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Jus ansi ion bounda ies : Cla i ying he meaning o jus ansi ion
© 2024 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie B.V.
Published e sion
Ko e mäki, Teea; Timme mann, C is ian; T ibaldos, The esa
Ko e mäki, T., Timme mann, C., & T ibaldos, T. (2025). Jus ansi ion bounda ies : Cla i ying
he meaning o jus ansi ion. En i onmen al Inno a ion and Socie al T ansi ions, 55, A icle
100957. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.eis .2024.100957
2025
Resea ch a icle
Jus ansi ion bounda ies: Cla i ying he meaning o
jus ansi ion
Teea Ko e m¨
aki
a,b,*
, C is ian Timme mann
c
, The esa T ibaldos
d
a
Depa men o Social Sciences and Philosophy, Uni e si y o Jy ¨
askyl¨
a, PO BOX 35, 40014 Jy ¨
askyl¨
a, Finland
b
School o Resou ce Wisdom, Uni e si y o Jy ¨
askyl¨
a, PO BOX 35, 40014 Jy ¨
askyl¨
a, Finland
c
Ins i u e o E hics and His o y o Heal h in Socie y, Medical Facul y, Uni e si y o Augsbu g, Uni e si ¨
a ss asse. 2, 86159 Augsbu g, Ge many
d
Cen e o De elopmen and En i onmen , Uni e si y o Be n, Mi els asse 43, 3012 Be n, Swi ze land
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
Jus ansi ion
Clima e jus ice
Biodi e si y
Plane a y bounda ies
Social minimum
Sus ainabili y ansi ions
ABSTRACT
The apid expansion o he public discussion and esea ch on jus ansi ion implies he isk o
wa e ing down ei he jus ice o he (eco-)socio- echnical ansi ion i sel . We c ea e a heo e ical
no ion o jus ansi ion bounda ies and p opose i o help conside non-nego iable limi s o jus
ansi ion discou se and make sense o nego ia ions wi hin such limi s. Jus ansi ion bounda ies
a e comp ised o ecological and social bounda ies. They de e mine ha jus ansi ion-p ocesses
mus b ing socie ies e ec i ely wi hin he sa e y h esholds o he wo mos c i ical plane a y
bounda ies, clima e change and biodi e si y loss, and mus do ha by means and suppo i e
measu es ha p o ec ulne able g oups om alling o ge ing s uck below social minimums in
hose p ocesses. Bounda ies lea e oom o plu al alues and isions o ealizing ansi ions and
emaining wi hin sa e h esholds in communi y-speci ic condi ions. Con ex -speci ic addi ions o
wha jus ansi ion should co e a e possible inso a as hey do no con adic o isk jus
ansi ion bounda ies. In addi ion o jus i ying and concep ualizing jus ansi ion bounda ies, we
e lec on i s implica ions o policymaking and esea ch.
1. In oduc ion
Disp opo iona e impac s o clima e change p esuppose clima e ac ion, alongside o he easons, o he sake o jus ice (McMichael,
2017). The epe cussions o clima e ac ions ha e igge ed ano he , addi ional call o jus ice. This call o jus ansi ion, enac ing
deca boniza ion in a jus way, is g ounded in clima e, ene gy, and en i onmen al jus ice (E ans and Phelan, 2016; He on and
McCauley, 2018; Newell and Mul aney, 2013) and aises ques ions ega ding he impac s o en i onmen al policies, hei sys emic
epe cussions, and ai ness in decision-making p ocesses. Jus ansi ion
1
has become he pa adigma ic discu si e amewo k and
poli ical idea o add essing social jus ice and socio-economic impac s ela ed o en i onmen al sus ainabili y ansi ions, especially in
clima e policy ela ed deba es and sus ainabili y ansi ion s udies. Making ansi ions jus p omo es he in insic alue o jus ice –
li ing in a wo ld ha is mo e jus o all, including hose in less p i ileged posi ions – and ins umen al alue, by acili a ing he
* Co esponding au ho .
E-mail add esses: [email p o ec ed] (T. Ko e m¨
aki), [email p o ec ed] (C. Timme mann), [email p o ec ed]
(T. T ibaldos).
1
Fo us, jus ansi ion (singula ) e e s o he o e all idea o jus ansi ion o he o ali y o sys emic changes (sys em-speci ic jus ansi ions in
ene gy sys ems, ood sys ems, e c.).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
En i onmen al Inno a ion and Socie al T ansi ions
jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/eis
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.eis .2024.100957
Recei ed 12 Decembe 2023; Recei ed in e ised o m 3 Oc obe 2024; Accep ed 9 Decembe 2024
En i onmen al Inno a ion and Socie al T ansi ions 55 (2025) 100957
A ailable online 15 Decembe 2024
2210-4224/© 2024 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie B.V. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY license
( h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ ).
bene i s o highe decision-owne ship, willingness o coope a e, and hus inc eased likelihood o success ul ansi ions.
Simul aneously, jus ansi ion esea ch has expanded widely. New explo a ions by esea che s, poli ical coali ions, and ci ic
mo emen s expand he unde s anding abou , bu also expec a ions o , jus ansi ion. While dis ibu i e, p ocedu al, and ecogni ion
jus ice ha e become es ablished dimensions o cla i ying he meanings o jus ansi ion, he ichness o jus ansi ion iewpoin s in
li e a u e has been desc ibed as ‘o e whelming’ (Coninx and de Rooij, 2022) and heo e ical-concep ual cla i ica ions as lagging
behind (Bane jee and Schui ema, 2022; c . He on and McCauley, 2018). In he sphe e o collec i e ac ion and poli ical nego ia ions,
he inc easing numbe o conce ns inc eases ensions be ween he en i onmen al and social aspec s (Ciple and Ha ison, 2019) and
compe ing claims and isions o jus ansi ion (Bane jee and Schui ema, 2022; Mu phy e al., 2022). Fo example, demands o be e
wages o compensa ion o economic losses may compe e wi h demands o making basic goods mo e a o dable. Showing espec o
di e se concep ions o he good li e wi h non-coe ci e policies (c . Fische e al., 2023) may con lic wi h co ec ing exis ing injus ices
by cu ailing he libe ies o p i ileged g oups, including he middle-class. T ans o ming p ac ices may c ea e expe ienced injus ice
(Kaljonen e al., 2021). Some o he compe ing in e p e a ions ha ness he concep o se e p i ileged in e es s (Moussu, 2020; Bain on
e al., 2021; Ala c´
on e al., 2022; Thomas 2021). Jus ice amings may ge dis o ed due o co-op a ion by powe ul s akeholde s who
oice hei in e es s so loudly ha he mos disad an aged and ulne able g oups emain unhea d (Malu e al., 2022), he emphasis o
social issues may be made a he cos o en i onmen al ambi ion (Hu unen e al., 2024), o he e may be concealings o disag eemen s
and ‘buying ime’ in en ions (Thomas 2021). Wang and Lo (2021, p. 8) conclude in hei concep ual e iew ha “… he e m [jus
ansi ion] has become ex ended, mul i ace ed, and o some deg ee p oblema ically polysemic, which lea es oom o con usion in
in e p e a ion”. Wi hou c i ical e lexi i y, he meaning-plen i ulness migh dilu e he concep o he poin o meaninglessness.
