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The Teache s and he Lis ene s? : The Encoun e o O al and Li e a y Cul u es in he
Pe iphe al Pa ishes o Eas e n Finland in Se en een h-Cen u y Sweden
© 2024 he Au ho s
Published e sion
Kuha, Miia
Kuha, M. (2025). The Teache s and he Lis ene s? : The Encoun e o O al and Li e a y Cul u es
in he Pe iphe al Pa ishes o Eas e n Finland in Se en een h-Cen u y Sweden. In K. Kallio, T. M.
Leh onen, A. Lah inen, & I. Leskelä (Eds.), Ne wo ks, Poe ics and Mul ilingual Socie y in he Ea ly
Mode n Bal ic Sea Region (pp. 252-273). B ill. Lib a y o he W i en Wo d, 133.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1163/9789004429772_011
2025
© Miia Kuha, 2025 | doi:10.1163/9789004429772_011
This is an open access chap e dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license.
Chap e 10
The Teache s and he Lis ene s? The Encoun e o
O al and Li e a y Cul u es in he Pe iphe al Pa ishes
o Eas e n Finland in Se en een h-Cen u y Sweden
Miia Kuha
I was one o he cen al aims o he Re o ma ion ha people should be augh
o ead he Ca echism and unde s and he basic doc ines o Ch is iani y.1
Inc easing li e acy was in he in e es s bo h o he cen alising s a es in hei
need o educa ed o icials, and o chu ches o di e en con essions as hey
ied o de ine hei doc ine mo e p ecisely and make i clea o hei ollowe s.2
The educa ional ole o he chu ch was emphasised in se en een h-cen u y
Lu he an Sweden, whe e he cle gy and he pa ishione s we e o en e e ed
o as lä a e och åhö a e, he eache s and he lis ene s, in di e en kinds o
documen s.3 Howe e , in he pe iphe al pa ishes o eas e n Finland, a pa o
he Swedish kingdom a he ime, a conside able po ion o he peasan pop-
ula ion was only s a ing o lea n he e y basics o Ch is iani y. Book owne -
ship was a e in his poo and u al a ea. Rega dless o he sp ead o p in ing
in Eu ope, i was di icul e en o he chu ch and schools o ob ain enough
books o hei needs in he diocese o Vybo g, no o men ion he peasan
1 This chap e has been inalized as pa o he Resea ch Council o Finland p ojec ‘Women o
he cle ical es a e: Cle gymen’s wi es and widows in Lu he an local communi ies (1650–1710)’
(p ojec numbe 338706).
2 Ka en E. Ca e , C ea ing Ca holics. Ca echism and P ima y Educa ion in Ea ly Mode n F ance
(No e Dame: Uni e si y o No e Dame P ess, 2011); Ian G een, The Ch is ian’s ABC. Ca e-
chisms and Ca echizing in England c.1530–1740 (Ox o d: Cla endon P ess, 1996); Rab Hous on,
Li e acy in Ea ly Mode n Eu ope (Ox o d: Rou ledge, 2002, ep . 2013).
3 Gö an Malms ed , Bonde o och ky ko o. Religiös men ali e i s o mak s idens S e ige (Lund:
No dic Academic P ess, 2002); Daniel Lindma k, Upp os an, unde isning, upplysning. Linje
i s ensk olkunde isning ö e olkskolan (Umeå: Umeå uni e si e , 1995); Esko M. Laine and
Tuija Laine, ‘Ki kollinen kansanope us’, in Jussi Hanska and Ki si Vainio-Ko honen (eds.),
Huoneen aulun maailma. Kas a us ja koulu us Suomessa keskiajal a 1860-lu ulle (Helsinki:
Suomalaisen Ki jallisuuden Seu a, 2010), pp. 258–306. Examples o he use o he e m ‘lä a e
och åhö a e’: Kansallisa kis o (KA, The Na ional A chi es o Finland), Mikkeli (he ea e : KA
Mikkeli), Jo oinen, chu ch a chi e, II Cd:1 Visi a ion eco d (1693); Kangasniemi, chu ch
a chi e, II Cd:1 Visi a ion eco d (1680); Kangasniemi, chu ch a chi e, II Ce Visi a ion eco d
(1704); Kansallisa kis o, Joensuu (he ea e : KA Joensuu), Kuopio, chu ch a chi e, II Cd: 1
Visi a ion eco d (1678).
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253The Teache s and he Lis ene s?
popula ion, who had e y limi ed access o any p in ed p oduc s.4 Thus, in
p ac ice, he chu ch was he only place whe e he peasan s had a chance o
lis en o he eading o w i en eligious ex s and lea n abou he Lu he an
doc ine– which hey we e also obliged o do, since egula chu ch a endance
was en o ced by law.5
P in ed books and a ious cheap p in ed ma e ials ha e been highligh ed
as impo an media o s o Re o ma ion ideas. Howe e , he p in ed book was
no he only way o con ey he message o he Re o me s: he e we e many
adi ional ways o communica ion a ailable, such as p eaching, singing and
ca eche ical eaching.6 In his chap e , I examine he ecep ion o Lu he an
eaching among he people in he p o ince o Sa o in eas e n Finland by ana-
lysing an excep ional cou case ha su i es om he pa ish o Sulka a. In
he summe o 1668, he secula lowe cou session in he illage o Sulka a
handled a case o suspec ed blasphemy, a e a g oup o peasan s and soldie s
om peasan amilies had pa odied he Ch is mas Day se ice in a house-
hold eas on he e ening o he ollowing day.7 The case analysis explo es
he encoun e o o al and li e a y cul u es in he no h-eas e n pe iphe y o
pos -Re o ma ion Eu ope, an a ea whe e he ecclesias ical cul u e was el-
a i ely young and book owne ship was a e. The e en s o Sulka a ela ed
o local powe ela ions and he ela ionship be ween he cle gy and he
4 Tuija Laine, ‘Vanhan Viipu in hiippakunnan alueen ki jahis o ian läh ee ’, in Ilkka Huh a
and Juha Me iläinen (eds.), Ki kkohis o ian alueilla: juhlaki ja p o esso i Hannu Mus akallion
äy äessä 60 uo a (Helsinki: Suomen ki kkohis o iallinen seu a e c., 2011), pp. 217–25; Miia
Kuha, Pyhäpäi ien ie o a haismode nin ajan Sa ossa ( uo een 1710) (Jy äskylä: Jy äskylän
yliopis o 2016). The e we e g ea egional di e ences in he book ma ke s and in as uc u e
o p in ing in ea ly-mode n Eu ope. See And ew Pe eg ee and Ma hew Hall, ‘The Re o ma-
ion and he Book: A Reconside a ion’, The His o ical Jou nal, 47, 4 (2004), pp. 785–808.
5 The punishmen o absence was a la ge ine ha usually esul ed om a ecu en absence
om he chu ch. Miia Kuha, ‘Popula Religion in he Pe iphe y. Chu ch A endance in se en-
een h Cen u y Eas e n Finland’, Pe icho esis 13: 2 (2015), pp. 17–33.
