sus ainabili y
A icle
Food Was e D i e s in Eu ope, om Iden i ica ion o
Possible In e en ions
Massimo Canali 1,*, Pegah Amani 2, Lusine A amyan 3, Manuela Gheoldus 4, G aham Moa es 5,
Ka in Ös e g en 2, Ki si Sil ennoinen 6, Kei h Wald on 5and Ma eo Vi ua i 1
1Dipa imen o di Scienze e Tecnologie Ag oalimen a i, Uni e si à di Bologna, Via Fanin 50, 40127 Bologna,
I aly; [email p o ec ed]
2SP Technical Resea ch Ins i u e o Sweden, Ag i ood and Bioscience, Ideon, SE-223 70 Lund, Sweden;
[email p o ec ed] (P.A.); Ka in.Os e g [email p o ec ed] (K.Ö.)
3LEI, Hollandseweg 1, NL-6701 KN Wageningen, The Ne he lands; lusine.a amyan@wu .nl
4Deloi e Dé eloppemen Du able, 185 a enue Cha les de Gaulle, 92200 Neuilly-su -Seine, F ance;
[email p o ec ed]
5Ins i u e o Food Resea ch, No wich Resea ch Pa k, Colney, No wich NR4 7UA, UK;
g aham.moa es@i .ac.uk (G.M.); kei h.wald on@i .ac.uk (K.W.)
6Na u al Resou ces Ins i u e Finland (Luke), La oka anonkaa i 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland;
[email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]; Tel.: +39-329-215-81-36
Academic Edi o : Thomas A. T abold
Recei ed: 11 No embe 2016; Accep ed: 23 Decembe 2016; Published: 28 Decembe 2016
Abs ac :
The g owing olumes o ood globally los o was ed and implica ions o ood secu i y
and sus ainabili y ha e aised he conce n o esea che s, go e nmen s, in e na ional o ganiza ions
and g ass- oo mo emen s. Much esea ch and expe iences in es iga ing ood was e causes and
d i e s ocus on one speci ic segmen o he ood supply chain and limi he analysis o he si ua ion
o one o ew coun ies, while he ew s udies o wide geog aphical scope also a ge o he ele an
and di e si ied objec i es (e.g., ood was e de ini ion, quan i ica ion, en i onmen al and economic
impac s, and ecommenda ions o in e en ions). This s udy, ca ied ou by a ne wo k o Eu opean
ins i u ions in ol ed in esea ch and ini ia i es agains ood was e, ocuses on he analysis o a b oad
a ea, Eu ope, h ough a wide and sys ema ic li e a u e e iew and consul a ion wi h s akeholde s
in in e na ional ocus g oups. The ood supply chain was di ided in o se en segmen s and h ee
main con ex s we e de ined o he examina ion o ood was e sou ces: Technological, Ins i u ional
( ela ed o o ganisa ional ac o s, i.e., business managemen , economy, legisla ion, and policy), and
Social ( ela ed o consume s’ beha iou s and li es yles). Resul s sugges a wide and mul i ace ed
p oblem, in e connec ed ac oss all s ages o he ood supply chain, om p ima y p oduc ion,
o inal consump ion. Wi hin each con ex , he iden i ied d i e s ha e been g ouped acco ding
o he possibili ies and he ype o in e en ions o ood was e educ ion. A inal c oss-con ex ual
p io i iza ion dis inguished ood was e sou ces ela ed o (A) inhe en cha ac e is ics o ood; (B) social
and economic ac o s; (C) indi idual non- eadily changeable beha iou s; (D) o he p io i ies a ge ed
by p i a e and public s akeholde s; (E) di e si ied ac o s, such as mismanagemen , ine icien
legisla ion, lack o awa eness o in o ma ion; and sub-op imal use o a ailable echnologies, which
could be mo e p omp ly changed. Such di e si ica ion o causes calls o speci ic moni o ing
sys ems, a ge ed policy measu es, and ac ions o indi idual s akeholde s a each s age o he
ood supply chain.
Keywo ds: ood was e; ood was e d i e s; ood sus ainabili y; ood policy
Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 37; doi:10.3390/su9010037 www.mdpi.com/jou nal/sus ainabili y
Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 37 2 o 33
1. In oduc ion
In ecen yea s, many s udies and ini ia i es launched by go e nmen al and in e na ional
o ganisa ions ha e aised public a en ion on ood was e (FW) and i s implica ions in e ms o
nu i ion secu i y, sus ainable de elopmen , en i onmen al impac , and spoiled esou ces. I has
been es ima ed, ha nea ly one- hi d o he o al ood mass [
1
] and abou one-qua e o he o al
ood calo ies [
2
] globally p oduced would be los o was ed. This equals o a g een-house gas (GHG)
impac o 3.3 G onnes o CO
2
equi alen —no including emissions due o land-use changes, which
would inc ease he o al es ima ion by be ween 25% and 40%—an amoun which exceeds he o al
GHG emission o e e y coun y in he wo ld excep China and he Uni ed S a es [
3
]. In he Eu opean
Union (EU), an a e age FW annual p oduc ion o 180 kg pe inhabi an has been es ima ed, excluding
was e om he ag icul u al sec o , which co esponds o 25% o he ood pu chased by households [
4
].
Such igu es call o iden i ying FW causes along he ood supply chain (FSC) and which
policies should be unde aken o FW p e en ion and educ ion. In 2011, he Eu opean Commission
(EC) in i ed he EU Membe S a es o add ess ood was age in hei na ional was e p e en ion
p og ammes [
5
]. In Janua y 2012, a Resolu ion o he Eu opean Pa liamen [
6
] called o u gen
measu es o hal e FW by 2025 h ough a co-o dina ed s a egy, combining Eu opean and na ional
measu es ha imp o e he e iciency o he FSC, sec o by sec o . In Sep embe 2015, he Uni ed
Na ions (UN) 2030 Agenda o Sus ainable De elopmen in oduced he a ge o hal ing, by he yea
2030, he amoun o FW pe capi a globally p oduced a he e ail and consume le els (Sus ainable
De elopmen Goal No. 12.5) [
7
]. In Decembe 2015, he EC iden i ied FW among he p io i y a eas o
he EU Ac ion Plan o Ci cula Economy [
8
], in o de o de elop a common me hodology o measu e
FW and de ine ele an indica o s, c ea e a s akeholde pla o m o sha e bes p ac ices, cla i y ood
legisla ion, acili a e ood dona ions and ecycling, and imp o e da e labelling.
Much esea ch and expe iences in es iga ing FW causes and d i e s ocus on some speci ic
segmen s o he FSC. The mos a ge ed a e he inal segmen s, i.e., e ail, ood se ices and
consume s/households, whe e mos o pos -ha es FW is gene a ed in de eloped coun ies.
Addi ionally, many s udies limi he analysis o a single coun y, while he analyses o in e na ional
scope aiming a iden i ying he main FW de e minan s o he whole FSC a e no equen and in gene al
a e included in wide s udies a ge ing o he ele an objec i es such as FW de ini ion, quan i ica ion,
en i onmen al impac , economic impac , cu en legisla ion, ac ions o social engagemen , and policy
ecommenda ions [1,4,9,10] (see Table 1).
Table 1. Selec ion o ecen s udies analysing ood was e causes.
Re e ence Au ho
Segmen s o
he FSC
Add essed
Desc ip ion and Me hods Geog aphical
Co e age
Classi ying
FW Causes o
D i e s
[11] Lan anchi e al. (2016) Consume s/
households
Ques ionnai e su ey on a la ge sample
o he popula ion o he P o ince o
Messina (Sicily–I aly) in es iga ing
households’ ood pu chase beha iou s,
easons o was ing ood and a i udes
owa ds p e en i e ac ions
I aly NO
[12]Mondeja -Jimenez e al.
(2016) Consume s/
households
Explo a o y s udy, based on a su ey
in ol ing 380 you hs in I aly and Spain,
in es iga ing ood was e beha iou s in
he amewo k o he Theo y o
Planned Beha iou .
I aly and
Spain NO
[13]Thybe g and Tonjes
(2016) The whole FSC
La ge e iew o his o ical p emises and
cu en main d i e s o FW:
mode nisa ion o ood sys ems,
cul u al, socio-demog aphic, and
beha iou al ac o s, and policies
causing gene a ion o FW
Mos ly he
USA YES
Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 37 3 o 33
Table 1. Con .
Re e ence Au ho
Segmen s o
he FSC
Add essed
Desc ip ion and Me hods Geog aphical
Co e age
Classi ying
FW Causes o
D i e s
[14] Vissche s e al. (2016) Consume s/
households
In es iga ion on he causes o
sel -decla ed FW in household h ough
an e-mail su ey (796 ques ionnai es) Swi ze land NO
[15] Secondi e al. (2015) Consume s/
households
Mul ile el analysis on household ood
was e beha iou in he Eu opean
coun ies based on he esul s o a Flash
Su ey o Eu oba ome e
Eu ope NO
[16] Gi o o e al. (2015) Va ious
Analysis o FW gene a ion in di e en
FSC sec o s unde he pe spec i e o
eco e y o indus ial uses
(li e a u e e iew)
Unspeci ied NO
[17]Aschemann-Wi zel e al.
(2015) Consume s/
households
Resul s o a e iew o li e a u e and
11 expe in e iews on FW causes
in households Unspeci ied NO
[18] Ne e al. (2015) Consume s/
households
On-line su ey o a ep esen a i e
sample o US consume s
(1010 esponden s) in es iga ing
awa eness, a i udes, and beha iou s
abou he was e o ood
USA NO
[19] Pa izeau e al. (2015) Consume s/
households
Su ey o 68 households in a Canadian
middle-sized own and measu e o he
FW p oduced. Canada NO
[20] Adams (2015) The whole FSC
S udy in es iga ing he ole o e aile s
in he gene a ion o FW ac oss he ood
supply chain and assessing policy
ecommenda ions wi h espec o
i s educ ion
Eu ope YES
[21] P incipa o e al. (2015) Consume s/
households
Assessmen o he awa eness on FW
issues in a non-p obabilis ic sample o
233 I alian uni e si y s uden s in Rome I aly NO
[22] S ancu e al. (2015) Consume s/
households
Analysis o beha iou al a i udes
owa ds sel - epo ed household FW in
a sample o 1062 Danish consume s Denma k NO
[23] Be z e al. (2015) Food se ices
Quan i ica ion o FW p oduced by he
ood se ices o wo big companies
ope a ing espec i ely in he educa ion
and in he business sec o s
Swi ze land NO
[24]Lebe so ge and
Schneide (2014) Re ail and
ma ke s
Quan i ica ion o was e o di e en
ca ego ies o ood p oduc s and
in es iga ion o ela ed causes based on
FW da a collec ed om 612 Aus ian
ood e ail ou le s and on a so ing
analysis o disca ded ood in a small
sample o he su eyed ou le s
Aus ia NO
[10]High Le el Panel o
Expe s (2014) The whole FSC
Repo by he High Le el Panel o
Expe s o he Commi ee on Wo ld
Food Secu i y (HLPE) e iewing a wide
ange o causes o FW, and iden i ying
b oad ca ego ies and le els o causes
Global YES
[25]G aham-Rowe e al.