The e o e, c i ical and cla i ica o y esea ch app oaches ha wo k agains he unjus co-op a ion o slowing down o jus ansi ion
(e.g., Swilling and Annecke 2012; Swilling 2020; Bain on e al., 2021) a e much needed. Concluding ha ‘jus ansi ion is plu al and is
o be nego ia ed’ is, in ou iew, an insu icien eply om he esea ch communi y o he ques ion o wha jus ice in ansi ions is
abou (c . Wallack 2006). In his heo e ical esea ch, we add ess he a o emen ioned need o c i ical and cla i ying con ibu ions
abou he meaning o jus ansi ion(s) in he con empo a y wide sense (no only as a labou jus ice ques ion). Ou con ibu ion’s
no el y lies in ha we accomplish his in e ms o a limi s-based app oach ha d aws on Rawo h’s doughnu model. We p opose ha
he e a e non-nego iable elemen s, jus ansi ion bounda ies, wi hou which such a ansi ion would be a concep ual oxymo on: i
would be nei he jus no igge ac ual ansi ion. Jus ansi ion bounda ies de e mine he minimum con en s o any meaning ul idea
o jus ansi ion (o i s sub-domains, such as ood jus ice o in e species jus ice). Simul aneously, hey lea e oom o e hical plu alism
in nego ia ing and ealizing jus ansi ions in a ious geog aphical and socio-cul u al con ex s. We p opose ha he bounda ies-no ion
helps dealing wi h he compe ing jus ansi ion amings by highligh ing wha ma e s mos o make sys emic changes coun as jus
ansi ions.
We begin wi h heo e ical ema ks on he bounda y app oach (Sec ion 2). Then we p oceed o cons uc he no ion o jus ansi ion
bounda ies (Sec ion 3). Ou analy ical pe spec i e is g ounded in he doughnu model ha concep ualizes he h esholds o jus and
sus ainable economies (Rawo h, 2012; 2017a; 2017b). Beyond dis ibu i e jus ice bu linked o i , we also explo e how p ocedu al
jus ice and ecogni ion jus ice in ansi ions link o he bounda ies (Sec ion 4). Finally, we e lec upon he implica ions o jus
ansi ion bounda ies o ansi ions, policy planning and esea ch (Sec ions 5-6).
2. A bounda y app oach: be ween uni e salism and ela i ism
Cla i ying he meaning o jus ansi ion by seeking i s limi s conce ns bo h he meaning o he ansi ion and i s jus ice. F om bo h
p agma ic (ac ion-o ien ed) and no ma i e iewpoin s, bounda y-seeking cla i ica ions should help in assessing he jus i iabili y
2
o
a ious s a emen s - claims, s a egies, isions, and amings – ega ding jus ansi ion. Con en ional no ma i e poli ical heo y could
assess jus i ica ion by heo izing abou uni e sally jus s uc u es and ela ions. Howe e , decolonising sus ainabili y s udies and
no ma i e heo ising calls o mo ing “…away om a uni e salis philosophy o jus ice in gene al and clima e jus ice in pa icula ,
oo ed in No he n adi ions, and owa ds mo e di e se unde s andings o ‘clima e jus ice’” (Newell e al., 2021; see also ´
Al a ez and
Coolsae , 2020). This necessi a es a en ion o geog aphies, con ex uali ies, and ela ionships be ween people and hei
socio-ecological en i onmen s (Beh ens, 2010; Rawo h, 2017b; Rozzi e al., 2012), which easily ge neglec ed in uni e sal heo izing.
Ye , he o he ex eme is also p oblema ic: no ma i e ela i ism is he idea ha e e y hing in he meaning and goals o jus
ansi ion ough o be le o local communi ies, i.e. ha jus ice is ully up o place-speci ic nego ia ions. No ma i e ela i ism can be as
mis- ecogni i e as uni e salism by ep oducing dominan socie al no ms. Downplaying impac s o decisions on dis an communi ies
and u u e gene a ions, o example, has no been cen al o he p e iously dominan s a e- e i o ial amings o jus ice (F ase 2009).
Those impac s ha e also been ound o be lacking o sidelined in a leas some jus ansi ion s udies on s akeholde and public
pe cep ions (e.g., Hu unen e al., 2024). Hen y Shue (2014) a icula es ano he , mo e conc e e example o an inhe en ly con a-
dic o y idea o jus ice: demanding ha anyone sac i ice hei i al in e es s o enable o he s o ealize hei i ial in e es s is un ai .
Consequen ly, unless we accep ha jus ice can be abou he con inua ion o opp essi e ela ions, any idea o jus ice seems o call o
bounda ies o a oid alling in o ela i ism. Jus ice is o he wise concep ually pe mi ed o con adic i sel o o dismiss how people a e
cu en ly disp opo iona ely equipped and empowe ed o pa icipa e in de e mining wha jus ice means.
Simila challenges exis wi h he concep o ansi ion whe e ull ela i ism demands lea ing he meaning o sus ainabili y
2
The quali y o being jus i ied in e ms o g ounding a gumen s and assump ions.
T. Ko e m¨
aki e al.
En i onmen al Inno a ion and Socie al T ansi ions 55 (2025) 100957
2
ansi ions o any con ex -speci ic g oup o ac o s. I a jus ansi ion s a emen dis ega ds hose en i onmen al sus ainabili y a ge s
ha he scien i ic communi y has p oposed as c i ical o secu ing sa e human exis ence, ha idea o a ‘jus ansi ion’ con adic s he
undamen al meaning o jus ansi ion by e adica ing o dilu ing he c i ical ansi ion-elemen .
The abo e-desc ibed p oblem implies ha s a emen s o jus ice should be compa ible wi h a ce ain minimum idea o jus ice
acco ding o which jus i iable concep ions o jus ice canno con adic jus ice i sel o in ol e/assume he ep oduc ion o highly
opp essi e ela ions as ‘jus ’. Cla i ying he limi s o jus ice is a concep ual- heo e ical exe cise bu i also ela es o p ac ical demands.
Jus ansi ion can be also concep ualized in e ms o ideals o pe ec jus ice. Ideals help in iden i ying whe he A is mo e jus (close o
he ideal) han B bu say no hing abou minimum equi emen s. Consequen ly, assessmen s ha me ely ely on ideals as e e ence
poin s allow calling any inc emen al imp o emen a jus ansi ion. This would isk wa e ing down jus ansi ion in o ei he
‘g eenwashing’ o ‘social washing’.