6 And ew Pe eg ee, Re o ma ion and he Cul u e o Pe suasion (Camb idge: Camb idge
Uni e si y P ess, 2005); Robe W. Sc ibne , ‘O al Cul u e and he Di usion o Re o ma ion
Ideas’, His o y o Eu opean Ideas 5 (1984), pp. 237–56. See also A nold Snyde , ‘O ali y, li e acy
and he s udy o anabap ism’, Mennoni e Qua e ly Re iew 65 (1991), pp. 371–92.
7 Kansallisa kis o, Helsinki (he ea e : KA), Reno oidu uomioki ja , Pien-Sa on kihlakun a,
KO a:1, Sulka a, 6–7 May 1668, pp. 113–19. The eco d o he case is a ailable in a digi alised
o m in he Digi al A chi e, h ps://as ia.na c. i/uusias ia/ iewe /? ileId=6533365663&aineis
oId=642405597. The case has been discussed ea lie wi h a me hodological poin o iew in
Miia Kuha, ‘A Pa ody o he Chu ch Se ice in Se en een h-Cen u y Finland. Recons uc ing
Popula Religion on he Basis o Cou Reco ds’, F ühneuzei -In o 23: 1–2 (2012), pp. 99–104,
and in he con ex o he popula obse ance o holy days in Kuha, Pyhäpäi ien ie o,
pp. 119–27.
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254 Kuha
pa ishione s, bu he su i ing eco d also o e s a glimpse a he ecep ion o
Lu he an eaching among he populace.
In Sweden and Finland, an in eg al pa o he Swedish ealm in he ea ly-
mode n e a, he lowe cou eco ds ha su i e in g ea abundance p o ide
excellen sou ce ma e ial o in es iga ion o he eligious li e o he peasan y.
In la e-se en een h-cen u y Sweden, eligion had a majo e ec on legisla ion,
and ma e s ela ed o eligion we e handled in he secula lowe cou s.8 Fo
example, he b each o he Sabba h, wi h mo e se e e consequences a e
he o dinances o he yea s 1665 and 1687, b ough o he cou s accusa ions
o absence om he chu ch se ice, communion and ca eche ical eaching.9
Pa ish li e is also desc ibed in cases whe e he accusa ion conce ned iolen
beha iou o d unkenness du ing he chu ch se ice o dis u bance o he se -
ice. In addi ion, eligious concep s we e discussed in hea ings ela ed o sus-
pec ed blasphemy, magic and wi chc a .10
I will analyse he case o Sulka a in he con ex o he ecclesias ical li e and
de elopmen o he knowledge o he Ca echism in he pa ishes o he p o -
ince o Sa o, using isi a ion eco ds om he pe iod 1659–1710 as sou ce ma e-
ial. In he isi a ion eco ds ha su i e om he pe iod, he isi ing bishops
and deans no ed down a gene al e alua ion o he eligious unde s anding
acqui ed in each pa ish. E en hough his in o ma ion is agmen a y, i is pos-
sible o gain a gene al pic u e o he de elopmen o he ca eche ical and li -
e a y skills in pa icula a eas.11 Ca echisms, o he ecclesias ical li e a u e and
8 The lowe cou eco ds ha e su i ed as ansc ip ions ha we e sen o he Cou o
Appeal o inspec ion. Fo discussion o using lowe cou eco ds as sou ce ma e ial in
he s udy o hough and eligious concep ions o commone s, see o example Raisa
Ma ia Toi o, Fai h and Magic in Ea ly Mode n Finland (Basings oke: Palg a e Macmillan,
2016), pp. 16–20; Riikka Mie inen, Suicide in Se en een h-Cen u y Sweden. The C ime
and Legal P axis in he Lowe Cou s (Tampe e: Tampe een yliopis o, 2015), pp. 46–58;
Kuha, Pyhäpäi ien ie o, pp. 30–2; Ja i Eilola, Rajapinnoilla. Salli un ja kielle yn mää i -
eleminen 1600-lu un jälkipuoliskon noi uus- ja aikuus apauksissa (Helsinki: Suomalaisen
Ki jallisuuden Seu a, 2003), pp. 41–5.
9 Johan Schmedeman, Kongl. s adga , ö o dninga , b e och esolu ione i ån åh 1528 in
il 1701 (S ockholm: Johan Hen ic We ne , 1706), pp. 453–63; Lahja-I ene Hellemaa, Anja
Jussila, and Ma i Pa io (eds.), Ki cko-Laki ja O dningi 1686. Näköispainos ja uudelleen
lado u lai os uoden 1686 ki kkolain suomennokses a (Helsinki: Suomalaisen Ki jal-
lisuuden Seu a, 1986), pp. 157–70, ‘Sabba in Ricoxes a’.
10 Kuha, Pyhäpäi ien ie o, pp. 26–9.
11 F om he p o ince o Sa o, o y-one isi a ion eco ds om six pa ishes (Hi ensalmi,
Iisalmi, Jo oinen, Kangasniemi, Kuopio and Mikkeli) su i e om he se en een h and
ea ly eigh een h cen u ies. The ea lies eco d is om he pa ish o Kangasniemi in 1659.
The eco ds ha e su i ed agmen a ily om each pa ish and mos a e a ailable om
he 1690s and he i s decade o he eigh een h cen u y. Chu ch a chi es: KA Joensuu,
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255The Teache s and he Lis ene s?
isi a ion eco ds ha e been commonly used o gain in o ma ion abou he
eligious educa ion o he populace in a ious pa s o Eu ope. In his chap e ,
I will also u ilise lowe cou eco ds o gain a new pe spec i e on he ecep ion
o eligious educa ion among he peasan y.12
1 The Encoun e o O al and W i en Cul u es in Eas e n Finland
In eas e n Finland, la ge dis ances and di icul condi ions ac ed as challenges
o ca eche ical eaching. The p o ince o Sa o, oge he wi h No he n Ka elia,
o med he mos pe iphe al pa o he diocese o Vybo g. Sa o was a la ge,
ag a ian a ea, wi h slash-and-bu n a ming as he main means o he inhab-
i an s’ li elihood. People li ed in single households si ua ed in loose g oups
o a g ea e dis ances om each o he .13 Dis ances be ween chu ches we e
long. People li ing nea he chu ch p obably a ended chu ch se ices a leas
almos e e y week, bu o he s migh only ha e a elled he e on he g ea es
holy days o he yea . Thus, i was di icul o o ganise ca eche ical eaching
sepa a ely om he chu ch se ice.14
Kuopio chu ch a chi e, II Cd:1 Visi a ion eco ds, 1670–1804; KA Joensuu, Leppä i a
chu ch a chi e, II Cd:1 Visi a ion eco ds, 1662–1841; KA Mikkeli, Jo oinen chu ch a chi e,
II Cd:1 Visi a ion eco ds, 1693–1748; KA Mikkeli, Kangasniemi chu ch a chi e, II Cd:1
Visi a ion eco ds, 1660–1794, and II Ce Visi a ion eco ds, 1659–1840; KA Mikkeli, Mikkeli
chu ch a chi e, II Cd:1 Visi a ion eco ds, 1700–1848. In 1710, Russian oops in aded he
own o Vybo g and soon a e occupied he whole a ea o Finland, a e which he no -
mal unc ions o mos ins i u ions ceased and mos cle gymen led o Sweden p ope .