(2014) Consume s/
households
Quali a i e s udy based on
semi-s uc u ed in e iews o 15 UK
households iden i ying mo i a ions
and ba ie s o FW minimisa ion
UK NO
[26] Abelio is e al. (2014) Consume s/
households
Face- o- ace in e iews on he FW
a i udes and he p esence o
beha iou al good p ac ices p e en ing
FW o 231 G eek consume s
G eece NO
[27] Ques ed e al. (2013) Consume s/
households
Analysis on he esul s o s udies on he
beha iou s o UK consume s owa ds
FW, on how hey ha e been used in
public-awa eness campaigns, and how
hey i he main beha iou al heo ies
UK NO
Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 37 4 o 33
Table 1. Con .
Re e ence Au ho
Segmen s o
he FSC
Add essed
Desc ip ion and Me hods Geog aphical
Co e age
Classi ying
FW Causes o
D i e s
[28] Schneide (2013) The whole FSC
Summa y o in e na ional esea ch on
FW p e en ion wi h espec o di e en
con inen s and ood supply chain
segmen s (li e a u e e iew)
Global NO
[29]Oelo se and Nahman
(2012) The whole FSC
Es ima ion o o al FW in Sou h A ica
based on a ailable ood supply da a o
he coun y and on es ima es o a e age
FW gene a ion a each s ep o he ood
supply chain o sub-Saha an A ica
Sou h A ica NO
[30] Koi upu o e al. (2012). Consume s/
households
In es iga ion, based on a ques ionnai e
and on a FW dia y s udy, abou he
in luence o socio-demog aphical,
beha iou al, and a i udinal ac o s on
he gene a ion o FW in 380
Finnish households
Finland NO
[31] Williams e al. (2012) Consume s/
households
S udy on FW causes in he Swedish
household, especially ela ed o
packaging, based on he eco d o
sel -measu ed FW p oduced by
61 amilies along se en days
Sweden NO
[32] Bap is a e al. (2012) The whole FSC
Ou comes o a na ional esea ch p ojec
(PERDA) aimed a es ima ing he o al
amoun o FW in he Po uguese FSC
h ough mass low analysis, on line
ques ionnai es, and in e iews
o expe s
Po ugal NO
[33] Mena e al. (2011)
Food
p ocessing,
wholesale and
e ail
Based on da a collec ed h ough
43 in e iews wi h manage s in ood
manu ac u ing, wholesaling and
e ailing in he UK and Spain, he s udy
discusses he iden i ied oo causes o
FW and good p ac ices.
Spain, UK YES
[1] Gus a sson e al. (2011) The whole FSC
Quan i ica ion o global losses
occu ing along he ood supply chain
and iden i ica ion o causes and
possible ways o FW p e en ion
Global YES
[34] Waa s e al. (2011) The whole FSC
In es iga ion on legisla ion obs acles o
ood was e educ ion based on
in e iews and wo wo kshops wi h
expe s and s akeholde s om di e en
FSC segmen s
Ne he lands YES
[4]Bio In elligence
Se ice (2010) The whole FSC
Based on expe in e iews and
li e a u e and da a analysis, he s udy
co e s all main aspec s o he FW issue
in he EU (causes, quan i ica ion,
en i onmen al impac s, exis ing
policies, and ecommenda ions)
Eu opean
Union YES
[9] Pa i e al. (2010) The whole FSC
S udy based on an in e na ional
li e a u e e iew and in e iews o ood
supply chain expe s analysing FW
de ini ions, es ima es, and causes.
Global YES
Sou ce: own elabo a ion.
This s udy was concei ed wi hin he Eu opean P ojec FUSIONS (Food Use o Social Inno a ion
by Op imising Was e P e en ion S a egies—h p://www.eu- usions.o g/) and aimed a iden i ying,
classi ying, and analysing he main causes o FW gene a ion along he en i e FSC and he impac s
o cu en de elopmen s in echnology, FSC managemen , and consume s’ beha iou s and li es yles.
The coun ies included in he Eu opean Economic A ea (EEA) we e he main geog aphical e e ence
o he analysis, which was based on a wide e iew o exis ing documen s, scien i ic li e a u e, and
esul s o p e ious esea ch, and was implemen ed by in es iga ing FW sou ces in he di e en
segmen s o he FSC h ough h ee ca ego ies o d i e s: Technological, Ins i u ional (i.e., ela ed o
o ganisa ional ac o s), and Social (i.e., ela ed o beha iou al ac o s). The in e na ional ne wo k o
Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 37 5 o 33
esea ch, academic and go e nmen ins i u ions, non-go e nmen al o ganisa ions, p i a e businesses,
and indi idual expe s in ol ed a di e en le els in he FUSIONS P ojec p o ided a undamen al
suppo o ca y ou he s udy, h ough consul a ions and discussions o ganised in he amewo k o
he P ojec ’s ac i i ies.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. Se ing Up he S uc u e o he Analysis
The i s s ep o he wo k consis ed in he iden i ica ion o speci ic domains (con ex s)
cha ac e izing FW d i e s and he di e en FSC le els a which FW can be gene a ed. Th ee con ex s
o he classi ica ion o FW d i e s we e deduced om a i s analysis o li e a u e and consul a ions o
expe s in ol ed in he FUSIONS p ojec :
i
The Technological con ex is in ended o ga he he FW d i e s ela ed o misuse, ailu es, and
limi s o cu en FSC echnologies;
ii
The Ins i u ional con ex e e s o he o ganiza ional aspec s o ood p oduc ion and consump ion
in he pe spec i e o bo h he p i a e and he public sec o . This implied he de ini ion o
wo sub-con ex s:
a.
The Business managemen and economy sub-con ex is ela ed o he FW d i e s depending
on o ganiza ion o ood businesses and hei in eg a ion along he FSC, and on managemen
choices de e mined by economic a iables;
b.
The Legisla ion and policy sub-con ex is conce ned wi h FW caused by ine icien
legisla ion in he ood sec o and in o he connec ed ields, and by policy measu es ha may
subo dina e po en ial gene a ion o FW o o he p io i ies (e.g., ood secu i y, ood sa e y,
consume in o ma ion, low cos o was e disposal, e c.).
iii
The Social con ex e e s o FW d i e s ela ed o consume beha iou s and li es yles.
The FSC was di ided in o se en segmen s, which de ine he di e en s ages o he whole
om- a m- o- o k p ocess:
(1)
The p ima y p oduc ion segmen includes he p oduc ion o ood s aples des ined o p ocessing
o di ec ly o inal consump ion;
(2)
The p ocessing o ag icul u al s aples segmen e e s o he i s p ocessing o ag icul u al s aples
p oducing ing edien s mainly des ined o u he p ocessing in he ood indus y;
(3)
The ood p ocessing and packaging segmen is conce ned wi h p oduc ion and packaging o
ood p oduc s o consume s;
(4)
The wholesale and logis ics segmen ela es o he ac i i ies o wholesaling o ood p oduc s,
including s o age and anspo a ion;
(5) The e ail and ma ke s segmen emb aces he selling o ood o consume s in supe ma ke s, shops
and ma ke places;
(6)
The ood se ices segmen is ela ed o he p epa a ion o meals and dishes consumed ou side
he home;
(7)
The households segmen e e s o he p epa a ion and consump ion o ood a home.
On his basis, he in o ma ion on FW causes collec ed o he analysis was o ganized in a ma ix,
whose ows and columns we e espec i ely he se en FSC segmen s and he h ee con ex /d i e
ca ego ies (Figu e 1). This ype o s uc u e allowed a bi-dimensional analysis o he in o ma ion
on FW causes: “ho izon al”, i.e., by FSC segmen , and “ e ical”, i.e., by ype o d i e s (o con ex
ca ego y), as espec i ely indica ed by blue and g een a ows in Figu e 1.

Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 37 6 o 33
Sus ainabili y 2017, 9, doi:10.3390/su9010037 6 o 33
On his basis, he in o ma ion on FW causes collec ed o he analysis was o ganized in a ma ix,
whose ows and columns we e espec i ely he se en FSC segmen s and he h ee con ex /d i e
ca ego ies (Figu e 1). This ype o s uc u e allowed a bi-dimensional analysis o he in o ma ion on
FW causes: “ho izon al”, i.e., by FSC segmen , and “ e ical”, i.e., by ype o d i e s (o con ex
ca ego y), as espec i ely indica ed by blue and g een a ows in Figu e 1.
2.2. In en o y o Food Was e Causes and Iden i ica ion o D i e s
The basis o he analysis was an in en o y o FW causes de eloped on he in o ma ion collec ed
h ough a ques ionnai e submi ed o 13 ins i u ions in ol ed in he FUSIONS p ojec om di e en
EEA coun ies. Fo each FSC segmen , he ques ionnai e eques ed he expe s o he ins i u ions
in ol ed o indica e he cu en causes o FW gene a ion and he espec i e in o ma ion sou ces om
he scien i ic li e a u e o o he sou ce. The e u ned ques ionnai es indica ed a o al o 286 causes o
FW gene a ion based on 171 li e a u e e e ences and on he di ec expe ience o he in e iewees
[35]. The in o ma ion collec ed was also in eg a ed by consul a ion and discussion in ocus g oups a
nine mee ings o ganized by he FUSIONS p ojec be ween 2013 and 2014, which in ol ed mo e han
150 Eu opean s akeholde s ope a ing in di e en FSC segmen s (see Appendix A).
A e he in en o y, he iden i ied FW causes we e analysed o de ine he espec i e o igina ing
d i e s and classi y hem in o he h ee con ex s. The whole supply chain was hen analysed e ically
unde he pe spec i e o he d i e s’ ca ego ies, as se by he ma ix s uc u e o he s udy (Figu e 1).
