y p o essionals has been s udied in di e -
Jou nal. Media 2022,3438
en pa s o he wo ld (Jackson e al. 2020;Vasilendiuc and Su u 2021;Williams e al. 2018;
Hanusch e al. 2015a,2015b;Hanusch 2013;Rimes ad and G a engaa d 2016).
In his con ex , he s udies o jou nalism educa o s ha e no been ecen ly s udied
in he No dics. Sloan (1990) was among he i s o dedica e a en ion o jou nalism
educa o s as indi iduals wi h in luence in he jou nalis ic ield, a guing ha jou nalism
educa o s a e “c ea o s” who ha e played a c i ical ole in he making o he “media
mind”, hus ha ing hei own in ellec ual his o y and academic adi ion. D ok (2019)
su eyed Eu opean jou nalism educa o s, including ou No dic coun ies (Denma k,
Finland, No way, Sweden, n= 136, 11% o he sample) and used pa ly he same ques ions
used in he ques ionnai e o his s udy. Compa ed o he sample o he p esen s udy, he
esponden s om he No he n egion, which also included Es onia, we e sligh ly olde in
age, he a e age age being 50, and showed a highe pe cen age o PhD deg ees (43% s. 35%
in his s udy). D ok’s epo p o ides a de ailed analysis o how gende , age, educa ional
backg ound and geog aphical loca ion in luence he iews on di e en con inen s.
D ok’s (2014) p e ious s udy indica ed a high le el o consensus be ween jou nalism
educa o s and s uden s on he jou nalis ic quali ica ions ha jou nalis s- o-be should
possess o main ain he s anda ds o quali y jou nalism. Jou nalism educa o s ha e also
been su eyed wi h an aim o o ecas ing he 21s cen u y compe encies; Poyn e ’s epo
iden i ied 37 co e skills by su eying p o essionals, educa o s and s uden s abou hei
iews on u u e compe ences (Finbe g and Klinge 2014). In his epo , bo h p o essionals
and educa o s conside ed accu acy and cu iosi y o be he wo mos impo an quali ica ions
o a u u e jou nalis . In many cases, na ional educa ional p og ams ha e been compa ed
o each o he as mac o-le el sys ems (S igb and and Nyg en 2013) o jou nalism educa o s
ha e been s udied ins umen ally o wi h ega d o a speci ic opic (see e.g., Mu s ai o and
Bebawi 2019) a he han as a speci ic g oup o esponden s o an objec o s udy in hei
own igh .
In hei c ucial ole, academic jou nalism educa o s wo k as b oke s be ween he
p e ailing eali y whe e jou nalism is p oduced (indus y) and educa ion (uni e si y),
ansla ing he essen ials o jou nalism in o he sphe e o lea ning. As jou nalism deg ee
p og ams a e pa o highe educa ion, hey also need o ake he academic skills and
knowledge equi emen s in o accoun in his media ing o b idging ask. Indeed, many
jou nalism educa o s a he uni e si ies a e hackademics, p o essionals wo king as pa o
academia wi h a backg ound in he jou nalism indus y (Ha cup 2011). P ac ical expe ience,
especially in cou ses whe e s uden s a e expec ed o lea n jou nalis ic p oduc ion skills
in en i onmen s whe e he wo k in au hen ic news ooms is simula ed (see e.g., Jaakkola
2017b), is app ecia ed and o en a p econdi ion o unde s anding jou nalis ic p ac ice.
I can be assumed ha many jou nalism educa o s, a leas a he mo e p ac ical le el,
eel a s ong a ini y wi h he p ac i ione s, and balancing be ween he “ heo e ical” and
“p ac ical” dimensions has, he e o e, been one o he mos equen ques ions add essed
when sc u inizing jou nalism educa ion (see e.g., Jaakkola 2019).
As eache s a e mo e seldom o be ound in expe egis e s o se up public p o iles,
unlike esea che s, i is in e es ing o map he ield o jou nalism educa ion in he No dic
egion, asking who jou nalism educa o s a e, and how hey hink o jou nalism and i s
u u e de elopmen . In his s udy, we ocus on he jou nalism educa o s’ ela ionship
o jou nalism. I is a c i ical ela ionship, as jou nalism educa o s’ dema ca ions and
unde s andings o he e y de ini ion o jou nalism a e passed on o he u u e gene a ion
o p o essionals—e en i jou nalism educa o s a e no comple ely alone in his mission,
as s uden s also acqui e a signi ican pa o hei knowledge h ough in e nships and
socializa ion in o wo k communi ies.