See Pe i Ka onen, Pohjoinen suu al a. Ruo si ja Suomi 1521–1809 (Helsinki: Suomalaisen
Ki jallisuuden Seu a, 2014; 4 h e . edn), pp. 313–18. In bo h isi a ion and cou eco ds,
he e is a gap o a leas a decade a e 1710 o 1712, depending on he locali y.
12 On eading cul u e among ea ly-mode n commone s, see Tuija Laine, Aapisen ja ka ekis-
muksen a aamises a i senäiseen lukemiseen. Rah aan lukukul uu in kehi ys a hais-
mode nina aikana (Helsinki: Suomalaisen Ki jallisuuden Seu a, 2017).
13 The Sa o egion was connec ed o he Swedish ealm in he ea y o Nö ebo g in 1323
wi h No go od. I was an a ea o new se lemen un il he la e six een h cen u y. Fi s ,
he whole a ea made up only one pa ish. G adually, new pa ishes wi h hei espec i e
chu ches we e ounded, and in he la e se en een h cen u y, he e we e in o al i een
pa ishes in he p o ince. Kuha, Pyhäpäi ien ie o, p. 45; Kauko Pi inen, ‘Sa on keski-
aika’, in Pi kko-Liisa Leh osalo-Hilande and Kauko Pi inen, Sa on his o ia, I: Esihis o ian
uosi uhanne ja keskiaika (Kuopio: Kus annuskiila, 1988), pp. 289–95; Kauko Pi inen,
Sa on his o ia II:1: Rajamaakun a asu usliikkeen aikakau ena 1534–1617 (Pieksämäki: Kus-
annuskiila, 1982), 535–54; Veijo Saloheimo, Sa on his o ia, II:2: Sa o suu allan aljaissa
1617–1721 (Kuopio: Kus annuskiila Oy, 1990), pp. 460–5.
14 Kuha, Pyhäpäi ien ie o, pp. 104–8.
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256 Kuha
Local cle gymen we e he main ep esen a i es o li e a y cul u e in he
u al pa ishes o Sa o. The e was usually a pas o and one o some imes wo
chaplains wo king in a pa ish. Mos o he cle gymen in he Sa o egion con-
duc ed hei s udies in Vybo g, he capi al o he diocese and also an impo an
comme cial and adminis a i e cen e. In he se en een h cen u y, wo o he
dioceses in he Swedish ealm we e si ua ed in he a ea o p esen -day Finland.
The diocese o Tu ku co e ed he whole o Finland om he medie al e a un il
he eas e n diocese o Vybo g was ounded in 1555. Howe e , his egion, si u-
a ed nex o he Russian bo de , su e ed om he many wa s be ween Russia
and Sweden, and he unc ion o he diocese o Vybo g was only p ope ly
es ablished a e he peace o S olbo o (1617) and he appoin men o Bishop
Olaus Elimaeus in 1618.15
The Re o ma ion changed he ideal o he cle gymen, who became eache s
and o icials o he s a e as se an s o he Lu he an s a e chu ch. In p ac ice,
mos o he changes made a e he Re o ma ion ook place e y slowly, espe-
cially in he pe iphe al, u al a eas o he ealm. A e he Re o ma ion, and
s ill du ing he la e six een h cen u y, cle ical educa ion was poo . Impo an
educa ional e o ms we e made unde Gus a II Adol , especially a e he
yea 1620. Gymnasiums we e ounded in he ca hed al owns o each diocese
o eplace he o me ca hed al schools. In he i s hal o he se en een h
cen u y, Swedish cle gymen mainly s udied in gymnasiums. Two yea s o s ud-
ies, ei he in a gymnasium o a he uni e si y, we e equi ed be o e o dina-
ion. The gymnasium o Vybo g, ounded in 1641, had high s anda ds and he
con en o he eaching was simila o ha o he Swedish uni e si ies o he
ime.16 I has been es ima ed ha he eaching in he ca hed al school was
based on Lu he an ideas om he 1530s onwa ds.17 In he las decades o he
se en een h cen u y, i became mo e common o he cle gymen o he
diocese o Vybo g o conduc s udies also in he uni e si ies o he Swedish
ealm, mos commonly in Tu ku, bu also in Ta u and Uppsala. E en so, he
cle ics wo king in he Sa o a ea who had conduc ed s udies a a uni e si y
15 The unc ion o he diocese ceased wi h he occupa ion o Vybo g in 1710 in he G ea
No he n Wa (1700–21), and he own was los o Russia in he ea y o Nys ad in 1721.
Simo Heininen, ‘Vanha Viipu in hiippakun a 1554–1711’, in Simo Heininen e al., Viipu in–
Po oon– Tampe een hiippakunnan his o ia 1554–2004 (Helsinki: Edi a, 2005), pp. 13–64;
Ka onen, Pohjoinen suu al a, pp. 307–26.
16 Malms ed , Bonde o och ky ko o, pp. 74–5, 123–6; Ragna Askma k, S ensk p äs u bild-
ning am ill å 1700 (S ockholm: S enska ky kans diakonis y else, 1943), pp. 108–16; Ma i
Klinge e c., Helsingin yliopis o 1640–1990, 1: Kuninkaallinen Tu un Aka emia 1640–1808
(Helsinki: O a a, 1987), pp. 20–48.
17 Anu Lah inen and Jussi Hanska, ‘Keskiajal a 1500-lu un lopulle’, in Jussi Hanska and Ki si
Vainio-Ko honen (eds.), Huoneen aulun maailma. Kas a us ja koulu us Suomessa keski-
ajal a 1860-lu ulle. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Ki jallisuuden Seu a, 2010), pp. 17–111, a p. 87.
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257The Teache s and he Lis ene s?
s ill cons i u ed a mino i y du ing he la e hal o se en een h cen u y.18 In
compa ison, in Ge many, non-academics became a clea mino i y in abou
1600, and in Denma k, i was equi ed in he ea ly se en een h cen u y o all
would-be cle gymen o conduc a leas wo yea s o s udies a a uni e si y.19 In
Sweden, cle gymen we e also obliged o pa icipa e in u he aining in syn-
odal mee ings led by he bishop. Bishops also moni o ed he wo k o he cle gy
du ing egula isi a ions o he pa ishes. The bishops o he Finnish dioceses
usually s udied a Swedish and Ge man uni e si ies, and b ough in luences
om impo an Lu he an cen es, such as Wi enbe g.20
In Sa o, peasan cul u e was essen ially o al, and people who we e depend-
en on ag icul u al wo k o hei subsis ence we e no eage o lea n o ead
o ake hei child en o he lessons o he pa ish cle k (klocka e, klåcka e in
Swedish). The popula ion o he p o ince o Sa o consis ed mos ly o eehold-
ing peasan s and o he commone s who did no own land, such as se an s.