This exe cise, which also ook in o conside a ion he ocus g oups’ consul a ions, led o dis inguish,
wi hin each con ex ca ego y, h ee g oups o d i e s. The clus e ing c i e ia we e speci ic o each
con ex , bu ollowed he gene al p inciple o di e en ia ing he d i e s by possible in e en ions o
FW educ ion (Table 2).
Figu e 1. Rep esen a ion o he ma ix s uc u e o he analysis: he small ed disks, he blue a ows,
and he g een a ows espec i ely symbolise he in o ma ion collec ed, he ho izon al analysis by FSC
segmen , and he e ical analysis by con ex ca ego y (own elabo a ion).
Figu e 1.
Rep esen a ion o he ma ix s uc u e o he analysis: he small ed disks, he blue a ows,
and he g een a ows espec i ely symbolise he in o ma ion collec ed, he ho izon al analysis by FSC
segmen , and he e ical analysis by con ex ca ego y (own elabo a ion).
2.2. In en o y o Food Was e Causes and Iden i ica ion o D i e s
The basis o he analysis was an in en o y o FW causes de eloped on he in o ma ion collec ed
h ough a ques ionnai e submi ed o 13 ins i u ions in ol ed in he FUSIONS p ojec om di e en
EEA coun ies. Fo each FSC segmen , he ques ionnai e eques ed he expe s o he ins i u ions
in ol ed o indica e he cu en causes o FW gene a ion and he espec i e in o ma ion sou ces om
he scien i ic li e a u e o o he sou ce. The e u ned ques ionnai es indica ed a o al o 286 causes o
FW gene a ion based on 171 li e a u e e e ences and on he di ec expe ience o he in e iewees [
35
].
The in o ma ion collec ed was also in eg a ed by consul a ion and discussion in ocus g oups a
nine mee ings o ganized by he FUSIONS p ojec be ween 2013 and 2014, which in ol ed mo e han
150 Eu opean s akeholde s ope a ing in di e en FSC segmen s (see Appendix A).
A e he in en o y, he iden i ied FW causes we e analysed o de ine he espec i e o igina ing
d i e s and classi y hem in o he h ee con ex s. The whole supply chain was hen analysed e ically
unde he pe spec i e o he d i e s’ ca ego ies, as se by he ma ix s uc u e o he s udy (Figu e 1).
This exe cise, which also ook in o conside a ion he ocus g oups’ consul a ions, led o dis inguish,
wi hin each con ex ca ego y, h ee g oups o d i e s. The clus e ing c i e ia we e speci ic o each
con ex , bu ollowed he gene al p inciple o di e en ia ing he d i e s by possible in e en ions o
FW educ ion (Table 2).
Based on d i e s’ g ouping, he inal pa o he wo k was a ans e sal analysis ac oss he d i e s’
con ex s, which led o p io i isa ion o he d i e s based on he ype o ac ions o be unde aken by
s akeholde s a di e en le els. The de elopmen o he whole s udy is summa ised in Figu e 2.
Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 37 7 o 33
Table 2. G ouping o iden i ied ood was e d i e s by con ex and sub-con ex .
Con ex s and
Sub-Con ex s Clus e ing C i e ia o he Iden i ied Food Was e D i e s
Technological
T1—d i e s inhe en o he cha ac e is ics o ood, and o i s p oduc ion and consump ion, whe e
echnology has become limi ed;
T2—d i e s ela ed o colla e al e ec s o mode n echnologies;
T3—d i e s ela ed o he subop imal use o , and mis akes in he use o mode n echnology;
Ins i u ional—(A)
Business
managemen and
economy
IBE1—d i e s add essable by managemen solu ions ope a ed wi hin one single business uni ;
IBE2—d i e s add essable by managemen solu ions coo dina ed among di e en ope a o s o he
ood supply chain;
IBE3—d i e s depending on b oade economic and s uc u al a iables, no eadily add essable by
managemen solu ions a he le el o single business uni s o he supply chain;
Ins i u ional—(B)
Legisla ion and
policy
ILP1—d i e s ela ed o he ag icul u al policy and o ood quali y and ma ke ing s anda ds;
ILP2—d i e s ela ed o ood sa e y, consume heal h and in o ma ion, and animal wel a e policies;
ILP3—d i e s ela ed o he was e and axa ion policies and o o he policies;
Social
S1—d i e s ela ed o wide social dynamics ha a e no eadily changeable;
S2—d i e s ela ed o consume s’ indi idual beha iou s ha a e no eadily changeable;
S3—d i e s ela ed o consume s’ indi idual beha iou s modi iable h ough in o ma ion and
imp o ed awa eness;
Sou ce: own elabo a ion.
Sus ainabili y 2017, 9, doi:10.3390/su9010037 7 o 33
Table 2. G ouping o iden i ied ood was e d i e s by con ex and sub-con ex .
Con ex s and
Sub-Con ex s Clus e ing C i e ia o he Iden i ied Food Was e D i e s
Technological
T1—d i e s inhe en o he cha ac e is ics o ood, and o i s p oduc ion and
consump ion, whe e echnology has become limi ed;
T2—d i e s ela ed o colla e al e ec s o mode n echnologies;
T3—d i e s ela ed o he subop imal use o , and mis akes in he use o mode n
echnology;
Ins i u ional—(A)
Business managemen
and economy
IBE1—d i e s add essable by managemen solu ions ope a ed wi hin one single
business uni ;
IBE2—d i e s add essable by managemen solu ions coo dina ed among
di e en ope a o s o he ood supply chain;
IBE3—d i e s depending on b oade economic and s uc u al a iables, no
eadily add essable by managemen solu ions a he le el o single business
uni s o he supply chain;
Ins i u ional—(B)
Legisla ion and policy
ILP1—d i e s ela ed o he ag icul u al policy and o ood quali y and
ma ke ing s anda ds;
ILP2—d i e s ela ed o ood sa e y, consume heal h and in o ma ion, and
animal wel a e policies;
ILP3—d i e s ela ed o he was e and axa ion policies and o o he policies;
Social
S1—d i e s ela ed o wide social dynamics ha a e no eadily changeable;
S2—d i e s ela ed o consume s’ indi idual beha iou s ha a e no eadily
changeable;
S3—d i e s ela ed o consume s’ indi idual beha iou s modi iable h ough
in o ma ion and imp o ed awa eness;
Sou ce: own elabo a ion.
Based on d i e s’ g ouping, he inal pa o he wo k was a ans e sal analysis ac oss he
d i e s’ con ex s, which led o p io i isa ion o he d i e s based on he ype o ac ions o be
unde aken by s akeholde s a di e en le els. The de elopmen o he whole s udy is summa ised
in Figu e 2.
Figu e 2. The de elopmen o he s udy (own elabo a ion).
Figu e 2. The de elopmen o he s udy (own elabo a ion).
3. Resul s: Food Was e D i e s in Con ex
3.1. The Technological Con ex
The iden i ied echnological FW d i e s ha e been di ided in o h ee b oad g oups as desc ibed
in he ollowing Sub-Sec ions.
3.1.1. FW D i e s Inhe en o he Cha ac e is ics o Food, and o I s P oduc ion and Consump ion,
Whe e Technology Has Become Limi ed (T1)
T1 d i e s a e ela ed o he limi s o a ailable echnologies wi h espec o ce ain cha ac e is ics
o ood s aples (e.g., pe ishabili y) and he modes o hei p oduc ion and consump ion. These ypes o
d i e s a e mos ly seen in he p ima y p oduc ion and p ocessing o a m s aples segmen s o he FSC,
whe e s o age and mic obiological issues ela ed o pe ishabili y o a m p oduc s may occu [
36
–
39
]
and also changing en i onmen al and wea he condi ions may a ec signi ican ly p oduc quali y
Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 37 8 o 33
and possibili ies o conse a ion, wi h impac s in e ms o FW [
40
]. An example is gi en by losses
o oilseeds caused by pod sha e o du ing ha es [
41
,
42
], which canno be eadily add essed by
echnology, bu equi e esea ch and plan b eeding solu ions. Clima e change was also iden i ied as a
d i e con ibu ing o inc eased losses due o mois u e and moulds, as well as inc eased con amina ion
in ha es ed c ops [
43
]. Pe ishabili y is howe e a ac o o g ea conce n in all he FSC segmen s,
which a ailable echnologies a e no always able o manage, especially o esh p oduc s and in
ad e se condi ions o s o age and anspo a ion, and may also lead o insu icien p oduc li e a he
household [36,40,44–52].
Some cha ac e is ics o ood p oduc ion educe he possibili y o p edic he olumes o supply
and demand by hinde ing he capaci y o FSC ope a o s o adap o changing ma ke se ings wi h
consequences on FW gene a ion. A he a m le el, c op p oduc ion is a ec ed by a iabili y ac o s,
such as wea he , pes s, phy opa hogens, and al e na e bea ing cha ac e s [
53
,
54
]. These ac o s may
di ec ly cause o e p oduc ion o induce a me s o o e plan in o de o a oid isks o no ul illing
con ac condi ions o deli e ies in e ms o inal p oduc s’ quan i ies and g ading cha ac e is ics.
Was e o unsold and unha es ed p oduc s is he consequence, pa icula ly e iden o he mo e
pe ishable p oduc s such as ui and ege ables [
55
–
57
]. Mo e gene ally, c ops and li es ock
p oduc ion always implies conside able ime gaps be ween he planning o p oduc ion olumes
and when he p oduc s can be ma ke ed: an example is he ime gap be ween he i s in es men s
o plan ing ee c ops and he i s possible ha es , which in gene al co e s se e al yea s. Fo hese
ypes o mo i a ions, he echnical capaci y o a oid c op-sh ink was age due o o e plan ing, g ading,
and ma ke p ice alls may be limi ed [
56
,
58
]. Simila ly, consume demand o ood p oduc s may
be ex emely ola ile due o unusual wea he condi ions, ood sca es, and se e al o he causes
(see Sec ion 3.4.2): o ecas ing hese e en s o en is echnically impossible and he whole FSC is
in ol ed in he ma ke imbalances hey c ea e, wi h impac s in e ms o FW inc ease.