3. No ma i i y o Jou nalism Educa ion
Ou basic assump ion ha we explo e in his a icle is he s a emen ha jou nalism
educa o s a e conduc ing hei wo k based on a no ma i e basis. No ms e e o he se s o
social ules, s anda ds and expec a ions ha bo h gene a e and egula e he p o essional
Jou nal. Media 2022,3439
in e ac ion and communica ion (Williams 1994, p. 206). No ma i i y has been obse ed as
impo an o jou nalism, as jou nalism has been de ined as a p o essional ideology ha
leans upon a dis inc se o alues, no ms and pe inen p inciples (Deuze 2005).
Jou nalism educa o s media e he no ma i i y o jou nalism by eaching s uden s
wha jou nalism is, how i di e s om o he o ms o communica ion and wha i should
no be. This way, jou nalism educa o s e lec he no ma i i y om he “ ield”, pu o wa d
by wo king p ac i ione s and he indus y (see also Deuze 2006). Howe e , he concep ion
o jou nalism and i s no ma i i y is no monoli hic and ension- ee, bu di e en sub ields
o jou nalism may pu s ess on di e en aspec s o jou nalis ic no ma i i y, and he e may
be in e nal ensions be ween jou nalis ic g oups and jou nalis s and o he wo ke s o he
ield, anging om he leade s o jou nalis ic o ganiza ions o ma ke e s and s a egis s
o jou nalism. Jou nalism educa o s hus need o cons uc an accumula ed concep ion o
he no ma i i y while pe cei ing he ield’s p e e ences and changes o hem. Jou nalism
educa o s a e, in o he wo ds, in he posi ion o de ining he no ma i e basis o jou nalism,
o how i is media ed o u u e jou nalis s. Jou nalism educa o s a e si ua ed in a double
ole: hey a e media ing p e ailing no ma i i y, bu also adjus ing and enewing i . As we
ha e a gued be o e, because o his in e media y ga ekeeping posi ion, i is impo an o
explo e he iews o jou nalism educa o s in ela ion o wha hey eel is impo an and
p e e able when i comes o he no ma i i y o jou nalism.
We sugges ha he no ma i e basis o jou nalism educa ion can be b oken down in o
h ee in e connec ed undamen al ca ego ies, which a e he ollowing:
1. The ideological ca ego y o no ma i i y: a i udes, no ms, alues, ideals, unc ions—
wha should jou nalis s do, acco ding o he jou nalism educa o s?
2.
The pe o mance ca ego y o no ma i i y: compe ences, wo k oles, wo k di e en ia-
ion—how should jou nalis s do i , acco ding o he jou nalism educa o s?
3.
The iabili y ca ego y o no ma i i y: an icipa ions abou he u u e no ma i e and
pe o mance ac o s o c ea e sus ainabili y—how should jou nalis s do i in o de o
ensu e a sus ainable u u e o jou nalism, acco ding o he jou nalism educa o s?
The ideological ca ego y se s he ounda ion o he p o essional jou nalis ic ideology un-
de lining he unc ions o jou nalism. Jou nalis s should “p o ide people he in o ma ion
hey need o be ee and sel -go e ning”, and he unc ion o jou nalism is based on he
ul illmen o his expec a ion (Ko ach and Rosens iel 2014). The ideals o he jou nalis ’s
ole a e mo e o less aligned o hese unc ions. The alues ha cons i u e he basis o
he e hical ules ha a e impo an in conduc ing he wo k a e es ablished in o no ms
ha newcome s o he ield a e socialized in o. Al oge he , his no ma i e amewo k
makes jou nalism in o he ideological en i y mani es in jou nalism cul u es and dis in-
guishes i om o he o ms o communica ion such as con en ma ke ing, blogging o
non- ic ion li e a u e.
The pe o mance ca ego y encompasses he desi ed and pu sued compe ences ha
e e y jou nalis , o a jou nalis wi hin a speci ic sub ield o jou nalism, should acqui e.
