DISCOURSE ORGANISATION THROUGH THEME POSITION
Lydia-Mai Ho-Dac, Uni e si é Toulouse2 le Mi ail, F ance
This pape ocuses on he ole o elemen s placed in he ini ial posi ion i.e. elemen s
ul illing he ole o Theme in discou se o ganisa ion. The la ge-scale co pus s udy
p oposes a new me hodology based on quan i a i e analysis o he discou se oles o
sen ence-ini ial elemen s. The heo e ically-based hypo hesis is ha Theme posi ion
has an impo an unc ion in discou se o ganisa ion. Theme, de ined as he s a ing
poin o he message, is composed o he i s elemen s ha he eade pe cei es.
The analysis o he dis ibu ion and he use in discou se o hese elemen s gi es us a
g ea o e iew on he ex ual o ganisa ion o di e en ypes o ex .
KEYWORDS: discou se o ganisa ion, Theme posi ion, da a-d i en app oach
1 THEME AND DISCOURSE ORGANISATION
The objec o his s udy conce ns wha I call ‘discou se o ganisa ion’ o ‘ ex
o ganisa ion’. These e ms – conside ed he e as synonymous – con ey he idea ha ex
is no a bag o wo ds, a bag o sen ences, a bag o pa ag aphs bu should be seen as a
s uc u ed objec . This s uc u e is he esul o he s a egies used by he eade when
he p oduces his ex . Two main s a egies a e iden i ied in my s udy: s a egy o
con inui y and s a egy o discon inui y. The w i e may wan o link wo uni s by a
con inui y ela ionship (s a egy o con inui y) o may wan o indica e a shi be ween
wo uni s (s a egy o discon inui y). One o he consequences o his is ha ex is
segmen ed in in e ela ed ‘chunks’ which may be embedded in a hie a chical
ela ionship.
My claim is ha Theme plays a c ucial ole in signalling hese wo s a egies. This
claim is based on a posi ional de ini ion o Theme ha co esponds o he beginning
o ex ual uni s (sen ences, pa ag aphs, sec ions) and on he idea ha he beginning o
ex ual uni s is a good loca ion o indica e i he e is a discon inui y o a con inui y.
Mo eo e , du ing eading, we build some assump ions based on he i s elemen s
pe cei ed, assump ions ha may o ien he in e p e a ion o he es o he uni .
Theme posi ion co esponds he e o he en i e p e e bal zone as s a ed by Be y
(1995), F ies (1995) o Ma hiessen (1995). When I apply his de ini ion on pa ag aphs
o sec ions, Theme co esponds o he p e e bal zone o he i s sen ence o he
ex ual uni . This accep a ion o Theme is necessa y o ake in o accoun all he
complexi y o discou se o ganisa ion.
1.1 DISCOURSE ORGANISATION, TEXT SEGMENTATION AND SEQUENTIALITY
Discou se o ganisa ion and ex segmen a ion a e seen as he consequence o he
‘linea iza ion p oblem’ (Le el 1981). Al hough he ep esen a ion we ha e in ou mind
is no linea (simila o a pic u e, a o m, a scene, e c.), he ex (ei he w i en o o al)
mus be linea . Tex is a succession o sen ences. Sen ences mus appea one a e he
o he in ime. One canno w i e o speak, ead o unde s and se e al sen ences
simul aneously. This lack o isomo phism be ween men al ep esen a ion and wha we
mus p oduce is a he oo o discou se o ganisa ion. The s udy o discou se
o ganisa ion aims o ind answe s o he ques ion: how speake and w i e go abou
p esen ing in o ma ion in a linea o ma .
I ake as my s a ing poin he issue o sequen iali y in ex as de ined in Gou sos
(1996) who sees ex as a “pe iodic al e na ion o ansi ion and con inua ion spans”
(op.ci .:501). Model o Sequen iali y dis inguishes h ee le els o discou se s uc u e.
The cogni i e le el sees he w i e 's men al ep esen a ion as s uc u ed by he basic
s a egies o con inui y and discon inui y. The linguis ic le el is conce ned wi h he
echniques a ailable o ealize hese s a egies. The ex ual le el is he ma e ial esul o
hese s a egies and echniques. Tex segmen a ion in o con inua ion and ansi ion
spans pe ains o he ex ual le el.