3.1.2. FW D i e s Rela ed o Colla e al E ec s o Mode n Technologies (T2)
T2 g ouping ela es o he ac ha FSC echnologies e ol e by op imising no only he use o
ood s aples in he di e en FSC segmen s, bu also o he economically ele an ac o s o p oduc ion:
e.g., ene gy, land, buildings, equipmen , wo k o ce, e c. The e o e, he implemen a ion o new
echnologies ha po en ially cause an inc ease in he was e o ood s aples, bu educe he use o
o he mo e cos ly ac o s and compensa e addi ional losses wi h scaling p oduc ion, may be pe ec ly
a ional o bo h he ag i- ood businesses and consume s: especially i hey do no pay o he ull
en i onmen al damages caused by FW [59].
Examples o hese d i e s (T2) a e non-selec i e ishing, whe e awl ishing and non-selec i e
gea s imply by-ca ches which a e no u ilised [
60
–
63
]; and au oma ion o asks ela ed o ha es ing,
handling, p ocessing, and anspo a ion o ood s aples. P ocessing me hods o po a oes, ube s and
ege ables, such as mechanical peeling and handling, can cause e y high amoun s o was e [
64
,
65
]
and his may e lec he ad anced echnology o Eu opean ood p oduc ion sys ems. The so na u e
o many ui s and ege ables makes hem suscep ible o damage du ing au oma ed ha es and
handling, al hough much esea ch has been unde aken in his a ea in ecen decades [56].
Animals’ condi ions in indus ial li es ock a ming implies di e en ypes o s esses and impac s
on animal wel a e, wi h consequen losses o p oduc ion, dea hs o animals, and disca d o ca casses
a e slaugh e ing. This was e may be educed by imp o ing animal wel a e, which howe e ades
o p oduc ion cos s [
66
,
67
] and cu en p ac ices o indus ial li es ock a ming in gene al canno
a oid a ce ain le el o losses, e en when he minimum legal s anda ds on p o ec ion o animals a e
ul illed [68–72].
3.1.3. FW D i e s Rela ed o he Subop imal Use o , and Mis akes in he Use o Mode n
Technology (T3)
Mos echnological d i e s iden i ied in he li e a u e eside in he T3 g oup. These d i e s a e
also p edominan in all he sec o s o he ood chain pos a m-ga e and ha e o en s ic connec ions
Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 37 9 o 33
and o e laps wi h p oblems o o ganisa ion and mismanagemen wi hin he business uni s ha a e
ea ed as IBE1 ins i u ional d i e s in Sec ion 3.2.1.
Inadequa e sys ems o con ol in p oduc ion and p ocessing a e one o he mos equen ly ci ed
d i e s leading o FW. This occu s ac oss all sec o s o he ood p ocessing indus y. Examples include
slaugh e ing and p ocessing losses in he mea indus y [
47
], cu ing and imming losses [
73
], losses
due o p oduc ion e o s and udimen a y con ol measu es [
9
,
74
,
75
], p ocessing was e (e.g., pas y
immings, o e illing losses) [76], and ailu e o he hea seal on packaged ood [47].
Closely ela ed o inadequa e p oduc ion and p ocessing con ol a e subop imal ope a ion and
ease o use o equipmen , which can esul in losses due o p oduc ion e o s [
33
,
77
]. Spoilage caused
by poo s o age handling and condi ions, and damage c ea ed du ing anspo [
10
,
40
,
58
,
78
] along
wi h cold chain ine iciencies [79] occu du ing passage o ma e ials h oughou he FSC.
Subop imal use o packaging and labelling is also a key d i e in c ea ing FW, while app op ia e
use will help in he educ ion o FW by main aining p oduc quali y. Packaging de ec s and e o s can
lead o b oken and damaged ood i ems and he ood canno be sold i he packaging is misma ked
o mislabelled [
33
]. The packe size and ma e ial mus also be op imal o a oid was e in he
households [
31
]. FW a home can also be alle ia ed h ough imp o ed echnology such as idge
and eeze empe a u e and doo open ale s [
79
], sui able s o age con aine s and sys ems [
80
,
81
],
and in e ne and mobile applica ions.
Table 3shows a summa y o he FW d i e s iden i ied in he Technological con ex .
Table 3. Summa y o iden i ied FW d i e s in he Technological con ex .
G oupings o FW
D i e s (Technology) Iden i ied FW D i e s (Technology)
T1—FW d i e s inhe en o he
cha ac e is ics o ood, and o i s
p oduc ion and consump ion,
whe e echnology has
become limi ed
•Pe ishabili y o ood s aples;
•Changing en i onmen al and wea he condi ions;
•Clima e change;
•Unp edic abili y o supply and demand olumes and consequen
o e p oduc ion and demand ola ili y;
T2—FW d i e s ela ed o
colla e al e ec s o
mode n echnologies
•Fish by-ca ches;
•Au oma ion o asks ela ed o ha es ing, g ading, handling,
p ocessing, and anspo a ion o ood s aples;
•Animal s esses in indus ial li es ock a ming;
T3—FW d i e s ela ed o he
subop imal use o , and mis akes in
he use o mode n echnology
•Inadequa e sys ems o con ol in p oduc ion and p ocessing;
•Subop imal ope a ion and ease o use o equipmen ;
•Poo s o age handling and condi ions;
•Damages du ing anspo ;
•Cold chain ine iciencies;
•Subop imal use o packaging and labelling;
•Packaging de ec s and e o s;
•Inapp op ia e packe size and ma e ial;
•Inapp op ia e use o idges and s o age sys ems in households;
Sou ce: own elabo a ion.
3.2. The Ins i u ional Con ex —(A) Business Managemen and Economy
The d i e s ela ed o he Business managemen and economy con ex ela e o FW caused by
ope a ional o s a egic decisions unde aken wi hin he FSC business uni s. Howe e , he g ouping o
hese d i e s, desc ibed in he below sub-sec ions, conside s ha he decisions assumed by one uni
may also a ec he amoun o FW p oduced by o he FSC ope a o s.
3.2.1. FW D i e s Add essable by Managemen Solu ions wi hin One Single Business Uni (IBE1)
Mos business managemen and economy d i e s belong o he IBE1 g oup and i is highly
p obable ha a conside able amoun o FW c ea ed along he FSC could be a oided by managemen
Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 37 16 o 33
3.4.1. FW D i e s Rela ed o Wide Social Dynamics Tha A e No Readily Changeable (S1)
Indi idual beha iou s o consume s a e, in pa , ela ed o wide social dynamics ha de e mine
he S1 FW d i e s. In he cu en ci cums ances, u banisa ion, changing die a y habi s and globalisa ion
o ag i- ood ma ke s a e in e connec ed phenomena and a ec he FSC s uc u e, which adap s
o e ol ing popula ion needs and habi s wo ldwide, by impac ing on FW quan i a i ely and
quali a i ely [
9
,
13
]. The g ow h o popula ions li ing in big owns and u al emig a ion a e coupled o
ag icul u al and FSC mode niza ion, which educes p oduc ion losses in he ups eam FSC segmen s
(p e-ha es , anspo a ion, s o age, p ocessing), bu inc eases FW in he downs eam segmen s ( e ail,
ood se ices, households) [9].
Mos o his FW inc ease is ela ed o he adap a ion o li es yles o li ing and wo king condi ions
and o social dynamics o u ban a eas [
13
]. Some dis inc i e cha ac e is ics o he u ban households
show signi ican co ela ions wi h he amoun o FW indi idually p oduced. Households consis ing o
ew membe s o one single pe son, o young membe s, o child en, and ela i ely high income seem o
be he ea u es ha a e mos ly ela ed wi h highe FW p oduc ion pe capi a [
9
,
13
–
16
,
22
,
30
,
55
,
104
,
146
–
151
].
Di ec compa isons be ween u ban and u al households indica e ha he o me a e signi ican ly
highe FW p oduce s [15,152].
Di e ences in FW gene a ing beha iou s may also depend on culina y and ood habi s oo ed
in he e hnic o igins o people [
9
,
13
], al hough u banisa ion and globalisa ion end o educe
dissimila i ies by c ea ing an inc easingly homogeneous die a y and FW pa e n wo ldwide [
13
].
Some au ho s ha e de ec ed he p esence o a geog aphical di e en ia ion in he indi idual beha iou s
owa ds FW among he EU coun ies, which is likely o depend on con ex ual ac o s, o example:
he income pe -capi a, which seems posi i ely co ela ed o household FW gene a ion, and he
ci izens’ pe cep ion owa ds sus ainabili y issues, indi ec ly measu ed h ough a ious indica o s [
15
].
Acco ding o se e al su eys, consume s in gene al deem ha mode n “busy” li es yles make i much
mo e di icul o pe o m good p ac ices co ec ly ha acili a e FW a oidance [
16
,
25
,
153
–
156
]: in his
sense, sociological analyses de ined FW as “ he allou o he o ganiza ion o e e yday li e” [
136
], and
“a consequence o households enac ing o dina y domes ic p ac ices and nego ia ing he con ingencies
o e e yday li e” [
157
]. Au ho s ha e also ound gende -based di e si ies in FW gene a ing beha iou s,
wi h women ha seem o was e mo e han men in households [
14
,
30
,
55
,
153
,
158
,
159
], especially in
single-pe son households and in meal consump ion ou o home because o excessi e po ion size [
23
].
3.4.2. FW D i e s Rela ed o Consume s’ Indi idual Beha iou s ha A e No Readily Changeable (S2)
Consume s’ choices ela ed o ood a e mo i a ed by in ima e and ins inc i e expec a ions, which
a e he e e ence o FW d i e s included in he S2 g oup. Consume s do no like o buy ood p oduc s
p esen ing impe ec ions, such as esh ui and ege ables misshaped o blemished and packed
p oduc s wi h de ec s in he ex e nal w appe s and con aine s and in he labelling. All o he hings
being equal (p ice, quali y, po ion size, e c.), consume s choose he ood p oduc s ha show he
bes ex e nal appea ance, e en when hey know ha he p oduc s le unselec ed on he shel es,
in gene al, do no ha e in e io as e and nu i ional quali ies. The selec i e beha iou o consume s
wi h espec o he aes he ical appea ance o ood, being ansmi ed om e aile s and ood se ices
o all he ups eam segmen s, a ec s he o ganiza ion o he whole FSC and is conside ed a majo FW
d i e [1,16,33,36,45,49,65,83,85,86].
Ex e nal appea ance o ood is also a p ima y indica o o eshness, and consume s p e e o buy
he eshes p oduc s a ailable on he shel es o sa e y easons and because hey can be kep s o ed
longe a home. This is a majo S2 FW d i e o all highly pe ishable ood i ems [
1
,
4
,
9
,
42
,
54
,
58
,
61
,
107
].