Fo hese easons, we adop a non-ideal h eshold app oach o seek he jus i iabili y condi ions o a p ocess o coun as jus
ansi ion. Tha is, we aim o de ine he concep ual- heo e ical, no ma i e jus ansi ion bounda ies. Because bounda ies lea e oom o
di e se jus ice unde s andings and ansi ion pa hways, ou app oach ep esen s a midway be ween uni e salism and ela i ism.
Ou heo e ical wo k d aws on he doughnu model (Rawo h, 2017a; 2017b), an in luen ial in eg a ion o social and en i on-
men al limi s o sa e and jus economies. To ou knowledge ou wo k is he i s applica ion o he doughnu o jus ansi ion. Recen
wo ks ha e sough o quan i y he social h esholds o he doughnu (Rocks ¨
om e al., 2023) which igge ed some c i ical esponses
(Humph eys, 2023). These wo ks conce n he pu pose o sus ainabili y ansi ions: he impo ance and goals o achie ing he an-
si ion. We, ins ead, ocus on he quali ies o ansi ion-p ocesses ha a e designed o di ec socie ies owa ds ansi ion. T ansi ions
aise a di e en (e en i ela ed) se o ques ions han ou comes; i ha was no he case, he discussion on jus ansi ion (as some hing
sepa a e om gene al social jus ice) would be unnecessa y.
3. In eg a ing social and ecological bounda ies: he doughnu amewo k
The ‘doughnu model’ (Rawo h, 2017a; 2017b) has become an in luen ial concep ualiza ion o he h esholds o economic ac-
i i ies in socie ies ha aim o be jus and sus ainable. I eme ged as a beyond-GDP al e na i e o measu ing de elopmen and depic s
he social ounda ion and ecological ceiling be ween which all o humani y could lou ish. The ecological ceiling comp ises nine
plane a y bounda ies: clima e change; biosphe e in eg i y; land-sys em change; eshwa e use; biogeochemical lows; ocean acidi-
ica ion; a mosphe ic ae osol loading; ozone deple ion; and no el en i ies including chemical pollu ion (S e en e al., 2015). Social
ounda ion ac o s ha e been al e ed sligh ly ac oss sou ces. In a la ge s udy on he social sho all and ecological o e shoo o na ions
o e ime, Fanning e al. (2022) include wo measu es o well-being (li e sa is ac ion; li e expec ancy) and nine need sa is ie s
(nu i ion; sani a ion; income po e y; access o ene gy; seconda y educa ion; social suppo ; democ a ic equali y; equali y; and
employmen ). Th esholds o hese social minimums can be de e mined by indica o s such as calo ie supply and access o elec ici y
(Fanning e al., 2022; O’Neill e al., 2018).
The doughnu in eg a es social and ecological bounda ies as minimum condi ions o sa e and jus economies, o a jus and sus-
ainable space o co-exis ence (de ini ions a y sligh ly in hese e ms). In eg a ion implies se ing social minimums a a le el ha is
achie able o all wi hin ecological limi s (see also Rocks ¨
om e al., 2023). While o e ing and p o ec ing social minimums has
en i onmen al cos s, some ac ions also come wi h syne gies ega ding bo h bounda ies, including so-called heal h co-bene i s. Fo
example, deca bonizing anspo a ion by imp o ing public anspo and cycling/pedes ian in as uc u e can imp o e he heal h,
bu also well-being and pa icipa o y oppo uni ies, o he u ban poo (Ko e m¨
aki and J¨
a el¨
a, 2021), which a e o en e e ed o as
heal h co-bene i s. Due o i s in eg a ed app oach, he doughnu o e s a use ul model o discussing jus ansi ion bounda ies as well.
We will nex examine how o make he doughnu i depic ions o jus ansi ion ela ed, p ocess- ocused bounda ies.
3.1. Ecological ceiling: wha kind o change coun s as a ansi ion in ‘jus ansi ion’?
Poli ical philosophe Michael Wallack (2006) p oposes he p inciple o minimum i e e sible ha m o dis inguish be ween damages
ha can jus i iably be compensa ed o es o ed and ba ie s ha canno be jus i iably c ossed due o hei impac s on u u e gene -
a ions. This p inciple is in line wi h sus ainabili y ansi ions esea ch aiming o help esol e p essing en i onmen al challenges: he
ounda ions o sus ainabili y ansi ions a e g ounded in he impe a i e o a oiding i e e sible ha ms o jus ice and well-being.
3
The ecological ceiling o jus ansi ion e e s o he minimum condi ions o ansi ion-p ocesses o coun as en i onmen al sus-
ainabili y ansi ion(s). In jus ansi ion esea ch and discou se, clima e change mi iga ion is he s anda d en i onmen al ancho ing. In
he doughnu model, ecological ceiling ins ead comp ises nine plane a y bounda ies (including a mosphe ic composi ion) o sa e
human exis ence (S e en e al., 2015). The c ossing o sa e y h esholds o plane a y bounda ies g ea ly inc eases he isk o dis-
up ions ha h ea en en i onmen ally sa e and ela i ely s able condi ions o human well-being and de elopmen .
4
Clima e change and biodi e si y loss ha e been iden i ied as he mos c i ical plane a y bounda ies: unmi iga ed clima e change
will lead o uninhabi able condi ions on he plane (S e en e al., 2015, p. 8) and biosphe e in eg i y is essen ial o he p o ision o
3
We do no conside he e local le el ‘i e e sible ha ms’ (such as he cu ing o a single o es plo wi h ec ea ional local alue o c ea e space o
new esiden ial housing) because, i s , many o hem do no unde mine human well-being and jus ice in Wallack’s sense and because we conside
hem o be a ma e o en i onmen al jus ice mo e gene ally bu no necessa ily ela ed o ansi ions speci ically.
4
Beyond he sa e ope a ing space he e a e also ipping poin s a e which he ela ed biogeophysical p ocesses migh become i e e sible.
T. Ko e m¨
aki e al.
En i onmen al Inno a ion and Socie al T ansi ions 55 (2025) 100957
3
basic goods (Richa dson e al., 2023). Thus, de ining sus ainabili y ansi ion as deca boniza ion ha only includes low-ca bon
ansi ion could s ill lead o i e e sible, Holocene-ending ha ms esul ing om biodi e si y loss. The e is mo e sys em-dependen
a ia ion in he ele ance o he o he bounda y- a iables (e.g., nu ien and eshwa e use a e mo e cen al challenges in ood
sys ems han in ene gy p oduc ion). In addi ion, we a gue ha clima e change and biodi e si y loss a e su icien o de ining
ecological jus ansi ion bounda ies due o hei close links o o he c i ical plane a y bounda ies. Add essing clima e change and
biodi e si y loss oge he will also impac posi i ely on o he bounda ies. Fo example, e ec i e biodi e si y p o ec ion and es o-
a ion undamen ally changes ag icul u e: s opping la ge land con e sions and es o ing deg aded ecosys ems in ag icul u e will also
dec ease biogeochemical (nu ien ) uno s and eshwa e use (Pe ei a e al., 2018).