The leading cle gymen o en lamen ed he igno ance and supe s i ion o he
inhabi an s, and he e is in o ma ion in he sou ces on he kind o popula
eligious p ac ice ha was o icially conside ed as supe s i ious. Fo example,
sain s’ day celeb a ions ha also con ained p e-Ch is ian elemen s we e s ill a
li ely pa o local eligious cul u e. Howe e , he cle gy did no usually epo
hese p ac ices o p osecu ion in cou .21 The ela ionship be ween local
cle gymen and pa ishione s was gene ally good and us ing, and i is mos ly
occasional qua els o e unpaid axes and peasan s’ negligence in building o
epai ing he chu ch o he pa sonage ha come up in he sou ces.
2 The Peasan s o Tela aipale and he Re-enac men o he
Ch is mas Se ice
‘Fo un o us a child is bo n, un o us a son is gi en’, a peasan -bo n soldie
in oned in a a mhouse o a emo e illage o Tela aipale in he pa ish o
18 O he pas o s and chaplains wo king in he pa ishes o Sa o du ing he pe iod 1650–1710,
abou 42 pe cen conduc ed s udies in a uni e si y. See Miia Kuha, ‘P äs ka iä en,
p äs e nas ö lighe och ö hållande ill lokalsamhällen i Vibo gs s i 1650–1710.’ His o isk
Tidsk i ö Finland 106: 2 (2021), pp. 282–283.
19 Thomas Kau mann, ‘The Cle gy and he Theological Cul u e o he Age: The Educa ion
o Lu he an Pas o s in he Six een h and Se en een h Cen u ies’, in C. Sco Dixon and
Luise Scho n-Schü e (eds.), The P o es an Cle gy o Ea ly Mode n Eu ope (Basings oke:
Palg a e Macmillan, 2003), pp. 120–36, a p. 128; Malms ed , Bonde o och ky ko o, p. 74.
20 Kimmo Ka ajala e c., Viipu in läänin his o ia, III: Suomenlahdel a Laa okalle (Lappeen-
an a: Ka jalan ki japaino, 2010), pp. 358–63; Malms ed , Bonde o och ky ko o, p. 75.
21 Kuha, Pyhäpäi ien ie o; Toi o, Fai h and Magic.
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258 Kuha
Sulka a in eas e n Finland on S S ephen’s Day, 26 Decembe 1667.22 The sol-
die had hea d he ex o he Bible ha he pas o had ead om he pulpi
he day be o e in he Ch is mas Day se ice a he chu ch. The nex e ening,
as he neighbou s ga he ed in a peasan household o spend S S ephen’s
Day, a popula eas day among he peasan y, a g oup o men e-enac ed he
Ch is mas Day chu ch se ice in a humo ous, pa odic manne . I did no ake
long be o e umou s o he e en s s a ed o sp ead. The neighbou ing com-
muni y was clea ly in e es ed in he e ening’s e en s and he pa icipan s
we e no a aid o e eal he ac o s and hei oles. Local peasan s alked and
joked abou ‘ he cong ega ion o Tela aipale’23 as opposed o he pa ish o
Sulka a, which he pa icipan s o he eas did no seem o mind. A e he
umou s eached he local au ho i ies, he case was i s handled in an epis-
copal isi a ion ca ied ou by Bishop Pe us B ommius in he win e o ea ly
sp ing in 1668. The isi a ion eco d has no su i ed, bu he bishop e e ed
he case o he secula cou , and an examina ion o suspec ed blasphemy
ollowed when he dis ic cou o he Pien-Sa o ju isdic ion ga he ed in he
illage o Sulka a in he summe 1668.
A he ial, he e we e many people p esen : he judge o he judicial dis-
ic o Pien-Sa o, a ju y consis ing o nine peasan a me s, he baili , he
sc ibe and he u al cons able, he local pas o and chaplain, he wi nesses
and he de endan s, and an audience consis ing o local inhabi an s. The lowe
cou session ha was o ganised wo o h ee imes a yea in each hund ed was
an impo an e en ha always ga he ed many people o handle hei a ai s
and ollow o he hea ings. The cou audience was o en consul ed in ma e s
ega ding he local communi y. The sc ibe eco ded he cou se o cou ses-
sions, ansla ed in o Swedish, he o icial language o he ealm, bu Finnish
was usually spoken in he cou oom, and mos eas e n Finnish peasan s could
no unde s and Swedish.24
In he case o he pa ody, ou pa icipan s and a leas ou o he wi nesses
we e ques ioned. The judge ied o un angle he cou se o e en s, ocusing
mainly on inding ou i ac ual communion b ead had been used, and i he
pa icipan s had disg aced he sac amen o he eucha is . Deg ading he sac-
amen was conside ed as blasphemy, which was a se ious c ime and could lead
22 ‘e ba n ä oss öd , een son äh oss gi uin’ (KA, Pien-Sa o, KO a:1, Sulka a, 6–7 May 1668,
p. 118). See no e 6 o in o ma ion on he sou ce used in his chap e . See below o an
analysis o he pa ag aph o he Bible men ioned.
23 ‘Tela aipall ö samblingh’ (KA, Pien-Sa o, KO a:1, Sulka a, 6–7 May 1668, p. 114).
24 In some cou cases in eas e n Finland, peasan wi nesses we e no able o es i y abou
con e sa ions be ween people om highe es a es, because hey did no unde s and i
only Swedish had been spoken. See Kuha, Pyhäpäi ien ie o, p. 116.
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259The Teache s and he Lis ene s?
o he dea h penal y.25 The peasan s had sha ed egula b ead, bu he p oblem
was ha one o hem had p oclaimed ha hey would sha e he b ead as i
i was he Hos . A e he hea ing, he judge discussed he case wi h he ju y
and local cle gymen, and he ou come was ha he pa icipan s o he eas
had no dis ibu ed he sac amen , bu ha hey had, in hei d unkenness,
idiculed God’s wo d and alked abou he Hos . The judge chose o e e he
case back o he ecclesias ical o um, o be examined by he chap e in Vybo g.
The eco ds o he chap e ha e been des oyed, bu a yea la e , in he summe
1669, we can ind he wo main cha ac e s o he e-enac men as p isone s in
he cas le o Vybo g. A e ou mon hs o imp isonmen , whils hei case was
p obably being examined in he chap e , hey we e inally discha ged.26
In he ial, he e en s we e g adually exposed by he es imonies o second-
hand wi nesses, who had alked abou he e ening la e wi h he pa icipan s,
and inally he eluc an pa icipan s con essing hei sha e in e en s. The e
we e a leas en people p esen a he celeb a ion, bo h in i ed gues s and
membe s o he household. The eco d men ions only one woman, he mis-
ess o he house. Du ing he eas , ish and b ead we e se ed o ea and
plen y o bee o d ink, and i is men ioned ha he pa icipan s we e d unk.