When p oduc eshness canno be isually de ec ed, as o packed ood, da e labelling becomes he
main e e ence o selec ion and he majo i y o consume s end o a oid he pu chase o ood close
o he bes -be o e and use-by da es [
11
]. This beha iou has been iden i ied as a FW d i e , whose
e ec s may be ampli ied by consume misunde s anding wi h espec o he eal signi icance o da e
ma ks [1,4,58,83,85,136,137,151,160–163].

Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 37 17 o 33
Food sa e y conce ns a e impo an d i e s o selec i e beha iou in ood consump ion and
s ongly mo i a e consume s’ suspicion owa ds p oduc s p esen ing impe ec ions in hei ex e nal
appea ance o in packaging and his implies impac s on FW [
134
,
136
,
147
,
161
]. The was ing e ec
o sa e y ea s may inc ease when consume s do no know he ac ual h ea s ep esen ed by de ec s
in he ex e nal appea ance o ood i ems, o when hey a e unacquain ed wi h he consump ion
o p epa a ion o ce ain p oduc s, o wi h hei as e, such as exo ic o no el y ood [
49
,
78
,
81
].
Fu he mo e, he amoun o FW ela ed o sa e y conce ns may ise d ama ically in case o ood sca es
due o ood con amina ion by mic obes, oxins, pes icides, pha maceu icals, and pollu an s, o when
he media simply a ibu e a hypo he ical h ea o public heal h o a p oduc . In hese cases, deep alls
in consume demand and massi e p oduc ecalls de e mine dis up i e consequences on he whole
FSC and conside able amoun s o ood disca ds [43,58,164,165].
Consume s p e e he wides a ailabili y and possibili y o choice o ood p oduc s, independen
o he season and he places o p oduc ion and consump ion. The e o e, supe ma ke s and ood
se ices y o o e and display he mos a ied and quan i a i ely ich asso men s o ood p oduc s,
which impac s on he o ganiza ion o all he FSC segmen s and on he FW gene a ed. Examples, which
also in ol e he Managemen and economy sub-con ex , a e gi en by FW om o e p oduc ion and
o e s ocking c ea ed in he ups eam segmen s o ensu e e aile supply also o sho -no ice o de s,
which is a pa icula ly acu e p oblem o p oduc s ha ha e a e y sho shel -li e and a e subjec o
conside able ola ili y in demand, such as eady-meals [
33
,
75
,
77
,
83
,
85
,
96
,
166
], and when o he ac o s
o demand ola ili y occu , as in he case o seasonal i egula i ies in wea he [
33
,
36
,
47
,
84
,
94
,
154
],
a iable p esence o ou is s [
33
], p omo ional ood sales by compe i o s [
33
,
45
,
47
,
55
,
84
], new ood
ends [
84
] and e en s such as Ch is mas and Eas e [
84
,
104
,
156
,
167
]. In ac , ola ili y o ood demand
can be conside ed, by i sel , an impo an S2 FW d i e .
O he examples o FW d i en by consume p e e ence o ood abundance and a ie y a e FW
ela ed o demand o o -season and exo ic p oduc s [
1
,
4
,
160
,
168
]; FW a ising when esh p oduc s,
such as ui and ege ables, a e displayed by paying mo e a en ion o aes he ic c i e ia a ac i e o
consume s a he han o op imal p ese a ion condi ions ha could ex end he shel -li e [
85
]; and
FW caused by inc easing p ac ice o se ing bu e meals in es au an s and can eens [2,23,58,97,100].
P e e ence o wide ood a ailabili y and a ie y a home also induces consume s in o bad p ac ices
such as o e -shopping and o e -cooking, wi h e ec s in e ms o household FW [
11
,
104
,
156
,
168
–
172
].
3.4.3. FW D i e s Rela ed o Consume s’ Indi idual Beha iou s Modi iable h ough In o ma ion and
Inc eased Awa eness (S3)
Rega ding he FW d i e s depending on he indi idual beha iou s o consume s ha a e
modi iable h ough in o ma ion and inc eased awa eness (S3 d i e s), he analysis o he a ailable
li e a u e indica es ha poo ood skills and in o ma ion a e a i s cause o conside able amoun s
o FW. This d i e may include, o example, knowledge o elemen a y ood p ac ices such as
in e p e a ion o da e labels [
134
,
173
], co ec use o idges, eeze s and o he ki chen appliances,
p ope ood handling, s o age and anspo a ion, unde s anding and ollowing ins uc ions epo ed
on packaging [
46
,
79
,
82
,
134
,
174
], and ull use o packaging unc ionali ies ha ex end he p oduc
li e [46,81].
Beyond hese basic ac o s, se e al s udies and su eys ha e ound ha consume s’ culina y skills
and, mo e gene ally, in o ma ion and awa eness on he wide implica ions o ood (e.g., nu i ional
p ope ies and ela ed die a y e ec s, condi ions o sa e use, cul u al aspec s, social and en i onmen al
implica ions) ha e a posi i e co ela ion wi h a educed gene a ion o FW in he households, since
hey con ibu e o c ea e a posi i e a i ude owa ds good p ac ices a di e en le els: planning o ood
shopping and meals a home, ood s o age, meal p epa a ion and po ioning, euse o le o e s and
op imisa ion o ood a ailable a home, dona ion o he ood ha canno be consumed o any eason,
and so ing o ki chen was e [13–15,17,22,25,104,134,147,153,154,158,175–177].
Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 37 18 o 33
Household FW is also d i en by o ganisa ional aspec s o ood- ela ed p ac ices and ou ines a
home. Lack o a co ec planning o shopping and home meals, based on an in en o y o ood a ailable
a home and on he con ol o i s eshness and edibili y s a e, is indica ed as a cause o o e -shopping
and pu chase o p oduc s des ined o be was ed [
14
,
58
,
147
,
148
,
153
,
157
,
175
,
178
]. In ac , he la ges
po ion o a oidable household FW consis s o ood ha has been bough and hen disca ded be o e
any p ocessing o use a home: o example, his co esponds o abou wo- hi ds o he o al a oidable
household FW in he UK, acco ding o es ima ions published in 2008 [
151
]. In a ecen I alian su ey,
nea ly 80% o in e iewees decla ed ha hey h ow no o li le unea en ood in he was e, bu almos
all he FW causes ha hey s a ed (o e -shopping, da e label expi ed, ood le oo much in he idge
o in he pan y, bad look o smell, e c.) imply ha mos o he was ed ood is ac ually unea en [11].
O ganisa ional aspec s also in ol e he dis ibu ion among he household membe s o
esponsibili ies ela ed o ood shopping, meal p epa a ion and o he ki chen du ies, and he egula
sha ing o meals a home, whe e andom occu ences a e in gene al conside ed ac o s o po en ial FW
gene a ion [
104
,
147
,
154
–
156
,
168
]. This las elemen may include all he si ua ions ha de ia e om
o dina y ou ines, o example, in he occasion o special e en s (Ch is mas, Eas e and o he eligious
celeb a ions, pa ies, e c.) people end o buy and p epa e mo e ood han necessa y; ood ecei ed as a
gi and ood bough o special occasions (e.g., in case o gues isi s) ha e highe p obabili ies o being
was ed [
14
,
104
,
156
,
168
,
179
]; when consume s, o some eason, y new ood p oduc s o ood hey do
no know (e.g., because hey a e a ac ed by he p oduc ma ke ing, hey wan o change some hing in
hei die o simply y some hing new) [
104
,
157
,
169
,
171
] and when hey gi e in o “ emp a ion” o
p omo ional o e s o sales campaigns [12,116,134,147,153,156,169,180].
F equency o ood shopping seems co ela ed wi h lesse household FW p oduc ion [
31
,
147
].
Mo eo e , bulk shopping, p ac iced by consume s o sa e ime and o bene i om p ice o e s,
is indica ed as an impo an de e minan o household FW. Howe e , consume s’ beha iou al
pa e ns a e complex and i has been ound ha equen shopping may also induce unplanned
and “spon aneous” pu chases, which end o inc ease FW [25,116,134,147,153,154,156,169,175,180].
Indi idual mo i a ions o consume s o a oid he was e o ood ha e been indica ed as an
impo an d i e in se e al FW beha iou al su eys. Th ee main ypes o mo i a ions can be iden i ied
in he a ailable li e a u e: economic, i.e., he possibili y o sa e money by educing FW; pe sonal
g a i ica ion om pe o ming e icien ly ood- ela ed du ies, being in con ol o he p oblem, and no
eeling guil o FW; en i onmen al and humani a ian mo i a ions, such as o con ibu e o a educ ion
o he FSC en i onmen al impac s, exis ence o people hung y o in economic s ai s who can bene i
om dis ibu ion o ood su pluses, and social immo ali y o FW. In gene al, he economic mo i a ion
igu es as he main eason o consume s o a oid FW, ollowed by pe sonal g a i ica ion, while
socio-en i onmen al easons a e he weakes mo i a o s [
18
,
22
,
25
,
27
,
147
,
148
,
175
,
181
,
182
]. A su ey
published in 2009 by The Aus alian Ins i u e [
148
] e en ound ha he mean alue o he ood
yea ly was ed by consume s mo i a ed by money sa ings in hei p ac ices o FW a oidance was
signi ican ly lowe han he mean alue o he ood was ed by consume s mo i a ed by en i onmen al
o humani a ian easons. The compa a i ely lowe e ec o en i onmen as a mo i a o o good
p ac ices has been mos ly explained wi h a gene alised sca ce pe cep ion by people o FW as an
en i onmen al p oblem [
25
,
27
,
147
,
153
]: o example, people ha e mo e endency o associa e FW
educ ion o a heal hie die a he han o a mo e sus ainable ood consump ion [
27
]. Some s udies
ha ound ou highe ele ance o mo i a ions such as “pe sonal g a i ica ion”, “sensa ion o being
in con ol” o “doing he igh hing” also highligh ed ha people be e in o med abou ood and
nu i ion ha e less p obabili y o being big ood was e s [
25
,
158
]. A ecen compa a i e analysis o
beha iou s owa ds FW in Spanish and I alian you hs showed he ele ance o pe cei ed beha iou al
con ol in pe o ming co ec FW p ac ices [12].
Table 6shows a summa y o he FW d i e s iden i ied in he Social con ex .
Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 37 19 o 33
Table 6. Summa y o iden i ied FW d i e s in he Social con ex .