The i e e sible ha m p inciple implies ha o coun as a ansi ion, changes mus c ea e su icien e o s o b ing he sys em-in-
ansi ion below he sa e y h esholds o he wo co e plane a y bounda ies. Wha coun s as ‘su icien ’ depends on he geog aphical
and empo al scale o assessmen . The IPCC, IPBES, and scien i ic epo s assess he equi ed ha m educ ions o di e en imelines
and sec o s. Na ional, egional, and ene gy/mobili y/ ood sys em-speci ic a ge de e mina ion alls o ac o s a he esea ch-policy
in e ace such as na ional clima e change panels.
5
We highligh ha es ima ing he equi ed ex en and pace o ansi ions should
use he bes scien i ic knowledge a ailable.
I e e sible en i onmen al ha ms imply injus ices by unde mining he p econdi ions o well-being. Ch onic clima e ins abili y
wi h ex eme hea wa es, d ough s, and mig a ing disease ec o s, such as mosqui os, dep i es people o basic sa e y and dis up s hei
access o ood, ene gy, and wa e al eady, pa icula ly in Sub-Saha an A ica. An h opogenic en i onmen al changes alongside social
ac o s also d i e he pe manen loss o indigenous ways o li e, leading o biocul u al homogeniza ion ha is ha dly e e sible (Rozzi,
2012). In such cases, e en local habi a losses may cons i u e i e e sible ha ms ega dless o whe he some can escape he pligh by
mig a ing (Pa ks and Robe s, 2006). En i onmen al ha ms may also become i e e sible wi h smalle changes ha agg a a e o e
ime: e e -deg ading social-ecological condi ions may e adica e he capaci y o people o adap o and esol e u he challenges. Fo
example, po e y, disease, and malnu i ion c ea e icious ci cles and consequen aps o li elong po e y (Sapko a e al., 2021) and
i e e sible ha m. Poo die s make people p one o illnesses and he eby missing wo k and/o becoming poo e due o medical
ea men cos s. This educes hei capaci y o acqui e heal hy ood, which wo sens illnesses and inc eases he likelihood o amily
membe s becoming ill o impo e ished. The cu en pligh e en leads o selling o li elihood asse s and sa ings o sho - e m su i al.
Clima e change and biodi e si y loss will inc ease he numbe o ha med people and agg a a e hei pligh o e ime (Pe kins, 2018).
The ecological ceiling and i s g ounding in he a oidance o i e e sible ha m makes jus ansi ion a concep wi h a sense o
u gency: i sus ainabili y ansi ion does no happen wi hin a ce ain ime ame, chances o jus ansi ion may be los . I could be
ei he impossible o e u n o a sa e ope a ing space o humani y, o possibili ies o make he equi ed ansi ion e en minimally jus
a e los due o he need o an o e ly adical ansi ioning pace.
3.2. Social minimums: wha makes a ansi ion un/jus ?
When applied o jus ansi ions, he social bounda y o he doughnu model asks abou he minimum condi ions o ansi ions o
coun as jus . The doughnu has i s social ounda ion in human igh s (Rawo h, 2012) ha enable humans o lead and li e hei li es o
digni y and oppo uni y. As human igh s a e based on in e na ional ag eemen , sus ainable de elopmen should o e ime p oduce
sus ainable, p ospe ous ul ilmen o human li es ollowing he p inciple o p og essi e ealiza ion (c . Bei z, 2009). Basic igh s
comp ise pe haps he mos elemen a y o m o sa egua ding a social minimum. They a e igh s o undamen al goods which a e needed
o a heal hy li e wi hou which humans a e unable o enjoy o he ins i u ionalised igh s (Shue, 1996). Fo ins ance, ch onically
hung y people a e unlikely o be capable o making good use o hei poli ical igh s.
Se ing he social minimum h eshold oo low, such as me ely access o ood, wa e , shel e and basic medicines o su i al and no
ge ing ill, is s ongly c i icised. One conce n is de e io a ing s anda ds o e ime: basic igh s can only be sus ainably secu ed i people
can meaning ully pa icipa e in poli ical decision-making (Shue, 1996). This, howe e , also equi es su icien access o educa ion and
in o ma ion, and ins i u ionalised p inciples o social equi y, eedom o associa ion, and poli ical oice (c . Rawo h, 2017b). The
same poin highligh s how ma e ial dis ibu ion is linked o in/equali y in poli ical pa icipa ion: weal h inc eases one’s abili y o
ansla e inancial esou ces in o poli ical powe , whe eas o poo people he cos o ac i e poli ical pa icipa ion can be unbea ably
high (Robeyns, 2017). Mo eo e , ba ely coping people a e ex emely ulne able o en i onmen al and socie al dis up ions and unable
o plan o imp o e hei li e on hei own means by aking easonable isks (Hausho e and Feh , 2014). Hence, he Uni ed Na ions has
wa ned agains minimalis ic in e p e a ions ha may jeopa dize ealizing human igh s (UN Commi ee on Economic Social and
Cul u al Righ s, 1999). Fo example, he igh o ood equi es bo h mee ing nu i ional needs and lea ing oom o ce ain
non-nu i ional p e e ences ela ed o cul u al and eligious alues (oppo uni y o ea well despi e abs aining om ce ain oods).
Al hough human igh s ha e been c i icized as a Wes e n idea, based on nonuni e sal indi idualis human concep ions (Cobbah,
1987), adhe ing o he igh s-g ounded social minimums does no necessi a e adhe ing o he ins i u ionalized human igh s language.
Simila basic needs and needs- ela ed goods a e also cap u ed wi h pe spec i es ocused on human digni y (Cobbah, 1987; also
Nussbaum, 2011). Likewise, digni y-based concep ions o decen social minimums mani es , o example, in he Con ucian pe spec i e
on he uni e sal igh o heal h (Fan, 2016), A ican iews on communal esponsibili ies (Cobbah, 1987), and he wellbeing o people
and hei su oundings elying on ela ional on ologies in Andean wo ld iews (Sax, 2015). The e a e a ious ways in which people can
5
O he plane a y bounda ies may p o ide impo an addi ional sys em-speci ic objec i es in ood, ene gy, and mobili y ansi ions.