I also inco po a es a concep ion o ypical wo k oles and ole di e en ia ion in-buil in
news ooms’ wo k lows. A ele an ques ion ha can be iden i ied a he pe o mance
ca ego y o no ma i i y is wha new opics, jou nalis ic app oaches o gen es and wo k
oles should be inco po a ed in o jou nalism educa ion, which has been a equen opic o
deba e especially wi h ega d o new echnologies. The pe o mance ca ego y add esses
se s o cha ac e is ics, ea u es, pe sonal ai s, o abili ies ha a jou nalis should possess
o adop . A common e m used in his con ex is “quali ica ions” (Nowak 2009), also used
in ou su ey, ypically unde s ood as a mix u e o abili ies, a i udes and commi men s.
Compe ences a e seen as a speci ic se o ai s o ea u es ha he jou nalis possesses, and
hence, o become a jou nalis a pe son needs o be embedded in he exis ing s uc u es o
oles, iden i y models and wo k lows. To pu i di e en ly, jou nalis ic p o essionalism
can be decons uc ed by iden i ying he necessa y se s o skills, cha ac e is ics, abili ies
o p ocesses ypical o and desi able o jou nalis s and ans e ing hem o newcome s

Jou nal. Media 2022,3440
h ough socializa ion. The pe o mance ca ego y is s ongly in o med by an ideal ype o a
jou nalis , o a no ma i e igu e ha an aspi an needs o adop .
The iabili y ca ego y e e s o no ma i i y ou lining he u u e de elopmen o jou -
nalism based on an idea o jou nalism’s su i al. Jou nalis ic p ac i ione s, including
jou nalism educa o s, ag ee on he ac ha jou nalism needs o con inue exis ing and
ensu e i s u u e exis ence, o he wise i would be coun e p oduc i e and sel -des uc i e.
Jou nalism educa o s a e pa o he deba es conce ning jou nalism’s u u e and a emp
o ind ways o sol e di e en c ises ha jou nalism has been s a ed o ha e unde gone
du ing he ecen decades (Alexande 2015). In he No dic coun ies, he e ha e been a
numbe o e o s owa ds inc easing he sus ainabili y o jou nalism, such as he Sus ain-
able Jou nalism Pa ne ship ne wo k es ablished by he Fojo Media Ins i u e in Sweden,
suppo ed by he No dic Council o Minis e ’s ision o he No dic egion as “ he mos
sus ainable and in eg a ed egion in he wo ld in 2030” (No dic Council o Minis e s (NCM)
2021). The iabili y ca ego y connec s o he coun e -discou ses o jou nalism c isis.
As said, he h ee ca ego ies o no ma i i y a e in e mingled, o en suppo ing each
o he , bu hey can be help ul analy ical ca ego ies o dissec ing jou nalis ic ac ion and
s a emen s conce ning jou nalism o dis inguish di e en le els o no ma i i y. Iden-
i ying no ma i i y in jou nalism educa o s’ hinking and ac ions implies ecognizing
hei ole as ac o s o in luence in he jou nalism ecology, whe e jou nalism educa ion
ins i u ions ha e ypically been e med as ep oduc i e o he indus y (Mensing 2011;
Mensing and Ry e 2013).
4. Resea ch Ques ions
The aim o his s udy was o inqui e in o No dic jou nalism educa o s’ iews on
jou nalism and jou nalis ic wo k, ocusing on he no ma i e basis o he ways in which
jou nalism educa o s hink abou jou nalism. Ou esea ch ques ions ead as he ollow-
ing: Fi s , wha do No dic academic jou nalism educa o s concei e o jou nalism in e ms o he
no ma i e, pe o mance and iabili y ca ego y? Second, based on hei inside and in-dep h
knowledge in he ield, how do hey an icipa e he u u e de elopmen o jou nalism in e ms o
hese h ee ca ego ies?
As he na ional subsamples om each No dic coun y a e ela i ely limi ed, we o-
cused on he No dic a ea as an en i y ins ead o ying o dis inguish na ional cha ac e is ics
o educa ional cul u es, which ha e been explo ed om di e en pe spec i es in p e i-
ous s udies (Ho den e al. 2016). Unde s anding he di e ences be ween pedagogical
app oaches would need a sepa a e analysis ha could go deepe in o he de elopmen o
ins i u ional in as uc u es and adi ions. Ou ocus is hus dedica ed o he No dic jou -
nalism educa o s’ ela ionship o he jou nalis ic ield ha hey a e connec ed o h ough
hei educa ional ac i i ies.