G oupings o FW D i e s (Social) Iden i ied FW D i e s (Social)
S1—d i e s ela ed o wide social
dynamics ha a e no
eadily changeable
•U banisa ion and ela ed changing die a y habi s and globalisa ion o
ag i- ood ma ke s;
•Adap a ion o li es yles o li ing and wo king condi ions and o social
dynamics o u ban a eas;
•Household o med by ew membe s o by one single pe son;
•Young age o household membe s;
•P esence o child en in he household;
•Rela i ely high income le el;
•Culina y and ood habi s o popula ion;
•Mode n “busy” li es yles;
•Gende -based habi s;
S2—d i e s ela ed o consume s’
indi idual beha iou s ha a e no
eadily changeable
•
Selec i e beha iou o consume s wi h espec o he aes he ical appea ance
o ood and ood packaging;
•Selec i e beha iou o consume s wi h espec o ood eshness o
supposed eshness, e.g., in e p e ed h ough da e labels;
•Food sa e y conce ns;
•
Unacquain ance wi h consump ion o p epa a ion o ce ain ood p oduc s,
o wi h hei as e;
•Food sca es due o ea s o ood con amina ion;
•Consume s’ p e e ence o he wide and possibili y o choice abou
ood p oduc s;
•Vola ili y o ood demand;
S3—d i e s ela ed o consume s’
indi idual beha iou s ha a e
modi iable h ough in o ma ion
and inc eased awa eness
•Poo ood skills and in o ma ion;
•Misin e p e a ion o da e labels;
•Inco ec use o idges, eeze s and o he ki chen appliances;
•Imp ope ood handling, s o age and anspo a ion
•Misunde s anding and/o neglec ing ins uc ions epo ed on packaging;
•Misuse o packaging unc ionali ies ha ex end he ood p oduc s’ li e;
•
Poo culina y skills, in o ma ion and awa eness on he a ious implica ions
o ood ui ion;
•Lack o co ec planning o ood shopping and home meals;
•Lack o con ol on ood a ailable a home, on i s eshness and
edibili y s a e;
•I egula dis ibu ion among he household membe s o esponsibili ies
ela ed o ood shopping, meal p epa a ion and o he ki chen du ies;
•I egula sha ing o meals a home;
•Special e en s (Ch is mas, Eas e and o he eligious celeb a ions, pa ies,
gues isi s, e c.);
•Essays o new ood p oduc s;
•“Temp a ion” om p omo ional sales;
•P ac ice o making bulk shopping;
•P ac ices o unplanned and “spon aneous” ood pu chases;
•Lack o indi idual mo i a ions o a oid FW;
Sou ce: own elabo a ion.
4. Discussion and Conclusions
4.1. Technological D i e s
The p io i isa ion o he di e en echnological d i e s emains di icul mainly due o he lack
o da a and quan i ica ion ega ding he scale o losses a ibu able o he indi idual d i e s. O en,
e e ences a e qui e anecdo al and subjec i e wi hou gi ing an idea o ela i e impo ance— his is a
key a ea o conside o compulso y epo ing, since much da a would o he wise emain con iden ial
o he espec i e FSC ac o s. No su p isingly he d i e s o en ela e di ec ly o he use o echnology
and o en misuse o sub-op imal use o he p oduc ion sys ems. Resea ch da a howe e sugges s ha
he majo i y o FW in he EU occu s in he p ima y p oduc ion and households’ FSC segmen s, so i
would be logical o p io i ize hese wo sec o s. In addi ion, i is wo h no ing ha he en i onmen al
Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 37 20 o 33
impac o he ood which is was ed in he la e FSC segmen s also includes all he o he en i onmen al
impac s al eady gene a ed in he ea lie s ages o i s p oduc ion and p ocessing [4].
A ailabili y o app op ia e echnology is less o an issue in Eu ope and indeed Eu opean e aile s
end o sou ce om well-de eloped p oduc ion ope a ions in de eloping coun ies as pa o hei
global supply chains. The use o echnology in oduces a human ac o and his human ac o is
ul ima ely esponsible o many o he echnological d i e s, e.g., labelling e o s, p oduc ion planning,
e c.; he e o e, managemen and o ganisa ion should also be conside ed. The causes o FW de i ed
om subop imal o inco ec u iliza ion o mode n echnology (T3) can be opposed by ein o cing
he echnological capaci y o p oduc ion uni s, by imp o ing he skills o hei s a and consume s’
in o ma ion and awa eness. This can be ob ained h ough policy measu es s imula ing in es men s,
mode niza ion, and p o essional aining in i ms and by campaigns making consume s mo e a en i e
o p oduc s and p ocesses ha educe FW impac s.
Losses associa ed wi h colla e al e ec s o mode n echnologies (T2 d i e s) we e mainly iden i ied
in ela ion o by-ca ch in he ishing indus y, p oduc s damaged in mechanical ope a ions o he so
na u e o ce ain ui and ege ables, and animal wel a e issues. I is possible ha la ge olumes
o was es p e iously gene a ed in he ege able p ocessing indus y ha e been alo ised, ei he as
animal eed o u ilised wi hin he ood chain, e.g., o use in p ocessed oods, such as quiches, soups,
e c. A en ion on he issues o FW and en i onmen al sus ainabili y, along wi h he associa ed land ill
axa ion, has encou aged ood p ocesso s o audi all was e and co-p oduc s eams o ensu e hei
inancial compe i i eness. FW de i ed om T2 d i e s could be aced wi h policy measu es a ge ed
o balance he asymme ies o echnological p og ess and he ex e nali ies gene a ed along he FSC.
To his aim, ypical measu es may be ep esen ed by ma ke -based ins umen s such as g een axes
and subsidies, and adeable pe mi s ha change he cos /bene i a io o i ms and consume s,
by add essing hei choices owa ds FW educing solu ions.
FW inhe en o ood cha ac e is ics and o i s p oduc ion and consump ion, whe e echnology
has become limi ed (T1 d i e s), a e di icul o a oid, simply because he e is lack o echnological
capaci y. They a e ela ed o phenomena such as pe ishabili y o ood and unp edic abili y o ood
p oduc ion and consump ion in some ci cums ances, which ha e FW consequences. The e ec s o
hese d i e s could be mi iga ed by imp o ing echnology owa ds a mo e sus ainable con ol o e he
a ie y o na u al ac o s ha s ill cons ain p oduc ion, p ocessing, ma ke ing, and consump ion o
ood. Mo e gene ally, echnological d i e s a e impo an o iden i y po en ial imp o emen s in he
ood chain and o educe losses. In addi ion, echnological means and de ices can be ela i ely easie
o modi y han some d i e s caused by human ou ines o unawa eness, while no o ge ing ha
economic issues, such as p o i abili y, could p e en using he bes echnological p ac ices, especially
when he mone a y alue o he ood p oduc o aw ma e ial is low.
4.2. Ins i u ional D i e s Rela ed o Business Managemen and Economy
The p io i isa ion o he ins i u ional d i e s ela ed o business managemen and economy
emains di icul , mainly due o he lack o da a and poo unde s anding o in e connec ions be ween
policy, economy and he businesses’ beha iou s ha gene a e FW. Fu he esea ch is needed o
unde s and be e how business decisions a ec he amoun o FW wi hin each p oduc ion uni , as well
as in he connec ed ups eam and downs eam indus ies. Such esea ch should also highligh ac o s
in luencing he willingness o FSC ope a o s o in es in new echnology and aining o a oid e o s
in p oduc ion and in supply o ecas ing. In ha sense, he e is a s ong in e connec ion be ween he
echnological and he business managemen d i e s.
Howe e , FSC companies may ha e la ge ma gins o con ibu e o FW educ ion, conside ing
ha he mos p edominan d i e s a e in he IBM1 g oup ela ed o FW add essable by managemen
solu ions wi hin he business uni s. In he li e a u e, a ela i e sca ci y o FW causes om he FSC
p ima y p oduc ion segmen was ound o de eloped coun ies. This was qui e unexpec ed and could
depend on a highe ele ance o he na u al ac o s han o manage ial choices o p oduc ion losses
Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 37 21 o 33
and was e a he a m le el; bu o he possible explana ions may be ha esea ch paid less a en ion o
a m was e, also because o he lowe alue o a m p oduc s compa ed wi h he p ocessed p oduc s
o he downs eam segmen s.
The FW causes ela ed o he second g oup o d i e s (i.e., IBE2—add essable by managemen
solu ions coo dina ed among di e en ope a o s o he ood supply chain) could be con as ed
by speci ic policy measu es and public au ho i y ini ia i es aimed a imp o ing ela ionships and
collabo a ion be ween he FSC ope a o s abou FW issues. Measu es add essed o mi iga e he FW
e ec s o ma ke powe imbalances along he FSC, h ough a ai e dis ibu ion o comme cial isks,
a e also likely o ha e posi i e impac s, as well as ini ia i es ein o cing consume s’ awa eness wi h
espec o a ious ma ke ing s a egies ha a e deemed o inc ease FW in he households.
The hi d g oup o iden i ied business managemen and economy d i e s (IBE3—d i e s
depending on b oade economic and s uc u al a iables) could be con as ed wi h echnological
p og ess and huge policy ini ia i es, mos ly a in e na ional le el, since in many cases hey a e
conce ned wi h he FSC s uc u al and in as uc u al p oblems o low income coun ies.
4.3. Ins i u ional D i e s Rela ed o Legisla ion and Policies
A p io i isa ion o he Ins i u ional d i e s ocusing on Legisla ion and policy is challenging
wi hou a ailo ed e alua ion and impac assessmen . Reliable da a on he e ec s o hese d i e s on
FW gene a ion, especially a he p ima y p oduc ion le el, a e s ill missing in he ele an sec o ial
li e a u e. Al hough ma ke ing and quali y s anda ds a e ci ed e y o en as an impo an FW d i e
ac oss he FSC, no quan i ica ion has been done o back up hese claims. The e o e, i is ecommended
o e alua e he impac o he Eu opean ma ke ing s anda ds on FW gene a ion a he a m, wholesale,
e ail, and consume le el.
The ood edis ibu ion sec o also lacks moni o ing and he impo ance o sca ci y o absence o
iscal incen i es and VAT exemp ions on ood dona ion ha e no been ully e alua ed ye . Some o he
ins i u ional ba ie s o ood dona ion and edis ibu ion could be add essed wi h mo e guidance o
ood chain ac o s on how o in e p e and anspose legisla ion a he na ional le el.