T. Ko e m¨
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4
jus i y wha hey owe o each o he and how o o ganize socie y so ha social minimums a e secu ed, pa icula ly a communi y le els,
and o make hese socie al a angemen s compa ible wi h local socio-en i onmen al condi ions.
We dis inguish h ee sha ed co e elemen s among he e o s o de e mine human igh s based social minimums. Fi s , mos ag ee
on p o iding goods ha allow people o li e and co e basic ma e ial and imma e ial needs. Second, mos ag ee ha people should
ha e possibili ies o imp o e hei si ua ion h ough hei own means (sel -de e mina ion and agency). Finally, he p inciple o
democ a ic pa icipa ion is widely accep ed. These link o he h ee mos common and in e linked jus ice dimensions in jus ansi ion
s udies: dis ibu i e, p ocedu al, and ecogni ion jus ice (Wang and Lo, 2021). The i s and second elemen s la gely conce n
dis ibu i e jus ice, including he p o ision o basic condi ions o being able o pa icipa e poli ically (as we no ed abo e) alongside
he ecogni ion o agency. The hi d elemen , p o ec ing he au onomy-suppo ing and choice-enabling spaces, makes oom o alue
plu alism, a widely accep ed demand o p ocedu al jus ice (Schlosbe g, 2007; Williams and Doyon, 2019; Wang and Lo, 2021) and is
closely linked o ecogni ion jus ice o make pa icipa ion meaning ul (Schlosbe g, 2007).
Rawo h’s social minimums can be linked o a needs-based heo y o wellbeing (Gough 2017) ha names heal h and au onomy as
he undamen al basic needs and associa es he ollowing need sa is ie s o hem: adequa e ood and wa e ; housing; sa e en i on-
men al condi ions; heal hca e; basic educa ion; su icien secu i y; he possibili y o o m signi ican ela ionships; and ep oduc i e
sa e y. Ye need sa is ie s highligh how dis ibu i e jus ice alone is insu icien o jus ansi ions (c ., So acool e al., 2019). This is
exempli ied by he need o au onomy. P ocedu al jus ice is cen al o sa is ying au onomy- ela ed needs (Gough, 2017, p. 43) and
accoun ing o di e en ial suppo -needs and coope a ion oppo uni ies in ansi ions, while su icien dis ibu i e jus ice is a p e-
equisi e o ealizing p ocedu al jus ice (c . Robeyns 2017). Au onomy also equi es ecogni ion by pee s and ins i u ions as an
au onomous and digni ied communi y membe , whose po en ial o con ibu e o hei communi ies and beyond can be s eng hened
ins i u ionally (Timme mann, 2018). These aspec s also highligh he impo ance o ha ing oppo uni ies o u u e-planning and
imp o ing one’s si ua ion, ac i i ies inhe en in human na u e (S ein o h, 2009). Rawo h (2017b) also no es he impo ance o
meaning ul ela ionships, poli ical oice, and capaci y building by educa ion. The in e winemen o dis ibu i e, ecogni ion, and
p ocedu al jus ice – he e canno be he i s wi hou he la e wo – is exempli ied h oughou en i onmen al jus ice li e a u e (see, e.
g., Schlosbe g 2007 and Why e 2017 o men ion bu a ew examples).
Consequen ly, we conside ha he con en s and h esholds o social minimums a e mos meaning ully de e mined as (1) including
he uni e sal need sa is ie s (see abo e) o a heal hy and digni ied li e as an au onomous agen ( he con en s); (2) ha ing enough o
p oduce o acqui e need sa is ie s o e ime o enable planning ahead and imp o ing one’s si ua ion ( he h eshold); and (3) ha ing
igh s and esou ces ha enable exe cising agency ia meaning ul ela ionships and democ a ic pa icipa ion ( he empowe ed com-
muni y). We add ess he addi ional ye ela ed p ocedu al and ecogni ion aspec s in Sec ion 4.
Social minimums se bounda ies below which he en i onmen al sus ainabili y ansi ion-p ocesses mus no push communi y
membe s. The amewo k we p opose ocuses on minimums, ye sa egua ding he ma e ial aspec s o he minimum in he wo ld o
sca ce esou ces necessa ily aises ques ions o also se ing maximums wi hou which he minimums canno be secu ed o he mos
dep i ed (Hickey 2023). The implica ions o “uppe limi s” o limi a ianism o jus ansi ion and gene ally heo ies wo king wi h
no ions o su iciency need u u e esea ch.
Na ion-s a es possess unique edis ibu i e capaci ies (e.g., Rou ledge e al., 2018) and a e bo h in legisla i e and mo al e ms
obliged o espec , p o ec , and ul il he igh s ela ed o social minimums. Na ion-s a e capaci ies also apply o labou and li elihood
issues ha a e one ele an aspec o jus ansi ions (e.g., Jenkins e al., 2020). Righ o adequa e wo k and jus emune a ion ma e
o social minimums since wo k is usually he p ima y way o acqui ing esou ces o mee ing and su passing he social minimums. The
p ecise s anda d o li ing, ma e ial goods and social se ices equi ed o achie ing social minimums, is no uni e sal: he combina ion
o en i onmen al policies, social and public policies and social se ices, ma ke condi ions, u ban design, and communi y ela ions
in luence he equi emen s o eaching and s aying abo e he social minimums (De Schu e , 2024). Fo example, he pu chasing
powe needed o secu e a heal hy die depends on ma ke ac o s bu also local policies ha allow sa is ying needs ou side ma ke s by
suppo ing access o he means o p oduc ion (such as encou aging u ban ga dening by p o iding sui able allo men s) o p o iding
o he ele an public se ices. O he wise disp opo iona e impac s o ulne abili ies can be alle ia ed wi h social policies bu also
capaci y building (Ko e m¨
aki and J¨
a el¨
a, 2021). Fo ins ance, ood educa ion suppo s he engagemen o less- esou ced indi iduals
in die a y ansi ions (Kaljonen e al., 2021). Knowledge exchange on sus ainable ea ing and communal cooking can help in sa ing
esou ces, acqui ing mo e sus ainable ood habi s and ein o cing communi y ne wo ks (Vi e o-Pol e al., 2018). School meal p o-
g ams can simul aneously sa is y needs and p omo e ansi ion capaci ies (Kaljonen e al., 2021). S eng hening he adap i e capaci ies
o less esou ced ac o s can also speed he pace in which ansi ions can be implemen ed jus ly. Suppo ing he agency and oppo -
uni ies o people o imp o e hei si ua ion by hei own means ( ecogni ion jus ice) and collec i ely plan ways o wa d (p ocedu al
jus ice) can, hus, imp o e jus ansi ion.
In mos concep ions o jus ice, many ansi ion bu dens such as economic cos s become unjus only a e exceeding ce ain
h esholds (e.g., Nussbaum, 2011).