Tex segmen a ion can be iewed om he con inui y angle and he discon inui y
angle. F om he con inui y angle, linguis ic uni s clus e a ound a speci ic in e p e a ion
c i e ion. F om he discon inui y angle, ex is di ided in o segmen s o spans (in
Gou sos' e minology). The c i e ia which bind ex uni s oge he may conce n pa s
o he subjec ma e o he ex (e.g. e e en ial con inui y, ime e e ence) o he
p esen a ion p ocess (e.g. he o ical o documen s uc u e). As long as a c i e ion
emains alid, he segmen is open and incoming linguis ic uni s join in o a
‘con inua ion span’. When i is no longe alid, he segmen is closed and he esul ing
discon inui y is signalled ia a ‘ ansi ion span’ which indica es a shi in he discou se
p ocess. Such a shi may be, o example, a e e en ial b eak, he end o opening o a
discou se ame, a he o ical a icula ion o he end o beginning o a documen
s uc u e segmen (pa ag aph o sec ion). Con inui y being he de aul , a majo ask in
he w i ing p ocess is o signal discon inui y. In he absence o a cue o he con a y, he
eade will in e p e incoming sen ences as con inuous.
Example 11 cons i u es a good illus a ion o a combina ion o con inua ion and
ansi ion spans. In his ex ac , a s ing o cohesion de ices es ablishes con inui y
a ound he opic o “deba e be ween specialis s o ansa lan ic ela ions” (I pu hese de ices
in bold). All hese de ices cons i u e cues helping he eade unde s and ha he w i e
keeps e e ing o he same hing i.e. ha he e is a main con inua ion span cons uc ed
a ound a opical con inui y.
(1) Since he end o he cold wa ,
he deba e be ween specialis s o
ansa lan ic ela ions
has ended o be sa is ied wi h wo hy p onouncemen s and
much simpli ica ion.
I
has no shown su icien conce n o he b ead h o he changes
aking place [...].
Mo e ecen ly,
he discussion
has been ocusing on a supposed gap in social alues
1 The o iginal F ench e sion is gi en in appendix.
2
be ween he wo sho es o he A lan ic, an idea o which he e en s o 9/11 ha e pu an
end.
This deba e
is ongoing, bu i is now limi ed o he domain o social analysis. In
o eign policy e ms,
his discussion on con inen al shi
has u ned in o an
opposi ion be ween he unila e alism o Ame ica's policy and he mul ila e alism o i s
Eu opean pa ne s.
A he same ime, example 1 shows h ee cues o shi opening new ci cums ance
ames ( hese cues a e no i alicized). The i s is a empo al ame in oduced ia an
ad e bial se ing a ime e e ence (Since he end o he cold wa ). This ime e e ence
emains alid all h ough he i s pa ag aph. We can he e o e say ha all he sen ences
in his i s pa ag aph clus e a ound a common ime e e ence. The scope o his i s
ime ad e bial cons uc s a i s (sub-)con inua ion span.
The second pa ag aph begins wi h ano he ime ad e bial (Mo e ecen ly) exp essing
a di e en ime e e ence. This ad e bial in oduces a new empo al ame and hen,
signal a shi . As o he i s ame, his one also spans he en i e pa ag aph. We can
also men ion a hi d ame in oduced wi h In o eign policy e ms. This no ional ame
co esponds o he las sen ence and i s inside he empo al ame in oduced wi h
Mo e ecen ly wi hou closing he empo al ame.
Figu e 1 gi es a ep esen a ion o his complex sequen iali y. I shows ha a
con inua ion span may con ain se e al o he (sub-)con inua ion spans associa ed wi h a
di e en componen o he p ocess (e.g. ci cums ances). In his example, ansi ion
spans a e minimal, consis ing in he space be ween wo sen ences o wo pa ag aphs.
To e e o hese di e en componen s o he p ocess, I use he Ges al dis inc ion
be ween igu e and g ound. The pa icipan s o he opics o he p ocess plays on
igu e whe eas he ci cums ances o he p ocess ha e o do wi h g ound (by se ing he
scene in which he igu e appea s).