Indeed, Legisla ion and policy d i e s a e ela ed o he complexi y o he FSC and i s mul i-sec o ial
aspec s. Ne e heless, he impac o he d i e s should no only be e alua ed indi idually bu also in
hei ela ion o he o he d i e s o he same o di e en na u e o iden i y impac a eas and possible
ac ions a he na ional and Eu opean le els.
4.4. Social D i e s
Despi e he mos impo an pa o FW in de eloped coun ies being commonly a ibu ed o
inal consume s and households [
4
,
9
,
158
] and FW policy ini ia i es expec ing he mos signi ican
FW educ ion om imp o emen s in consume s’ a i udes [
5
,
6
,
8
], quan i a i e in o ma ion and da a
abou FW a ibu able o he di e en beha iou s o consume s can be conside ed s ill insu icien ,
agmen a y and sca cely compa able. Beyond he p oblems ha his lack o da a may cause o an
objec i e hie a chiza ion o he Social FW d i e s, he analysis shows ha consume s’ unawa eness
abou FW issues and poo ood and culina y skills a e c i ical in de e mining FW. In ac , i seems
ha hey ac as backg ound ac o s, which no only cause unawa eness as ega ds he quan i ies o
FW indi idually gene a ed, he ela ed en i onmen al p oblems and he possible bene i s om a
mo e e icien ood use, bu also induce FW om conduc s such as mishandling o ood p oduc s,
inadequa e managemen and planning o home ac i i ies ela ed o ood (e.g., shopping, managemen
o home s o age, meal p epa a ion) and misunde s anding o ood labelling, and exposes consume s
o po en ially nega i e e ec s o some o m o ad e ising ha may s imula e bad p ac ices (e.g., bulk
o e s and packaging sizes ha induce o e -shopping in consume s). Applica ions o he heo y
o planned beha iou ha e shown he ele an ole played by pe cei ed beha iou al con ol in
he pe o mance o co ec FW beha iou s by indi iduals [
12
,
14
,
22
,
27
,
177
,
183
]. Hence, consume
d i en FW can be educed by in luencing di ec ly social a i udes h ough awa eness and educa ion

Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 37 22 o 33
campaigns, bu also indi ec ly h ough o ms o sus ainable ma ke ing and ad e ising, mo e a en i e
o he possible impac s o beha iou s encou aged in consume s. Such measu es could be mo e e ec i e
i ailo ed o he speci ic con ex ual ac o s ha con ibu e o di e en ia e he indi idual beha iou s
owa ds FW a he e i o ial le el, he e o e i would be use ul o de elop u he esea ch abou hese
las aspec s, as sugges ed by o he s udies [15].
4.5. A C oss-Con ex ual P io i iza ion and Some Conclusions
Despi e he limi a ions caused by he imp ac ical na u e o an exhaus i e hie a chy o FW causes
suppo ed by objec i e me ics, his s udy can be conside ed a unique wide- anging o e iew based
on a clus e ing ha indica es main con ex s o FW d i e s and possibili ies and ypes o sui able
in e en ions. In he a ailable li e a u e, among he o he main s udies ha deal wi h he iden i ica ion
o FW d i e s and causes o he whole FSC in a Eu opean o global pe spec i e, he Bio-In elligence
Se ice’s s udy o 2010 [
4
] a ge ed a quan i ica ion o FW p oduced in he EU and limi ed he analysis
o causes o ou FSC pos - a m segmen s ( ood manu ac u ing, wholesale/ e ail, ood se ices,
and households), by collec ing in o ma ion om he exis ing li e a u e and in e iews wi h expe s.
The in es iga ion o he household segmen was essen ially buil on p e ious esea ch pe o med in
he UK [
151
,
167
,
184
]. A mix o a li e a u e e iew and expe in e iews cha ac e ises also he a icle
o Pa i e al. (2010) [
9
] co e ing FW de ini ions, causes and d i e s, quan i ica ions, and p ojec ions
and ends o he yea 2050. In his s udy, he iden i ica ion o main global FW d i e s was based on
he di e ences exis ing be ween de eloping, ansi ional and indus ialised coun ies in he le els
o FSC echnology, u banisa ion o socie y and di e si ica ion o die s. The FAO s udy o 2011 ha
epo s he likely mos ci ed es ima ion o he FW globally p oduced [
1
] p oposes a lis o majo FW
causes la gely based on he dualis ic concep ha opposes low-income coun ies o medium- and
high-income coun ies. In he o me , ood is chie ly los du ing he p oduc ion- o-p ocessing FSC
s ages due o poo echnology, acili ies, and in as uc u e. In he la e , ood is ex ensi ely was ed
in he inal FSC segmen s, when i is eady o end consump ion. The 2014 epo o he Commi ee
on Wo ld Food Secu i y’s High Panel o Expe s in es iga ing FW and losses [
10
] pe o ms a global
analysis ha de ines h ee di e en le els o a classi ica ion o FW causes: he “mic o-le el” iden i ies
causes o FW and losses di ec ly esul ing om indi idual ac ions a each pa icula FSC segmen ; he
“meso-le el” includes seconda y o s uc u al causes ha de e mine o con ibu e o he gene a ion o
ood was e a he mic o-le el (such as ela ionships among di e en ac o s, FSC o ganiza ional aspec s,
s a e o in as uc u es, e c.; he “mac o-le el” collec s he sys emic ac o s ha a ou he eme gence
o FW causes a he lowe le els.
The p esen s udy shows ha om p ima y p oduc ion o inal consump ion, he e is no one
o ew main de e minan s clea ly esponsible o FW, bu a he i is he esul o a complex pa e n
o ex emely di e si ied and in e connec ed causes. In gene al, a conside able was age o esou ces
seems o be inhe en o indus ial-scale p oduc ion, p ocessing and dis ibu ion o ood des ined o
la ge u ban ma ke s and mass consump ion. The imp essi e g ow h o p oduc i i y ha ook place in
he ag icul u al and ood sec o du ing he las cen u y allowed an inc easing indus ialisa ion and
u banisa ion o socie y, bu also made he FSC o ganisa ion much mo e complex, by mul iplying he
po en ial o FW occu ences. These phenomena a e no limi ed o he ood sec o . Indus ial-scale
p oduc ion and massi e consump ion o goods and se ices in many cases imply a signi ican was e
o esou ces: a ema kable example can be aken om he ene gy sec o , whe e abou 54% o he
o al ene gy globally gene a ed is es ima ed o be los , i.e., no used, despi e he la ge dependence on
non- enewable sou ces, and he a io is much highe in he mos indus ialised coun ies [185].
Table 7displays a c osswise classi ica ion o he iden i ied con ex s, sub-con ex s and g oupings
o d i e s p io i ised acco ding o he possibili y o in e en ions o be unde aken by indi idual
s akeholde s, in e es g oups, and policy make s o educing FW. The able dis inguishes:
Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 37 23 o 33
A.
FW ela ed o he cha ac e is ics o ood p oduc s and he ways h ough which hey a e p oduced
and consumed (e.g., pe ishabili y o ood; limi ed p edic abili y o supply and demand; limi ed
capaci y o con ol o e many ac o s o p oduc ion which cons ains he possibili y o adap
quickly he supply o he e olu ion o demand; limi ed possibili y o consume s o accumula e
indi idual s ocks o ood, e c.);
B.
FW ela ed o social and economic ac o s and dynamics in popula ion habi s and li es yles ha
a e non- eadily changeable (e.g., single-pe son households; young age o household membe s;
young couples wi h small child en; g owing u ban popula ion; inc eased consump ion o meals
ou -home; low p ice o ood p oduc s; sca ce inance o FSC in as uc u es in de eloping
coun ies, e c. All hese a e ac o s and long-las ing ends posi i ely co ela ed wi h FW
gene a ion ha canno be modi ied in he sho –medium e m);
C.
FW ela ed o indi idual beha iou s o consume s ha a e non- eadily changeable ( his e e s
o beha iou s depending on gene al expec a ions o consume s owa ds ood, o example,
good appea ance; eshness; possibili y o acceding o b oad quan i ies and a ie ies o ood
independen o places, season, and ime, e c. These expec a ions can de e mine a icious ci cle
be ween consume s’ bad a i udes ha a e a sou ce o was age and FSC ope a o s’ ma ke ing
s a egies ha g a i y such a i udes. P og ess in echnology and managemen can deal wi h he
p oblem, bu i s o igina ing causes— he consume s’ expec a ions—a e unlikely o be e adicable);
D.
FW ela ed o o he p io i ies a ge ed by p i a e and public s akeholde s ( he possibili y o
gene a ing FW may be a mino conce n wi h espec o o he p io i ies o he p i a e and
public s akeholde s. Fo example, o p i a e companies, p o i is a p io i y and his jus i ies
choices in echnology, managemen , and ma ke ing solu ions ha balance po en ial was age
o ood wi h inc eases in p oduc sales, educ ion o p oduc ion cos s o diminished isks o
damages o he company’s b and image om non-complying wi h sa e y o o he comme cial
s anda ds. Fo public au ho i ies, legisla i e p o isions imp o ing issues such as ood sa e y,
ood secu i y, consume in o ma ion, and animal wel a e may o e come he conce n o po en ial
FW gene a ion de i ed om such legisla ion);
E.
FW ela ed o non-use o sub-op imal use o a ailable echnologies, o ganiza ional ine iciencies
o supply chain ope a o s, ine icien legisla ion, and bad beha iou s o consume s depending
on unawa eness, sca ce in o ma ion, and poo ood skills. This g oup includes a wide ange o
FW causes ha could be conside ably educed by imp o ing echnological and o ganiza ional
e iciency o supply chain ope a o s, he quali y o legisla i e p o isions po en ially impac ing
on FW, and he consume beha iou s and a i udes owa ds ood.
The p obabili y o modi ying he causes o FW lis ed in Table 7is inc easing om A o E. In he
i s pa o he lis , mos o he po en ial change lays in echnological and o ganisa ional inno a ions
ha ease he cons ain s ela ed o in insic cha ac e is ics o ood p oduc s and o he ways hey a e
p oduced and used. A he end o he lis , changes a e po en ially mo e easible, since hey la gely
depend on FSC e iciency imp o emen s h ough he co ec applica ion o a ailable echnology, be e
o ganisa ion, mo e accu a e policy design also conside ing he di e en speci ic si ua ional con ex s a
he local le el, and inc eased consume awa eness.