5. Da a and Me hodology
The da a we e collec ed wi h an online su ey conduc ed in 2021 as pa o a global
su ey o jou nalism educa o s. The No dic coun ies Finland, Denma k (incl. G eenland),
Iceland, No way and Sweden we e included in addi ion o 29 o he coun ies. The sub-
s udies used he same ques ionnai e as he o he coun ies, a ailable in i e languages, bu
he s udy was conduc ed sepa a ely; he jou nalism educa o s we e in i ed o he s udy
by he au ho s o his a icle in he No dic languages, and he da a we e analyzed by he
au ho s. The ques ionnai e used, se up wi h he su ey ool CheckMa ke , was in English,
bu he jou nalism educa o s we e a ge ed in hei own na ional languages, p o iding a
na ional con ex o he s udy.
All he majo jou nalism schools wi hin highe educa ion in he No dic coun ies
we e selec ed (n= 26), based on hei membe ship in he No dic Collabo a ion Commi ee
o Jou nalism Educa ion (No dJou 2020) and Eu opean Jou nalism T aining Associa ion
(Eu opean Jou nalism T aining Associa ion (EJTA) 2020)
1
. Using he s a di ec o ies on he
ins i u ional webpages, in i a ions o employees in jou nalism s udy p og ams (n= 354)
Jou nal. Media 2022,3441
we e sen on 7 Janua y 2020. The ques ionnai e was a ailable un il 28 Feb ua y. Reminde s
we e sen a he end o Janua y.
The sha e o emales among he in i ees, based on he ins i u ions’ s a lis s, was
43 pe cen in Denma k, 55 pe cen in Finland, 25 pe cen in Iceland, 42 pe cen in
No way and 64 pe cen in Sweden. The ques ionnai e was c ea ed in a GDPR-complian
way by asking o he esponden s’ ac i e consen o pa icipa e in he s udy. In o al, we
ecei ed 115 esponses by he deadline, which co esponded o an accep able esponse a e
o 32 pe cen .
The e we e 31 esponden s (27%) om Denma k (incl. G eenland), 30 esponden s
om Finland (26%), 29 esponden s om Sweden (25%), 21 esponden s om No way
(18%) and 4 esponden s om Iceland (4%). The non- esponse a e a ied om ques ion
o ques ion be ween 0 and 13 pe cen (n= 15), which was because all esponden s who
s a ed answe ing he ques ions did no comple e he ques ionnai e; in his s udy, all ac ual
answe s we e aken in o accoun , which mean he o al numbe o eplies a ied. Among
he esponden s, 45 pe cen (n= 52) we e male, 39 pe cen (n= 45) emale and 3 pe cen
(n= 3) we e non-bina y o p e e ed no o answe . As o hei educa ion, 35 pe cen o
he esponden s (n= 40) had a doc o al deg ee, while 37 pe cen (n= 43) had a mas e ’s
and 11 pe cen (n= 13) a bachelo ’s deg ee.
Mos esponden s we e middle aged and hus ob iously mid-ca ee educa o s; 2 e-
sponden s (2%) we e 20–29 yea s o hei age, 9 esponden s (8%) we e 30–39, 35 espon-
den s (30%) 40–49 yea s, 32 esponden s (28%) we e 50–59 and 22 esponden s (19%) we e
olde han 60 yea s. Indeed, mos o he esponden s had a couple o yea s o p ac ical
expe ience om wo king as a jou nalis . Among he esponden s, 29 pe cen (n= 33) had
6–15 yea s o expe ience and one hi d we e e en mo e expe ienced, 23 pe cen (n= 26)
had 16–30 yea s o expe ience and 4 pe cen (n= 5) mo e han 30 yea s.
The majo i y o esponden s (n= 84, 73%) mainly augh jou nalism, while he e we e
also esponden s wi h a ocus on o he subjec s wi hin he media and communica ion
sciences; 12 esponden s (10%) mainly augh esea ch me hods, 10 esponden s (9%) media
and communica ion heo y, 2 esponden s (2%) languages and 7 esponden s (6%) some
o he subjec s. The majo i y o he esponden s (92, 80%) we e employed ull ime. Among
he esponden s, 7 esponden s (6%) we e wo king 60–80 pe cen and 16 esponden s (14%)
less han 60 pe cen pa ime.