The e ening’s hos passed ou soon a e he beginning o he pa ody. In he
cou se o he e ening, wo o he pa icipan s, bo h ca al y soldie s ec ui ed
om peasan amilies, ac ed as he pas o and he chaplain in a pa ody o he
chu ch se ice. The a mhand ook on he ole o he pa ish cle k, while o he s
pe o med as chu chgoe s. I seems ha he h ee men playing he main pa s
we e young and unma ied.
The e-enac men o he se ice included he ollowing pa s: inging he
bell, con ession and absolu ion, communion, he ‘pas o ’ quo ing he Bible,
singing hymns and saying ‘ hings he had hea d om he pas o ’.27 Ringing he
bell, o a ish ap hanging in he ceiling, was he job o he cle k, jus like in he
ac ual se ice.28 To make i eel eal and angible, di e en kinds o ma e ial
i ems om he peasan household we e used: b ead and bee o imi a e he
communion and a man le ha he ake pas o pu on o esemble he cassock
o he cle gyman. Ri uals o he se ice we e imi a ed wi h bodily ges u es:
o example, he chu chgoe s ell on hei knees when he ake pas o ga e
25 Soili-Ma ia Olli, Visione a ä lden. Hädelse och djä ulspak i jus i ie e isionen 1680–1780
(Umeå: Umeå uni e si e , 2007), pp. 1–2.
26 Kuha, Pyhäpäi ien ie o, p. 123.
27 ‘hwadd han a P es en hö d hadhe’. (KA, Pien-Sa o, KO a:1, Sulka a, 6–7 May 1668, p. 117).
28 The Swedish wo d klocka e (pa ish cle k) comes om he wo d klocka (bell), e e ing o
he o iginal ask o he cle k as he bell- inge . ‘Klocka e’, in S enska Akademiens O dbok
(1936), h ps://www.saob.se/, accessed 21 Ma ch 2019.
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266 Kuha
chaplain o he son o he o me pas o , who would al eady ha e been helping
his a he some yea s be o e his dea h. Howe e , i was he esponsibili y o he
chap e o nomina e he mos wo hy applican o he pos , al hough i was
also an ad an age i he candida e had local suppo o was willing o ma y
he widow o he daugh e o his p edecesso , hus secu ing he subsis ence o
he pas o al amily.50
Howe e , he e was some ic ion be ween he pa ishione s and he chap-
lain, Johan Ma ini Bo goensis o Bo gensis (la e Allenius), who was also a
newcome , appoin ed o his pos only a couple o yea s be o e he pa ody,
a e ma ying he daugh e o his p edecesso .51 I seems ha he had some
p oblems wi h he pa ishione s being unwilling o pay o his dues a he u n
o he 1670s. Th ee yea s a e he e en s in Tela aipale, he ended up in cou
‘P äs ka iä en’, pp. 287–288. See also Gunna Suolah i, Suomen papis o 1600- ja 1700-
lu uilla (Po oo: We ne Söde s öm Osakeyh iö, 1919), p. 42.
50 Pe e Linds öm, P äs al och poli isk kul u 1650–1800 (Umeå: Umeå uni e si e , Ins i u-
ionen ö his o iska s udie , 2003), pp. 31, 48.
51 Y jö Ko i uo i, ‘Må en Allenius’ (18 Sep embe 2010) in Y jö Ko i uo i (ed.), Ylioppilas-
ma ikkeli 1640–1852 (Helsinki: Helsingin yliopis o, 2005) h ps://ylioppilasma ikkeli
.helsinki. i/henkilo.php?id=3540, accessed 29 Ma ch 2019.
Figu e 10.2 A d awing o he chu ch o Sulka a (uppe building on he le ) and
pa sonage ma ked wi h he le e D in he land axa ion map om he 1640s.
Bo h buildings we e loca ed by he Sulka a s ai . I is likely ha a he
han esembling he ac ual buildings, hey we e d awn acco ding o a
con en ional model
Na ional A chi es o Finland
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267The Teache s and he Lis ene s?
again wi h he cen al igu e in Tela aipale, Olli Holopainen, who had swo n
ha he chaplain would be a acked by ‘a housand de ils’ a e demanding
Holopainen pay his dues.52 La e , a he u n o he 1680s, he chaplain made
se e al a emp s o ge he pa ishione s’ suppo o he pos o pas o in
Sulka a bo h be o e and a e he dea h o Claes Molande . To his disappoin -
men , he pa ishione s a ou ed he o me pas o ’s son, And eas Molande ,
who was appoin ed in 1682, e en hough hey did say ha hey we e also sa is-
ied wi h hei chaplain.53
In he eas o Tela aipale, i seems ha he laugh e and mocke y was a -
ge ed a he local cle gymen and p obably also secula au ho i ies. Behind he
e en s, he e seems o ha e been a local powe s uggle, whe e his pa icula
g oup o peasan s el ha hey had been pushed aside om hei p e ious
mo e powe ul posi ion in he communi y. When he pa ish o Sulka a was
ounded in 1630 and he ci il pa ish es ablished by 1660, a new cen e was
es ablished in he illage o Sulka a, a e which he u al cons ables (länsman)
we e also ec ui ed om he houses nea he illage. Be o e his, he cons ables
o his a ea, o ming a pa o he la ge la e-medie al pa ish o Sääminki, used
o be ec ui ed om Tela aipale and neighbou ing illages. One o he las o
hese was he a he o he hos o he e ening, Tuomas Holopainen, who was
al eady an old man li ing in his son’s household, and also p esen a he eas .
The u al cons able was a membe o he local eli e in he coun yside, and i
is likely ha Olli Holopainen would ha e wished o s ep in o his a he ’s shoes.
The cle gymen and secula au ho i ies wo ked in close collabo a ion, and he
au ho i y o he s a e and he chu ch in e mingled bo h in p ac ice and in he
eyes o he peasan y.54 Pe o ming sco n ul poems o songs ha e been in e -
p e ed as a means o ac i e esis ance, and in he ea ly-mode n wo ld, u ning
social oles upside down could ha e been a way o making laws inside he
communi y isible.55 By means o he pa ody, i is likely ha he men ga he ed
a he celeb a ion we e commen ing on he powe ela ions in he pa ish.
52 ‘[…] 1000 die la skulle a a u hj P es en…’ KA, Pien-Sa o, KO a:2, Sulka a, 18–19 Augus 1671
[no pagina ion]; Kuha, Pyhäpäi ien ie o, pp. 123–4.
53 KA, Pien-Sa o, KO a:2, Sulka a, 29 Oc obe 1681, pp. 79–80; KA, Pien-Sa o, KO a:2, Sulka a,
16–17 Janua y 1682, pp. 25–7; Seppänen, Sulka an his o ia, pp. 335–41.