6
The social minimum iewpoin de e mines his h eshold. In social wel a e s a es, he ma e ial
aspec o social minimums usually has a h eshold ied o wel a e paymen s and se ices linked o conc e e (and possibly pa ly
democ a ically ag eed) s anda ds o claimable goods and se ices (e.g., household appliances, public anspo , heal h ca e, pa ic-
ipa ion in cul u al li e) as a pa o social minimum. Howe e , s anda ds may be close o he ‘su i al le el’. Jus ansi ion, acco ding
6
Mos heo ies o jus ice (excep o s ic egali a ianism) do no demand a s ic egali a ian dis ibu ion o he cos s and bu dens o ansi ions.
Ci izens a e expec ed o shoulde ce ain i egula i ies in he dis ibu ion o cos s and nuisances o he ad ancemen o socially desi able a ge s,
inso a as hese a e no excessi e.
T. Ko e m¨
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5
o bounda ies app oach, equi es keeping social minimums a a le el ha enables people o pa icipa e socially and plan and imp o e
hei li e. Such social minimum h esholds a e poli ically qui e demanding ye achie able. P og ams suppo ing he ein eg a ion o
ci izens in labou ma ke s and o e ing public spaces o communi y o ganisa ion a e good examples o se ing he social minimum
h eshold highe . O e all, social minimums (conc e ized ia need sa is ie s), including s uc u es ha suppo au onomy and
pa icipa ion, comp ise a meaning ul in e p e a ion abou he non-nego iable minimum condi ions o jus ice in ansi ions, wi h
ela ion o he impac s o he ansi ion on indi iduals and communi ies.
4. Wha ole o p ocedu al and ecogni ion jus ice?
P ocedu al jus ice is pi o al o jus ansi ion (e.g., Newell and Mul aney, 2013; Rou ledge e al., 2018; Williams and Doyon, 2019)
and is linked o ecogni ion jus ice. Bo h play a key ole when communi ies decide abou he ac ions o ake om he plu ali y o
op ions ha help sys ems ansi ion o ge wi hin he ecological bounda ies. They a e needed o choose he means o enac ing jus
ansi ion in a ied con ex s and o c ea e he pa h o b ing plu alis goals ( hose ha go beyond social minimums) in o jus ansi ion
p ocesses. Addi ionally, as no ed ea lie , social minimums p esuppose igh s and esou ces ha enable exe cising agency ia mean-
ing ul ela ionships and democ a ic pa icipa ion. The connec edness o jus ice dimensions discussed ea lie means ha ully
au ho i a ian ansi ions, e en i hey me ecological goals and p o ided ma e ial social minimums e ec i ely, would no coun as jus
ansi ions. Howe e , he poli ical na u e o jus ansi ions calls o discussing he ole o p ocedu al jus ice wi h ela ion o he
bounda ies.
To mee p ocedu al and ecogni ion jus ice demands, ansi ion p ocesses should ensu e (his o ically) unde ep esen ed oices an
oppo uni y o be hea d in decision-making, be ecognized as pee s wi h hei own iews and agency, and o be in ol ed in decisions
di ec ly a ec ing hem – an issue much discussed wi h ela ion o en i onmen al jus ice and indigenous communi ies. Powe ul ac o s
ha e al eady c ea ed s ong na a i es a ound p e e able solu ions and, hus, ge hei in e es -d i en claims easily spo ligh ed in
public discou ses (e.g., Healy and Ba y, 2017; Malu e al., 2022). This would equi e dis ibu i e jus ice measu es since ma e ial
weal h agg ega es inequali ies in poli ical powe (Robeyns 2017). While u gency and p ocedu al inclusi eness may con lic (Ciple and
Ha ison, 2019), neglec ing p ocedu al and ecogni ion jus ice likely leads o less go e nable ansi ions whe e capi al se s i s e ms
(Newell and Phillips, 2016) wi h cul u ally and socially inadequa e in e en ions and ailing o ecognize non-commodi ied solu ions
(De Schu e , 2024). Such ansi ion pa hways also isk he social minimums o dis an pa ies by, o example, no egula ing
in ensi ied ex ac ion o clean echnology ha a ec s indigenous and u al li elihoods and dis an ecosys ems (Newell and Mul aney,
2013).
P ocedu al jus ice in jus ansi ion calls o public delibe a ion ha can be seen as he sea ch o he common good o socie y
(F eeman, 2000), e en hough such a common good may be pa ial and comp omised (Pa e son, Feola and Kim 2024). Delibe a ion
ope a es a mul iple le els, escaling he s a e in o a pla o m ha ampli ies local ini ia i es and media es be ween local and in e -
na ional p ocesses o ansi ions (Rou ledge e al., 2018). Engaging in ho ough delibe a ion on how o implemen jus ansi ion
opens oppo uni ies o deba ing and nego ia ing socie al goals, pu ing indi idual p e e ences in pe spec i e wi h ela ion o solida i y
and social cohesion. I is use ul o unde s and delibe a ion mo e widely han as discussing oge he : ci ic mo emen s and ne wo ks, o
example, a e ele an pa icipan s in delibe a i e p ac ices, ying and seeking new o ms o social o ganiza ion o mo e sus ainable
solu ions (Hu unen e al., 2022). Collec i e delibe a ion on he ma e ial implica ions and social o ganisa ion o social minimums
necessi a es ensu ing he ep esen a ion o less powe ul ac o s and keeping he ecological ceiling in sigh . This pe spec i a ion helps
‘calib a e’ he subjec i e pe cep ions o jus ness by inc easing sensi i i y o he si ua ion o o he s (Solum, 2004) wi h po en ial o
alle ia e some o he ensions be ween compe ing in e es s. Mo eo e , he bounda ies pe spec i e suppo s shi ing he p ocedu al
ealm om co-p oduc i e igidi y, whe e ensions hinde ans o ma ions, o co-p oduc i e agili y, whe e ensions enable ans-
o ma ions (Chambe s e al., 2022; see also Pa e son, Feola and Kim 2024).
Delibe a ion wi h a socie al pe spec i e is c i ical o implemen ing e ec i e clima e and biodi e si y ac ion. This equi es
undamen al e lec ions on he dominan economic models, wha kinds o goods a e ele an o well-being, and which economic
unc ions do no se e b oade socie al goals (e.g., Pa el e al., 2017). Jus ansi ion bounda ies can se e as guiding ins umen s o
such delibe a ion as b idging elemen s be ween mo e ex eme posi ions. Acknowledging he ole o local communi ies in p omo ing
he common good migh simul aneously al e cu en wo ld iews, challenging hype -indi idualized socie ies and he domina ion o
capi alism (Rou ledge e al., 2018). While jus ansi ion bounda ies do no equi e a jus ansi ion o imply ull-scale economic
ans o ma ions bu ocus on ge ing in o a sa e ope a ing space, jus ansi ion p ocesses should be suppo i e owa ds mo e ho ough
socie al and economic ans o ma ions o e ime.