6. Resul s
The ques ions add essed he no ms ela ed o jou nalis ic cul u es and daily wo k as
pe cei ed by jou nalism educa o s who a e in he posi ion o media ing hese no ms o
u u e jou nalis s.
The no ms deal wi h bo h ideals and p inciples, e lec ed in gene al s a emen s, and
wo k p ac ices mani es in desc ip ions o indi idual choices included in he news wo k.
The ques ions we e abou he jou nalis s’ posi ion in socie y, he asks ha p o essional
jou nalis s conduc ed, p o essional e hics and e hical p inciples, u u e di ec ions o he
de elopmen o jou nalism and he u u e quali ica ions and compe ence a eas o jou nalis s.
Many o he ques ions we e u u e-o ien ed, co e ing a pe iod o he nex en yea s. The
ques ions we e ollowed by a numbe o s a emen s ha he esponden s we e asked o
assess on a 5-poin Like scale, 1 e e ing o he lowes and 5 o he highes sco e. Nex ,
we will go h ough hese ques ions in a espec i e manne .
The i s ques ion buil upon he gene al concep ions o he p o essional oles o
jou nalis s, ancho ed in jou nalis ic cul u es. The s a emen was o mula ed as ollows:
“A jou nalis should
. . .
”, and i was in ended o examine he epis emological g ounds
o he idealized posi ion o jou nalis s in socie y in e ms o neu ali y and objec i i y.
Responden s could choose an answe o he 12 s a emen s shown in Table 1on a 5-poin
Like scale be ween s ong disag eemen and s ong ag eemen .
Jou nal. Media 2022,3442
Table 1. Jou nalis s’ posi ion acco ding o he esponden s (n= 111).
Jou nalis s’ Posi ion in Socie y M SD
a. Be a de ached obse e 3.54 0.94
b. P omo e social change 3.28 0.87
c. Remain s ic ly impa ial 3.36 0.98
d. In luence public opinion 3.01 0.95
e. Be a neu al dissemina o o in o ma ion 3.28 0.96
. Se he socio-poli ical agenda 3.19 0.99
g. Mi o eali y as i is 3.59 1.14
h. Repo abou posi i e de elopmen s in socie y 4.05 0.64
i. No le pe sonal belie s and con ic ions in luence epo ing 3.94 1.01
j. Be anspa en abou he wo king p ocess 4.58 0.61
k. Le ac s speak o hemsel es 3.51 1.08
l. Moni o and sc u inize he epo ing o o he news media 3.88 0.81
The p o essional p inciples o ealism, analysis, inclusi eness and de achmen ha e
been ound o be canonical in jou nalism cul u es a ound he wo ld (Hani zsch e al. 2019).
No dic jou nalis s ha e been ound o emb ace he de ached wa chdog obse e ole (Ah a
e al. 2017). Danish and Swedish jou nalis s ha e been ound o comply wi h moni o ial
ideals wi h a high adhe ence, while Finnish jou nalis s di e om Danish and Swedish
jou nalis s wi h hei mo e ma ke -o ien ed s yle and Icelandic and No wegian jou nalis s
a e cha ac e ized by a g ea e dis ance om poli ical in luences and poli ical oles (Ho den
and Väli e onen 2021).
In D ok’s (2019) jou nalism educa o s su ey, he No dic egion s ood ou in ela ion
o o he pa s o he wo ld in i s iews on how jou nalism should epo abou he posi i e
de elopmen s in socie y (h). E en he s a emen s on he anspa ency o wo king p ocess (j)
and moni o ing and sc u inizing o he media (l) we e suppo ed mo e highly in he No dic
egion han elsewhe e. These dimensions indica e ha he No dic jou nalism educa o s
exp ess a ini y wi h he ecen de elopmen o posi i e news o jou nalism (see e.g., Leung
and Lee 2015) and solu ions jou nalism (see e.g., McIn y e 2019), as a coun e ac ion o
he o e d ama iza ion, sensa ion-seeking mindse and he c isis and nega i i y bias in
co e age. They also emphasize he accoun abili y o media, in e ms o highligh ing he
impo ance o wo k p ocess anspa ency and he c i ical in es iga ion o he media, which
e e s o a s ong e hical commi men which is suppo ed by u he indings in his s udy.
The second ques ion deal wi h he ela i e impo ance o a numbe o unc ions ha
p o essional jou nalis s should pe o m. The s a emen ead as ollows: “Compa ed o
oday, in he nex en yea s he impo ance o he ollowing ask o p o essional jou nalis s
should become
. . .