54 Kuha, Pyhäpäi ien ie o, pp. 123–4. On au ho i y and esis ance, see also Miia Kuha,
‘Rö else i pe i e in. Ky kobesöke i 1600- ale s Sa olax’, in Ma s Hallenbe g and Magnus
Linna sson (eds.), Poli iska um. Kon oll, kon lik och ö else i de ö mode na S e ige 1300–
1850 (Lund: No dic Academic P ess 2014, 159–73).
55 Ka i Mikkola, Tule aisuu a as aan. Uu uuksien as us us, kansan iedon ke uu ja
kansakunnan aken aminen (Helsinki: Suomalaisen Ki jallisuuden Seu a, 2009), pp. 298–
301; Kus aa H. J. Vilkuna, Ka se menneisyyden ihmiseen (Helsinki: Suomalaisen Ki jal-
lisuuden Seu a, 2011), pp. 103–4, 128–51.
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268 Kuha
5 The Ch is mas Day Li u gy in Sulka a and he Diocese o Vybo g
In he ial desc ibed abo e, one o he pa icipan s o he eas es i ied ha
he ake pas o had sung and ci ed he Gospel ‘as he should’, which p obably
means ha he had emembe ed he hymns and pa ag aphs o he Bible co -
ec ly acco ding o he judgemen o o he peasan s.56 One pa ag aph o he
Bible ha he soldie pe o ming as he pas o eci ed is men ioned in he ex .
He emembe ed i om he Ch is mas se ice ha hey had a ended he day
be o e. When he judge pushed him o con ess, a e se e al wi nesses’ s a e-
men s, he inally admi ed and explained ha ‘he had had he man le on and
eci ed he ex and said ha a child is bo n o us, a son is o us gi en e c. and
hen sung godly hymns’.57 The ex men ioned in he eco d can be iden i ied
as a p ophecy om he book o Isaiah (9:6) om he Old Tes amen :
Fo un o us a child is bo n, un o us a son is gi en, and he go e nmen
shall be upon his shoulde : and his name shall be called Wonde ul,
Counselle , he migh y God, The e e las ing Fa he , The P ince o Peace.58
The English ansla ion o he pa ag aph om he King James Bible (1611)
esembles he Finnish ansla ion o Coco Pyhä Raama u (1642) e y closely.
The epe i i e s uc u e and he di e en names and quali ies o God make
he passage ci ed by he soldie esemble he adi ional pa allelis ic language
o songs and incan a ions ha he peasan s we e s ill amilia wi h in he se -
en een h cen u y.59 This kind o a s uc u e migh ha e made his pa icula
pa ag aph easie o unde s and and emembe o he peasan s o Tela aipale.
The eci ed pa ag aph was ma ked in he cou eco d wi h an ‘e c.’ sign ha
e e s o ha he soldie was able o emembe mo e o he pa ag aph han
56 ‘som sigh bo de’ (KA, Pien-Sa o, KO a:1, Sulka a, 6–7 May 1668, p. 117).
57 ‘han ha ue … ha man elen oppå sigh och läsi up ex en och sag e ba n ä oss öd ,
een son äh oss gi uin e c. de ill siungi gudelige Psalme ’ (KA, Pien-Sa o, KO a:1, Sulka a,
6–7 May 1668, pp. 117–18).
58 King James Bible 1611. In Finnish: ‘Sillä meille on lapsi syndyny / ja poica on meille
anne u/ jonga ha ioilla He aus on/ ja hänen nimens cudzu an/ Ihmelinen/ Neuwo/
Wäkewä/ Jumala/ Ijancaickinen Isä/ Rauhan päämies.’ Biblia, Se On: Coco Pyhä Rama u,
Suomexi. Pää ama ui[de]n, Heb ean ia G ekan jälcken: Esipuhe en, Ma ginaliain, Conco -
dan iain, Seli ös en ia Regis e [e]in cansa (S ockholm: Hen ic Keyse , 1642), USTC 2178828,
p. 350.
59 Ka i Kallio, Laulamisen apoja. Esi ysa eena, ekis e i ja paikallinen laji länsi-inke iläisessä
kale alami aisessa unossa (Helsinki: Helsingin yliopis o, 2013), p. 127; Anna-Leena
Siikala, Suomalainen samanismi– mieliku ien his o iaa (Helsinki: Suomalaisen Ki jal-
lisuuden Seu a, 1992), pp. 64–83.
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269The Teache s and he Lis ene s?
wha was w i en in he eco d. A longe sec ion was also ead in he se ice a
he chu ch. The p ophecy o Isaiah 9: 1–6 was o icially added o he Ch is mas
Day li u gy in he diocese o Vybo g in 1618, when he newly appoin ed bishop,
Olaus Elimaeus, published his book E angeliumi ja epis ola , a book o Gospels
and epis les, which was a li u gical handbook ha di ec ed he use o ex s o
he Bible in he chu ch se ices h oughou he yea .60 The book was based
on he i s Finnish-language mass book Se pyhä messu ha he bishop o
bo h Tu ku and Vybo g, Paulus Juus en, had published in 1575.61 In his book,
Elimaeus aimed a enewing and de eloping he li u gy in he eas e n dio-
cese. Elimaeus made some changes o he li u gy, mos ly based on he Swedish
chu ch manual o 1614, bu also independen ly. One o he changes he made
independen ly conce ned he Ch is mas day li u gy, whe e Elimaeus added a
p ophecy om he book o Isaiah.62 In e es ingly, his was exac ly he same
ex ha he soldie in Tela aipale eci ed in he ake se ice. E angeliumi ja
epis ola was published in se e al la e edi ions du ing he se en een h cen u y
as a pa o chu ch manual collec ions, o example he Manuale Finnonicum
ha also included a hymnal, a Ca echism and o he eligious ex s.63 I is likely
ha one o hese edi ions was also in use in Sulka a a he ime o he e en s
o Tela aipale.
In se en een h-cen u y Sweden, he cen alising go e nmen aimed o
uni y he eligious p ac ice as well as he eligious li e a u e o he whole s a e.
Howe e , he dioceses had ela i e independence in many a eas, and he bish-
ops we e able o in luence he li u gical choices, o ganisa ion o educa ion
60 E angeliumi ia Epis ola , io ca seu acunnas ymbä is aias aian lue an eli weisa an,
Sunnun aina ia muina Pyhäpäi inä (S ockholm: Ch is ophe Reusne , 1618; 2nd edn,
1622), USTC 251861, 251862. See also Ma i Pa io, ‘Ka jalais ä i einen ki kollinen ki jal-
lisuus Viipu in hiippakunnassa 1600-lu un alkupuolella’, in Kyös i Pulliainen and Hannes
Sih o (eds.), Ca elia edi i a. Juhlaki ja p o esso i Heikki Ki kiselle 22.9.1987 (Joensuu:
Joensuun yliopis o, 1987) pp. 135–58; Jy ki Knuu ila, ‘E angeliumi ja epis ola , 1618 ja
1622’, in Vanhimman suomalaisen ki jallisuuden käsiki ja, pp. 117–22; Tuija Laine, ‘Viipu in
ki jallinen kul uu i uo een 1710’, in Pe i Ka onen (ed.), A ki, ki kko, a e ak i. Viipu in
kul uu ihis o iaa Ruo sin ajalla (n. 1300–1710) (Helsinki: Viipu in suomalainen ki jal-
lisuusseu a, 2017), pp. 124–48, a p. 127.