P ocedu al jus ice, linked o ecogni ion jus ice, also con ibu es o mo e sus ainable and equi able well-being in ansi ions.
Pa icipa o y engagemen o collec i e en i onmen al ac ion o e s immedia e bene i s o pa icipan s, such as building and
exchanging skills and know-how and he sense o meaning ul pa icipa ion and ela edness (c . Hea h, 2006). This suppo s psycho-
logical well-being and ela es o he expe iences o compe ence, ela edness, and au onomy (Gough, 2017; Ryan and Deci, 2022),
which a e nu u ed by collabo a i e ac ion. The collec i e delibe a ion abou he common good and he good li e is also impo an o
suppo he au onomy-aspec o social minimums. Au onomy is cu en ly e oded by adap i e p e e ences: dep i ed people downg ade
hei expec a ions while he weal hies ge habi ua ed o a high s anda d o li ing, which e odes hei capaci y o e hink and e ise
hei concep ions o he good li e and a ec s he demands ha ma ginalized people se on poli ical sys ems (Zwa hoed, 2023). Thus,
p ocedu al and ecogni ion jus ice os e ansi ions’ jus ness also by inc easing he sel -de e mina ion ela ed (imma e ial) aspec s o
human well-being. The poin in making ansi ions p ocedu ally jus and ecogni i e is, hus, also o help communi ies de elop hei
sel -de e mina ion, sel -unde s anding, and he eby pa e he way o deepe ans o ma ions (c . Rou ledge e al., 2018).
T. Ko e m¨
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6
De e mining minimum h esholds o p ocedu al jus ice is no easible e en i philosophically backed p ocedu al jus ice p inciples
help o see ele an con en s. Conc e e h esholds o su icien ly hea ing oppo uni ies, o example, depend on socio-his o ically
unique ins i u ional se ings ha a y g ea ly ac oss poli ical sys ems. He e we also need o ecognize inadequa ely add essed his-
o ical injus ices ha may discou age membe s o ma ginalized communi ies om oicing hei in e es s and con ibu ing o decision-
making o ums. Mo eo e , as clima e change and biodi e si y a e such u gen ma e s, accep ing some p ocedu al un ai ness migh be
necessa y o a oid he ca as ophic consequences o u he delaying ac ion (c . S emplowska, 2016). Thus, p ocedu al jus ice com-
p ises he ealm o expe imen ing and lea ning by doing wi hin ecological and social bounda ies. Lea ning migh la e enable spec-
i ying he minimum condi ions o jus p ocedu es.
5. Implica ions o he jus ansi ion bounda ies
Acco ding o jus ansi ion bounda ies (Fig. 1), jus ansi ion equi es ansi ion p ocesses ha e ec i ely b ing communi ies
wi hin clima e change and biodi e si y ela ed plane a y bounda ies. Alongside ha , o he policy and communi y measu es a e
needed ha p o ec people om alling o ge ing s uck below social minimums due o ansi ions o agg a a e in e sec ional injus ices
agains hese g oups. Bounda ies p opose he minimum condi ions o any meaning ul in e p e a ion o jus ansi ion. The bounda ies
imply a no ma i e s ance ha , in he una oidable ade-o s in he cou se o ansi ions (Newell e al., 2022), p io i y mus be gi en o
ensu ing ha bounda y condi ions a e no comp omised. Beyond hose, bounda ies lea e oom o communi y-speci ic in e p e a ions
abou con en s o jus ice and means o ealizing jus ansi ions. Howe e , he bounda y amewo k sugges s ha such pa hways
canno eside ou side he bounda ies. Thus, he bounda ies app oach bene i s jus ansi ion planning and implemen a ion by helping
e alua e he jus i iabili y o s a emen s made o jus ansi ion. Jus i iabili y equi es ha isions, pa hways, and policy p oposals a e
in line wi h bo h bounda ies e en i hey do no need o add ess all aspec s explici ly.
7
This p omo es ‘ne jus ice’, o e all jus ice ac oss
space (Ba nes, 2022), while also ensu ing ha nobody loses eno mously in absolu e e ms.
8
Bounda ies call a en ion also o he global impac s o ansi ion pa hways and isions, such as impac s o he ansi ion on he
communi ies’ con ol o e hei na u al esou ces and in e na ional eloca ion o li elihood oppo uni ies (e.g., Bane jee and
Schui ema 2022; Swilling 2020). Economies dependen on expo ing hose goods whose ma ke s will g ea ly change wi h ansi ions,
such as ossil uels o a e me als o ossil- ee echnologies, a e pa icula ly ulne able. Because ha ms may s em om ade o
go e nmen al ela ions wi h any ade pa ne , single na ion-s a es can p o ec dis an people(s) only by collabo a ion: s eng hening
global ins i u ional coo dina ion o add ess dis an ansi ion impac s. Fo example, UNFCCC-based p ocesses can con ibu e o
alle ia ing geog aphically unequal ansi ions by knowledge and good p ac ice exchange (Jenkins e al., 2020) and by economic
edis ibu ion upon ag eemen (as in he case o adap a ion unds), while na ion- and ede a ion-le el policies o edis ibu ion,
capaci y building, and social p o ision can secu e minimums a household le els. A cosmopoli an pe spec i e on bounda ies en-
cou ages seeking measu es ha simul aneously suppo people in disad an aged communi ies o mee social minimums, such as
encou aging inno a ion incen i e sys ems ha help hem adap o clima e change (Timme mann, 2020 o ag icul u al inno a ions;
Dollinge and Jose, 2018 o ag o o es y).
Pas inequali ies and pa h dependencies a ec he equi emen s o jus ansi ions equi ed in a ious con ex s and imelines o
jus phase-ou s (Pueyo and Leining, 2023). Fo example, coal phase-ou may hampe o unde mine he oppo uni y o people o plan
and imp o e hei li es unless addi ional measu es suppo c ea ing new egional li elihoods and p o ide ma e ial and men al suppo .
The s ic e he schedule o ad ance ansi ions, he mo e suppo social minimums equi e: he possibili y o indi iduals o seek and
plan new li elihoods is g ea e i hey ha e mo e ime. On he o he hand, gi ing oo much ime would comp omise he e ec i eness
demands se by he ecological ceiling. Thus, jus ice conside a ions can jus i y slowing down phase-ou p ocesses only wi hin he limi s
allowed by he ecological ceiling. Add essing he inhe en ansi ion ension (Ciple and Ha ison, 2019) wi h he bounda ies app oach
implies ha he ac ual impac o igh e phase-ou imelines on he mee ing o social minimums mus be e alua ed case by case a he
han applying long phase-ou pe iods anywhe e in he name o equali y. Those whose social minimums a e no isked may be equi ed
o ake mo e apid ac ion so ha p o ec ing he igh s o he disad an aged does no comp omise e ec i e ansi ion. Bounda ies
sugges ce ain clea c i e ia o iden i ying ‘ he g ea es lose s’ in he ansi ion o help na iga e he ensions be ween u gency and
jus ice (Newell e al., 2022).