”, and he esponden s we e asked o choose an answe acco ding o
whe he hey assessed ha he need o he compe ence would be much lowe , lowe , he
same as now o much highe . The esul s a e shown in Table 2.
The answe s unde line he need o comba ing he challenges o a pos - u h soci-
e y: he e i ica ion o ac s (b), suppo ing he disad an aged and ulne able g oups
o people (d) and he jou nalis ’s adi ional wa chdog ole in eac ing o socie al sho -
comings
( , i, o)
. The need o cons uc meaning and ele ance o ci izens (h, l, n) in
an inc easingly complex and u bulen media ed landscape is expe ienced as some hing
ha has o be s eng hened in he coming yea s. The jou nalis s’ ole as ga ekeepe s and
meaning-make s o public knowledge o suppo in o med ci izenship is hus some hing
ha jou nalism educa o s will con inue o emphasize. In hei c i ical ela ionship o so-
cie al eli es and knowledge, an app oach ha seems o be especially suppo ed by he
No dic educa o s is he jou nalis s’ abili y o poin people owa d possible solu ions o
socie al p oblems ( ). He e, he g adual impac o cons uc i e solu ions o slow jou -
nalism (Haage up 2017;Holmaas 2019;May 2020;Hau akangas e al. 2017), which has
gained g ound in he No dic coun ies du ing he ecen decade, can be seen in he ed-
uca o s’ a i udes. These iews do e ail wi h he iabili y ca ego y o no ma i i y, bu
Jou nal. Media 2022,3443
hey also e lec he dis inc ly No dic ype o jou nalism as seen in he ideological and
pe o mance ca ego ies.
Table 2. The u u e impo ance o jou nalis ic unc ions acco ding o he esponden s (n= 115).
Jou nalis ic Func ions M SD
a. Ge in o ma ion o he public quickly 3.08 0.71
b. S ay away om s o ies ha canno be e i ied 4.04 0.86
c. Moni o and sc u inize he go e nmen 3.65 0.69
d. S and up o he disad an aged 3.79 0.72
e. P o ide en e ainmen and elaxa ion 2.47 0.84
. Expose social abuses 3.73 0.71
g. Make as many s o ies as possible each day 1.74 0.79
h. P o ide analysis and in e p e a ion o cu en a ai s 4.12 0.73
i. Moni o and sc u inize business o ganiza ions 4.13 0.73
j. Gi e o dina y people a chance o exp ess hei iews 3.35 0.82
k. Concen a e on news ha will sell 2.32 0.87
l. P o ide in o ma ion ha people need o make poli ical decisions
4.04 0.70
m. Concen a e on b inging he la es news 2.8 0.65
n. P o ide in-dep h backg ound in o ma ion 4.19 0.62
o. Moni o and sc u inize ci il socie y o ganiza ions 3.72 0.70
p. Mo i a e people o ge socially in ol ed 3.58 0.79
q. T ea he public as consume s a he han ci izens 1.86 0.80
. Poin people owa d possible solu ions o socie al p oblems 3.86 0.72
No dic jou nalism educa o s a e also se o con es ime p essu e (a, g, m) and con-
sume ism (q, e, k). A majo i y o esponden s (79%) hough ha jou nalis s should no
deli e in o ma ion o hei public any quicke han now (a), and a la ge majo i y (88%)
also poin ed ou ha he end o inc ease he quan i y o s o ies ha an indi idual jou -
nalis c ea es should be opposed (g). Acco ding o 91 pe cen o esponden s, he pace o
b inging on he la es news should no inc ease. Wi h a majo i y o 89 pe cen , jou nalism
educa o s clea ly ag eed upon he s a emen ha jou nalis s should no ocus on making
mo e saleable con en , and 92 pe cen asse ed ha he people should no be p ima ily
ea ed as consume s o cus ome s. Dec easing he pace o jou nalis ic p oduc ion may,
howe e , be sligh ly con adic o y, as he jou nalism educa o s a he same ime empha-
sized he need o deli e in o ma ion o he public apidly, wi h 21 pe cen e en saying
ha jou nalis s should be quicke in he u u e han oday. Opposing he manage ial and
ad e o ial app oach “o he ma ke ing depa men ”— ha is, o hem a he han ou s—is
no hing adical wi h ega d o he p o essionalism ha essen ially builds upon building
jou nalis ic in eg i y wi hin news o ganiza ions by de aching jou nalis s om ma ke e s,
bu , as seen in ecen s udies om news ooms (Waldens öm e al. 2019), he nego ia ions
be ween jou nalis ic and manage ial, o “democ a ic” and “economic” issues, is o en
mo e sub le. As jou nalism educa o s a e ollowing he indus y, hey a e likely o adop
app oaches om he ield, bu a he same ime hey ha e su icien dis ance o oppose
such de elopmen s.