61 Paulus Juus en, Se pyhä messu (S ockholm: Amund Lau en sson, 1575), USTC 300449.
Juus en’s Mass book was a compila ion ha also included he ex s o Gospels and
epis les, whe eas Olaus Elimaeus published he Gospels and epis les sepa a ely. Laine,
‘Viipu in ki jallinen kul uu i’, pp. 127–8.
62 Knuu ila, ‘E angeliumi ja epis ola , 1618 ja 1622’; Pa io, ‘Ka jalais ä i einen ki kollinen
ki jallisuus’, pp. 140–1.
63 The i s edi ions o Manuale Finnonicum we e published in 1646, 1653 and 1664 (USTC
6910970, 261922, 261924), see Tuija Laine, ‘Manuale Finnonicum 1600-lu ulla’, in Vanhim-
man suomalaisen ki jallisuuden käsiki ja, pp. 140–3.
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270 Kuha
and e en chu ch legisla ion in hei own dioceses.64 Be o e coming o Vybo g,
Olaus Elimaeus (in o ice 1618–29) had s udied in Tu ku, S ockholm, Uppsala,
Ros ock and Wi enbe g, and held he highes ecclesias ical pos in S ockholm
as pas o p ima ius. When he a i ed in his new pos as he bishop o Vybo g,
Elimaeus ansla ed, edi ed and published books in Finnish o he needs o
his diocese. His publica ions included a Finnish-language hymnbook, which
included mainly he same hymns as had been published in ea lie hymnbooks,
bu adap ed o linguis ic o ms o eas e n Finnish dialec s; he composi ion
o he book was in luenced by Swedish hymnbooks.65 He also ansla ed he
i s Lu he an chu ch manual ( i s published 1614, in Finnish 1629) ha was o
be ollowed in he whole ealm o Sweden.66 The e was g ea need o books
in he pa ishes o he diocese and also in he schools o Vybo g since he
own did no ha e a p in ing p ess be o e 1689.67 The chu ch o Asikkala in
Häme did no e en ha e a Finnish Bible un il a local o ice dona ed a copy in
1672.68 This p oblem was e en mo e u gen in he ea ly se en een h cen u y,
bu Bishop Elimaeus did his bes o imp o e he si ua ion. Bo n in Elimäki
in sou h-eas e n Finland, he also wan ed o make he language o he books
easily accessible o people li ing ou side sou h-wes e n Finland ha domi-
na ed he de elopmen o he w i en language, as he p oclaimed in one o
his publica ions.69 Elimaeus’ publica ions ha e been seen bo h as a pa o he
uni ica ion p ocess o he li u gy in he Swedish ealm as well as an endea ou
o de elop ecclesias ical li e in he diocese o Vybo g independen ly.70
64 Askma k, S ensk p äs u bildning, pp. 108–10.
65 Olo Elimaeus, Soomenkielinen Wi siki ia… (S ockholm: Ch is ophe Reusne , 1621), USTC
252786; Onni Ku inen, Vanha i siki ja. Vuoden 1701 suomalaisen i siki jan syn y ja sisäl-
lys. Diss. (Helsingin yliopis o) (Rauma: [Onni Ku inen], 1941), pp. 39–43. On excep ions
in he hymnbook in compa ison o p edecesso s, see also Kallio e c., Laulu ja ki joi uk-
se , pp. 499–500: P. J. I. Ku inen, Suomen i si unouden alku aihee :een 1640 (Helsinki:
Suomalaisen Ki jallisuuden Seu a, 1929), pp. 359–60.
66 Olaus Elimaeus, Käsiki ia, jossa on käsi e y, millä awalla jumalan palwelus, ch is ilis en
ce emoniain ia ki conmenoin cansa, somen seu acunnis pidhe ämän pi ä (S ockholm:
Igna ius Meu e , 1629), USTC 252278. Pen i Laasonen, ‘Elimaeus, Olaus’ (18 July 2000), in
Kansallisbiog a ia- e kkojulkaisu. Helsinki: S udia Biog aphica: 4, (Helsinki: Suomalaisen
Ki jallisuuden Seu a, 1997–), h p://u n. i/u n:nbn: i:sks-kbg-000475, accessed 26 Ma ch
2019; Ka ajala e c., Viipu in läänin his o ia, p. 358; Knuu ila, ‘E angeliumi ja epis ola , 1618
ja 1622’, p. 122; Pa io, ‘Ka jalais ä i einen ki kollinen ki jallisuus’, pp. 142–3.
67 Laine, ‘Viipu in ki jallinen kul uu i’, pp. 132–3.
68 Visi a ion in Asikkala 1672, in Biskops- och p os isi a ionsp o okoll, p. 59.
69 O. Ku inen, Vanha i siki ja, pp. 40–1.
70 Pa io, ‘Ka jalais ä i einen ki kollinen ki jallisuus’, passim; Jy ki Knuu ila and Ma kus
Hiekkanen, ‘Viipu in ki kollinen elämä ja sen aiku us ki kolliseen kul uu iin 1200-lu un
lopus a uo een 1710’, in Pe i Ka onen (ed.), A ki, ki kko, a e ak i. Viipu in kul uu ihis o iaa
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271The Teache s and he Lis ene s?
6 Lea ning and App op ia ing he Li e a y Cul u e
In Ge man a eas, he cen e o he Lu he an Re o ma ion, Re o ma ion ideas
sp ead wi h books and pamphle s. E en he illi e a e we e able o look a
woodcu s and many had a chance o hea he ex ead aloud by someone
else. On he no h-eas e n pe iphe y o pos -Re o ma ion Eu ope, he eas e n
Finnish coun yside, he peasan s had p ac ically no access o any p in ed
p oduc s.71 As he chu ches we e poo and did no ha e much a wo k, he
isual means o educa ing he populace we e scan . He e, he Lu he an mes-
sage was communica ed mainly h ough li u gy, hymn singing, se mons and
ca eche ical eaching.
In his chap e , I ha e analysed a unique case om he secula lowe cou
eco ds om Sulka a in eas e n Finland. A a a mhouse in he small illage
o h ee peasan households in Tela aipale, a g oup o men om he neigh-
bou hood pe o med a humo ous e-enac men o he Ch is mas Day di ine
se ice on S S ephen’s Day e ening 1667. The analysis o he case shows ha
hese men we e able o emembe and econs uc he cou se o he chu ch
se ice, imi a e he mos impo an pa s o he li u gy, sing hymns, eci e
pa ag aphs om he Bible and copy some o he con en and he manne in
which he pas o spoke in he pulpi . These men, who ound hemsel es in a
posi ion wi h conside ably less au ho i y han be o e he ounding o he new
adminis a i e uni o Sulka a, used his knowledge o commen on he powe
ela ions in he pa ish and ques ion he au ho i y o hei pas o s coming om
ou side he pa ish.