5.1. An illus a i e example: ca bon p icing
Nex , we will exempli y he implica ions o bounda ies by discussing ca bon axa ion ha is conside ed a co e ins umen in clima e
change mi iga ion in he global No h (Mehleb e al., 2021; S igli z e al., 2017). Ca bon axa ion basically i s in neolibe al policy
amewo ks whe e p io i ies a e o en gi en o so policy measu es, such as nudging and so incen i es (e.g., Hu unen e al., 2024;
Ha ison, 2014), aligning wi h ideas ha jus ice mus p o ec he choice- eedoms o all ci izens (Fische e al., 2023). F om he
ecological bounda y pe spec i e, he i s ques ion is whe he p icing policies a e e ec i e. As he main solu ion, he e ec i eness o
p icing policies is ques ionable e en o emission educ ions alone, implying ha sugges ions whe e he whole deca boniza ion p ocess
7
Much o jus ansi ion esea ch has ocused on deca boniza ion, no biodi e si y. Such esea ch migh s ill be in line wi h bounda ies unless i
sugges s ansi ion pa hways ha would unde mine e ec i e biodi e si y p o ec ion alongside deca boniza ion.
8
In ela i e e ms, weal hy ac o s migh lose e y much along he jus ansi ion ajec o ies. I hey ha e also gained unjus ly achie ed bene i s
p e iously, hese losses may no be unjus acco ding o many iews o jus ice.
T. Ko e m¨
aki e al.
En i onmen al Inno a ion and Socie al T ansi ions 55 (2025) 100957
7
would ely on ca bon p icing does no mee he bounda y c i e ia. Mo eo e , since some GHGE mi iga ion ac ions a e known o wo sen
biodi e si y loss, ca bon p icing always needs coupling wi h biodi e si y-conce ned en i onmen al measu es. Thus, p oponen s o
ca bon p icing ha e he bu den o p oo o show how hei o e all ision ac ually ensu es ansi ioning below he ecological ceiling in
e ms o emissions and biodi e si y impac s.
Fo he social bounda y, ca bon p icing has in oked jus ice conce ns o i s impac s on lowe -income people in e ms o ene gy,
mobili y, housing, and ood (Gough, 2017; Boyce, 2021; Kelly e al., 2020; Feens a e al., 2021)
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mani es ing in p o es s, like he
yellow- es mo emen in F ance (Mehleb e al., 2021). Conce ns link pa ly o accumula ed disad an ages, hampe ing access o basic
goods, bu also o policy impac s on he pu chasing powe o common people (Mehleb e al., 2021). To success ully es ic o e -
consump ion wi hin he middle-income majo i y, p icing policies would need o make a big di e ence, implying hea ie bu dens on
lowe -income households. F om he bounda y pe spec i e, his is no a inal a gumen agains ca bon p icing bu depends on o he
socie al measu es: social policies can compensa e he nega i e impac on he disad an aged. Possible measu es include subsidies,
uni e sal basic income, o he imp o emen o public se ices ha con ibu e o mee ing social minimums wi hou ma ke -based
solu ions. Howe e , i is a challenging and p o ound ques ion whe he socie ies could succeed in combining ecologically e ec i e
ca bon p icing wi h socially equally e ec i e social policy o p o ec he disad an aged g oups in e ms o social minimums.
Ano he implica ion is qui e p o ound. Jus ice, when hough o include equal oppo uni ies ( o well-being o o any hing), begs
he ques ion whe he ma ke mechanisms p omo e jus clima e policies since hey imply measu es whe e money subs an ially de-
e mines indi iduals’ eedom. The equal oppo uni y o exe cise one’s own concep ion o a good li e, cen al o libe al poli ical
adi ions, assumes bo h nega i e eedom om coe cion and posi i e eedoms o selec and do a ious hings (e.g., Nussbaum, 2011).
Ma ke -based solu ions end up es ic ing bo h posi i e eedoms and he sus ainabili y agency o he lowes -income people.
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Sus-
ainabili y agency is es ic ed due o he p ice p emium o mo e sus ainable choices, especially wi hin p oduc ca ego ies (e.g., mea
o p i a e ca s), a leas in he Global No h. Simul aneously, ma ke s ha e expanded posi i e eedoms so ha mos middle- and
high-income ci izens could lead li es wi h excessi e ca bon oo p in s, e en wi h ela i ely hea y ca bon p icing. Social bounda ies
equi e ensu ing ha eedoms o sa is y basic needs and plan one’s li e can be enjoyed by all bu do no equi e eedoms o sa is y
basic needs ia any means ha ma ke s can come up wi h. Hence, jus ansi ion calls o delibe a ion abou he limi s o ma ke -based
policy ins umen s is-`
a- is jus ice. The ealpoli ik challenge is o conduc such delibe a ions in ways ha do no o e play he oice o
he weal hies g oups whose concep ions o he good li e may ha e been na owed by ge ing used o weal hy s anda ds o li ing
(Zwa hoed 2023). Ne e heless, le ing he oice o he weal hie g oups domina e delibe a ion would be p ocedu ally and
ecogni ion-wise unjus .
P o ec ing ex ensi e posi i e eedoms is unjus i i pe mi s he be e -o o exe cise addi ional eedoms a he cos o o he s’
possibili y o mee social minimums now o in he u u e (Robeyns 2017; Pin o 2019). Fo example, mea - ich die s a e compa ible
wi h ansi ion only i enjoyed by a small mino i y (e.g., Eisen and B own, 2022). While cu ailing posi i e eedoms implies ha m o
a ec ed indi iduals, such ha m a ely pu s people a isk o alling below social minimums; in con as , no cu ailing eedoms would
Fig. 1. A isualiza ion o jus ansi ion bounda ies. Delayed clima e o biodi e si y ac ion would na ow he space le o plu alism and nego-
iabili y in ansi ions.
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GHG emissions om consuming basic goods a e so high ha middle- and low-income households comp ise a g ea e sha e o o e all GHG
emissions han o o e all income in se e al con inen s ( o Eu ope, Somme & K a ena 2017).
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Social subsidies e lec he minimum p ice o sa is ying basic needs ia ma ke s, ‘ o cing’ people o ely on he cheapes choices ha a e o en
less sus ainable.
T. Ko e m¨
aki e al.
En i onmen al Inno a ion and Socie al T ansi ions 55 (2025) 100957
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