In he hi d ques ion, he ocus was di ec ed o he p o essional e hics in he con ex
o majo socie al issues. The ins uc ion ex said: “Conside an assignmen abou an
impo an economic opic gi en o a jou nalis . We would like o know whe he o no you
ind ha ce ain p ac ices a e accep able”. The answe s can be seen in Table 3.
Jou nal. Media 2022,3450
Mo e s udies a e needed o cap u e he quali a i e dimension o how he no ma i i y—
especially ha o he media y app oaches—is enac ed in ins uc ional designs, bo h in
heo e ical asks and in wo k simula ion in he aining news ooms. Especially when
i comes o he digi al domain, jou nalism educa o s do no necessa ily ha e a sha ed
amewo k, as he mos expe ienced educa o s migh no ha e wo ked in he digi alized
news ooms and online ou le s hemsel es and p ac ices end o be o ganiza ion-speci ic,
a ying om one news oom o ano he . Jou nalism educa ion ins i u ions also seem o
di e a lo wi h espec o he models hey employ, a ying in hei p ac ical o ien a ion o
each online jou nalism (see e.g., Jaakkola 2017b). In addi ion, a u u e ask o jou nalism
esea che s in e es ed in he s udy o jou nalism educa ion would be o in es iga e in mo e
de ail how jou nalism educa o s e balize media o y jou nalism app oaches and concei e
o hei pedagogical implica ions.
Supplemen a y Ma e ials:
The esul s o a su ey conduc ed in he No dic coun ies can be down-
loaded a : h ps://www.mdpi.com/a icle/10.3390/jou nalmedia3030031/s1.
Au ho Con ibu ions:
Concep ualiza ion, M.J.; me hodology, M.J. and P.U.; so wa e, M.J.; alida-
ion, M.J. and P.U.; o mal analysis, M.J.; in es iga ion, M.J.; esou ces, M.J.; da a cu a ion, M.J. and
P.U.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, M.J.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, M.J.; isualiza ion, P.U.;
supe ision, M.J.; p ojec adminis a ion, M.J. and P.U.; unding acquisi ion, P.U. All au ho s ha e
ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen :
The s udy con o med o he s anda d e hical p inciples. All
esponden s ga e hei consen o pa icipa e in he s udy and he da a we e hold anonymously.
E hical e iew and app o al we e wai ed, as he s udy did no in ol e sensi i e pe sonal da a.
In o med Consen S a emen :
In o med consen was ob ained om all subjec s in ol ed in he
s udy, and he da a collec ion was GDPR complian .
Da a A ailabili y S a emen :
The da a p esen ed in his s udy a e openly a ailable in he Swedish
Na ional Da a Se ice a h ps://doi.o g/10.5878/k13a-mx27.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
No e
1
The jou nalism schools included he Danish School o Jou nalism (DMJX), Uni e si y o Sou he n Denma k, Roskilde Uni e si y,
Uni e si y o G eenland (Denma k); Tampe e Uni e si y, Uni e si y o Helsinki, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Haaga-Helia Uni-
e si y o Applied Sciences, Tu ku Uni e si y o Applied Sciences, Oulu Uni e si y o Applied Sciences (Finland); Uni e si y
o Aku ey i, Uni e si y o Iceland (Iceland); Oslo Me opoli an Uni e si y (Oslome ), Sámi Uni e si y o Applied Sciences,
Uni e si y o Be gen, Uni e si y o S a ange , Uni e si y o Volda, NLA Uni e si y, No d Uni e si y (No way); Linnaeus
Uni e si y, Lund Uni e si y, Mid-Sweden Uni e si y, Söde ö n Uni e si y, S ockholm Uni e si y, Umeå Uni e si y, Uni e si y
o Go henbu g (Sweden).
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