In gene al, on he eas e n u al pe iphe y o he Swedish kingdom, i seems
ha pa ishione s we e no e y in e es ed in lea ning he Ca echism, e en
hough he chu ch conside ed ca eche ical eaching one o he mos impo -
an asks o he local cle gy. To he commone s, going o chu ch was bo h a
eligious and a social e en , whe e i was impo an o come close o he sac ed
as a communi y and mee ela i es and o he acquain ances. I was impo an
o he peasan s ha he pas o deli e ed he se mon, bu hey did no seem o
Ruo sin ajalla (n. 1300–1710) (Helsinki: Viipu in suomalainen ki jallisuusseu a, 2017),
pp. 26–84, a pp. 64–5. On he uni ica ion o li u gy in Finland a e he Re o ma ion,
see Jy ki Knuu ila, ‘Li u gisen yhdenmukais amisen o eu uminen Suomessa e o maa-
iokaudella 1537–1614’, Suomen ki kkohis o iallisen seu an uosiki ja 77 (1987), pp. 9–40.
71 Hymn olios, lea le s con aining only a ew Ch is ian hymns, we e published especially in
he la e se en een h cen u y, and i is possible ha hey had a wide dis ibu ion because
hey we e cheape o p in han la ge books. Howe e , he e is no e idence on hei use
on he local le el in my esea ch a ea. See O. Ku inen, Vanha i siki ja, pp. 77–9.
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272 Kuha
hink ha i would be necessa y o lis en ca e ully, a leas e e y ime. Di icul
condi ions also migh ha e made some people lose hei ocus on wha hey
we e lis ening o.72
Howe e , he peasan s who e-enac ed he Ch is mas se ice in Sulka a had
clea ly abso bed a lo o in o ma ion om he chu ch se ice, om he cou se
o li u gy o he ex o he Bible. This is an in e es ing con adic ion ha can
p obably be explained by he di e en physical, social and economic condi-
ions o he inhabi an s o eas e n Finland. Fo weal hie peasan s, pe o ming
well in examina ions migh ha e been an impo an pa o ep esen ing hei
social s a us. In gene al, he inhabi an s o he a ea iden i ied hemsel es as
Ch is ians, and Lu he an eligious p ac ice was an in eg al pa o hei li es,
e en i hey we e no in e es ed in lea ning he Ca echism o eage o a end
examina ions. The in luence o he chu ch can also be seen in popula cul-
u e. The mos impo an p aye s we e used o di e en pu poses, which is
one example o he in e mingling o he o al and w i en cul u es.73 P aye s
hea d in chu ch se ices could be adap ed in o incan a ions used in popu-
la healing.74 By he se en een h cen u y, singing Ch is ian hymns had also
become a common pa o he celeb a ion o popula eas s.75 These examples
oge he wi h he case om Sulka a show how ex s we e commonly adop ed
om chu ch se ices o popula use.
The example om Sulka a shows ha he holy day se ice as a whole had
an impo an ole as a ool o Ch is ian educa ion. I seems ha he peasan s
did no lea n only by eci ing he Ca echism, bu also by pa icipa ing.76 When
hey we e p esen a he chu ch se ice as ‘lis ene s’, he pa ishione s sang he
hymns hey knew, eci ed p aye s, s ood up and knel down in ce ain pa s o
he li u gy, as ed he wine and b ead o he eucha is , and some imes e en
walked up o he al a o b ing hei o e ings.77 Acco ding o Gö an Malms ed ,
Swedish cle gymen complained abou hei pa ishione s who would epea
72 Kuha, Pyhäpäi ien ie o, p. 109; Malms ed , Bonde o och ky ko o, pp. 159–62.
73 Fo example, in Häme in wes e n Finland, when a g oup o peasan s d ank a ce emo-
nial oas in honou o a my hological dei y called Ukko, asking him o gi e ain o hei
c ops, hey eci ed Lo d’s P aye h ee imes bo h be o e and a e d inking he oas . (KA,
Po oo ja Hollola, KO a:2, Hauho, Tuulos and Lammi, 19–21 No embe 1662, pp. 90 –91 ).
74 Eg. ‘Pis os / K is uksen uumis’ (KA, Pohjanmaa, KO a:10, Isoky ö and Vähäky ö, 5–10 July
1658) and o he examples in Ka i Kallio, e c. (eds.), Uuden ajan alun loi su (Helsinki:
Suomalaisen Ki jallisuuden Seu a; o hcoming).
75 Toi o, Fai h and magic, p. 93.
76 Raisa Toi o has emphasised he pa icipa o y na u e o eligious p ac ice in Fai h and
Magic, pp. 97–8.
77 See Kuha, Pyhäpäi ien ie o; Monica Weike 2004, I sjukdom och nöd. O e ky koseden i
S e ige ån 1600- al ill 1800- al (Gö ebo g: Gö ebo gs uni e si e , 2004).
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273The Teache s and he Lis ene s?
he cle ic’s wo ds in a quie mu mu in ce ain pa s o he se ice. Malms ed
in e p e s his beha iou as an exp ession o popula pie y and ene a ion o
he holy wo d.78
In his chap e , I ha e also aimed o show some examples o how in lu-
ences sp ead om he cen e o he pe iphe y, a elling along wi h people
and books a ound he Bal ic Sea. The bishops o Vybo g s udied in Ge man
uni e si ies and he local cle ics in Uppsala, Ta u, Tu ku and Vybo g, and
in luences sp ead wi h hem o he pa ishes mainly h ough chu ch se ices.
Li u gical li e a u e published in he e nacula was also an impo an way o
sp eading he message o he chu ch. The wo k o Bishop Elimaeus shows ha
indi iduals we e also in e es ed in de eloping hei local chu ch wi h some
independence. The peasan s, on he o he hand, we e able o in eg a e li e a e
in luences om he chu ch as a pa o hei own o al cul u e, like he celeb a-
ion o adi ional eas days in a ca ni alesque manne , u ning he wo ld and
social oles upside down. The e-enac men o he Lu he an chu ch se ice on
he adi ional eas day o S S ephen, wi h i uals cen ed on he success o
ca al y households, is a conc e e example o he ways in which he o al and li -
e a y cul u es me on he pe iphe y. The young ca al y soldie d essing himsel
in he ‘cassock’ and eci ing he Bible bo h ep esen ed he adi ional mean-
ing o he eas and displayed he skills he had lea ned in he pa ish chu ch.
78 Malms ed , Bonde o och ky ko o, pp. 133–4. This kind o beha iou is also known om
eas e n Finland. See Pen i Laasonen, Pohjois-Ka jalan lu e ilainen ki kollinen kansankul -
uu i Ruo sin allan aikana (Helsinki: The Suomen ki kkohis o iallinen seu a, 1967), p. 233.
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