This s udy indica es ha was age is inhe en o la ge-scale p oduc ion and mass-consump ion
o ood and o he daily-li e o ganiza ion o u ban popula ions in mode n socie y. Fo hese easons,
i will be di icul o e adica e FW in he nea u u e; bu he s udy also sugges s ha signi ican
imp o emen s could be ob ained in a ela i ely sho e m, by inc easing e iciency o FSC ope a o s.
The ex eme complexi y o he FSC does no allow easy solu ions applicable o all ci cums ances.
The causes o was age need o be clea ly iden i ied wi hin each single ac i i y and p ocess o he
supply chain. I is hen necessa y o se e y speci ic p ocedu es o moni o ing FW gene a ion in he
di e en FSC segmen s and in each ype o ac i i y, and o ind ou app op ia e me hods o any single
si ua ion. This will be mos ly a ask o indi idual ope a o s: companies, esea che s, FW campaigne s,
and consume s. The main asks o public au ho i ies and policy make s a e o iden i y p io i y a eas
Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 37 24 o 33
o in e en ion, o design app op ia e policy measu es and incen i es and c ea e a amewo k which
enables socie y o unde ake he necessa y engagemen o p e en and educe a la gely a oidable
was age o esou ces.
Table 7. C oss-con ex ual p io i iza ion o FW d i e s.
C oss-Con ex ual P io i iza ion o FW D i e s G oupings o
D i e s Possibili ies o FW Reduc ion
(A) FW ela ed o he cha ac e is ics o ood
p oduc s and he ways h ough which hey a e
p oduced and consumed T1
Mos ly depending on p og ess in echnology and
FSC o ganisa ion
(B) FW ela ed o social and economic ac o s and
dynamics in popula ion habi s and li es yles ha
a e non- eadily changeable IBE3, S1
Mos ly depending on p og ess in echnology and
FSC o ganisa ion
(C) FW ela ed o indi idual beha iou s o
consume s ha a e non- eadily changeable S2
Mos ly depending on p og ess in echnology and
FSC o ganisa ion
(D) FW ela ed o o he p io i ies a ge ed by
p i a e and public s akeholde s T2, IBE2, ILP1,
ILP2, ILP3
Mos ly depending on policy measu es
s imula ing FSC ope a o s o imp o e good
p ac ices o FW educ ion, wi hin he business
and h ough FSC ag eemen s
(E) FW ela ed o non-use o sub-op imal use o
a ailable echnologies, o ganisa ional
ine iciencies o supply chain ope a o s,
ine icien legisla ion, and bad beha iou s o
consume s depending on unawa eness, sca ce
in o ma ion, and poo ood skills
T3, IBE1, ILP1,
ILP2, ILP3, S3
Mos ly depending on he amendmen o
ine icien legisla ion and on imp o emen s in he
indi idual ac ions o consume s and FSC
ope a o s ob ainable h ough inc eased
awa eness, skills, and co ec applica ion o
a ailable echnology
Sou ce: own elabo a ion.
Acknowledgmen s:
This s udy was unded h ough he Eu opean P ojec FUSIONS (Food Use o Social
Inno a ion by Op imising Was e P e en ion S a egies—h p://www.eu- usions.o g), a Suppo and Coo dina ion
ac ion o he Eu opean Commission’s 7 h F amewo k P og amme o Resea ch and Technological De elopmen
(Con ac No. 311972). The au ho s a e e y hank ul o all colleagues o he ins i u ions pa ne s in he FUSIONS
P ojec o hei con ibu ion o he s udy and o all s akeholde s pa icipa ing in he FUSIONS Pla o m mee ings.
The s a emen s and opinions exp essed in his a icle a e solely hose o he au ho s and do no cons i u e o icial
s a emen s o posi ions o he unding ins i u ion and o he FUSIONS p ojec . The s udy also ecei ed suppo
h ough he BBSRC Ins i u e S a egic P og amme “Food and Heal h” G an No. BB/J004545/1.
Au ho Con ibu ions:
Massimo Canali, Pegah Amani, Lusine A amyan, Manuela Gheoldus, G aham Moa es,
Ka in Os e g en, Ki si Sil ennoinen, Kei h Wald on and Ma eo Vi ua i, p epa ed he o iginal d a s o he
pape . Massimo Canali e iewed he d a s and edi ed he inal e sion. Massimo Canali, Ma eo Vi ua i and
Ka in Os e g en coo dina ed he s udy.
Con lic s o In e es :
The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es . The ounding sponso s had no ole in he design
o he s udy; in he collec ion, analyses, o in e p e a ion o da a; in he w i ing o he manusc ip , and in he
decision o publish he esul s.
Abb e ia ions
The ollowing abb e ia ions a e used in his manusc ip :
AHDB Ag icul u e and Ho icul u e De elopmen Boa d
BBSRC Bio echnology and Biological Sciences Resea ch Council
EEA Eu opean Economic A ea
EPA En i onmen al P o ec ion Agency
EPM Eu opean mee ing o he FUSIONS Eu opean Pla o m
EU Eu opean Union
FAO Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion o he Uni ed Na ions
FSC Food supply chain
FUSIONS Food Use o Social Inno a ion by Op imising Was e P e en ion S a egies—Eu opean
P ojec o he 7 h F amewo k P og amme o Resea ch and Technological De elopmen o
he Eu opean Commission
FW Food was e
HGCA Home G own Ce eals Au ho i y
HLPE High Le el Panel o Expe s o he Commi ee on Wo ld Food Secu i y
IBE1
Ins i u ional ood was e d i e s ela ed o business managemen and economy add essable
by managemen solu ions ope a ed wi hin one single business uni s
Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 37 25 o 33
IBE2
Ins i u ional ood was e d i e s ela ed o business managemen and economy add essable
by managemen solu ions coo dina ed among di e en ope a o s o he ood supply chain
IBE3
Ins i u ional ood was e d i e s ela ed o business managemen and economy depending
on b oade economic and s uc u al a iables, no eadily add essable by managemen
solu ions a he le el o single business uni s o he supply chain
ILP1 Ins i u ional ood was e d i e s ela ed o legisla ion and policies, speci ically o he
ag icul u al policy and o ood quali y and ma ke ing s anda ds
ILP2 Ins i u ional ood was e d i e s ela ed o legisla ion and policies, speci ically o ood
sa e y, consume heal h and in o ma ion, and animal wel a e policies
ILP3
Ins i u ional ood was e d i e s ela ed o legisla ion and policies, speci ically o was e and
axa ion policies and o o he policies
LEI Landbouw Economisch Ins i uu (Ag icul u al Economics Ins i u e)
NHSE Na ional Heal h Se ice England
NSW New Sou h Wales
OECD O ganisa ion o Economic Co-ope a ion and De elopmen
RPM Regional mee ing o he FUSIONS Eu opean Pla o m
S1 Social ood was e d i e s ela ed o wide social dynamics ha a e no eadily changeable
S2 Social ood was e d i e s ela ed o consume s’ indi idual beha iou s ha a e no
eadily changeable
S3
Social ood was e d i e s ela ed o consume s’ indi idual beha iou s modi iable h ough
in o ma ion and imp o ed awa eness
T1 Technological d i e s inhe en o he cha ac e is ics o ood, and o i s p oduc ion and
consump ion, whe e echnology has become limi ed
T2 Technological d i e s ela ed o colla e al e ec s o mode n echnologies
T3 Technological d i e s ela ed o he subop imal use o , and mis akes in he use o
mode n echnology
UK Uni ed Kingdom
UN Uni ed Na ions
USDA Uni ed S a es Depa men o Ag icul u e
USEPA Uni ed S a es En i onmen al P o ec ion Agency
VAT Value Added Tax
WRAP Was e and Resou ces Ac ion P og amme
Appendix A
Table A1. Pa icipa ion o s akeholde s in mee ings o he FUSIONS Eu opean Pla o m (2013–2014).
Type o O ganisa ion Numbe o
S akeholde s Coun ies
Food e aile s 13
UK, Tu key, The Ne he lands, Sweden, I aly, Denma k, G eece,
Hunga y.
Consume g oups, social o ganisa ions,
cha i ies, and o he non-go e nmen al
o ganisa ions 33 UK, The Ne he lands, Poland, Ge many, Sweden Finland,
I aly, Hunga y, F ance, Russia, Es onia, Swi ze land, Spain,
I eland, G eece, Czech Republic, Belgium.
Food se ice/Hospi ali y sec o 6 I aly, UK, Hunga y, G eece, Thailand,
The Ne he lands, Belgium.
Go e nmen s, Policy make s, Food
sa e y au ho i ies and Regula o s 24
G eece, I aly, Sweden, The Ne he lands, Belgium, UK, I eland,
Hunga y, Finland.
Food p oduce s/manu ac u e s 8 Denma k, UK, The Ne he lands, Finland, G eece, Sweden.
Was e Managemen 14 Belgium, Aus ia, Sweden, Po ugal, Finland, Ge many, The
Ne he lands, Spain, G eece, I aly.
O he indus y: Ag icul u e, ood
packaging, ICT, supplie companies, e c.
26 I aly, Finland, Sweden, Belgium, UK, Swi ze land, Po ugal,
The Ne he lands, India, USA, F ance.
Uni e si ies and knowledge ins i u es 27 G eece, UK, Ge many, Sweden, The Ne he lands, Denma k,
Finland, No way, Swi ze land, I aly, Hong Kong, Spain.
Regional (RPM) and Eu opean (EPM) Mee ings o he FUSIONS Eu opean Pla o m (2013–2014)
(1) RPM Cen al Eu ope: 16 May 2013, Hohenheim, Ge many;
(2) RPM Sou he n Eu ope: 20 May 2013, Padua, I aly;
(3) RPM Scandina ia: 23 May 2013, Helsinki, Finland;
(4) RPM No h Wes Eu ope: 7 June 2013, Pa is, F ance;
(5) EPM: 17–18 Oc obe 2013, Ams e dam, The Ne he lands;
(6) RPM Sou he n Eu ope: 14 Ma ch 2014, A hens, G eece;
(7) RPM Scandina ia: 6 May 2014, S ockholm, Sweden;
(8) FUSIONS Social Camp on “Social inno a ion o ood was e p e en ion and educ ion”: 8 Ap il 2014, Bologna, I aly;
(9) RPM Cen al Eu ope: 9 May 2014, Düsseldo , Ge many;
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 37 32 o 33
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