All he con inui y cues (cohesion de ices) and he discon inui y cues (ini ial ad e bials)
men ioned occu in Theme posi ion. This posi ioning is no a coincidence. One o my
wo k's basic claims is ha elemen s in Theme posi ion play a c ucial unc ion in
signalling sequen iali y in discou se i.e. in indica ing whe he he e is discon inui y o
con inui y in he discou se low.
3
Figu e 1: Rep esen a ion o sequen iali y in example 1
1.2 THE ROLE OF THEME IN DISCOURSE ORGANISATION
Some cogni i e s udies (e.g. Enk is 1989, Gi ón 1995) claim ha wha he w i e
exp esses i s co esponds o he ‘c ucial’ in o ma ion. ‘C ucial in o ma ion’ means
in o ma ion necessa y o he co ec in e p e a ion o he pu pose o a gi en message.
This concep is de i ed om he “C ucial In o ma ion i s ” p inciple (CIF) de ined in
Enk is (1989). Enk is opposes his p inciple o he “Old In o ma ion Fi s ” p inciple.
Con a y o Enk is , I do no oppose hese wo p agma ic p inciples. I hink ha
c ucial in o ma ion can in some cases co espond o old in o ma ion. I depends on
he in o ma ion low. Ei he he w i e wan s o indica e ha incoming in o ma ion is
in con inua ion wi h p eceding in o ma ion; o he wan s o indica e ha he e is a shi
o a b eak. In bo h cases, indica ion is gi en by he i s elemen s o he message. In he
case o con inua ion, i s elemen s may co espond o gi en in o ma ion. In he case
o shi , i s elemen s exp ess in o ma ion ha o ien s he es o he message by, o
example, se ing new ci cums ances ( his concep ion is also suppo ed by Be y 1995,
F ies 1995 and Ma hiessen 1995). F om he poin o iew o expe ien ial me a unc ion,
elemen s in ini ial posi ion exp ess ci cums ances o en i ies implied in he p ocess
desc ibed. F om he poin o iew o ex ual me a unc ion, i s elemen s o ganize
discou se by segmen ing i in o chunks i.e. by indica ing i he segmen is s ill opened o
i i is closed.
Acco ding o my posi ional de ini ion o Theme, I may say ha Theme
pa icipa es in he managemen o discou se o ganisa ion, by ul illing a dual unc ion:
o ien a ion and connec ion.
1.2.1 Theme as o ien a ion
One discou se unc ion o Theme consis s in o wa d-looking o ien a ion: Theme
is he beginning o he message and, as a consequence, se s p elimina y c i e ia o
in e p e a ion o he es o he message. As s a ed by F ies:
“Theme unc ions as an o ien e o he message. I o ien s he lis ene / eade o he message
ha is abou o be pe cei ed and p o ides a amewo k o he in e p e a ion o ha message”
(F ies 1995:318).
In e ms o discou se comp ehension, elemen s ha ha e been ead i s ha e a
s onge in luence on he in e p e a ion o he es o he message han la e elemen s
(see Thompson 1985, Hasselgå d 1996, Le D aoulec & Pé y-Woodley 2003). I we
ocus pa icula ly on ini ial elemen s occu ing be o e he g amma ical subjec (such as
ini ial ad e bials), we ind elemen s ha se a discou se ame o he in e p e a ion, as
s a ed by Cha e:
“[elemen s in ini ial posi ion] limi he domain o applicabili y o he main p edica ion o a
ce ain es ic ed domain [...] se [ ing] he spa ial, empo al o indi idual amewo k wi hin
which he p edica ion holds” (Cha e 1976:53)
This is ypically he case wi h he h ee ini ial ad e bials in he example 1. Cha e's
no ion o “ es ic ed domain” is ela ed o he no ion o ‘discou se ame’. Discou se
4
ames ha e eme ged om se e al F ench s udies ini ia ed by Cha olles (Cha olles
1997, Cha olles e al. 2005). These s udies sugges ha ini ial ad e bials ha e an
ins uc ional meaning ela i e o segmen a ion by p ojec ing an in e p e a ion c i e ion
o wa d and hus de ining he ini ial bounda y o a segmen . In ou iew, wo
p ope ies o ad e bials a e called upon in his de ini ion: scope and s uc u ing powe .
“Scope” co esponds o he seman ic con inui y o he e e ence exp essed by he
ad e bial. “S uc u ing powe ” (c . Le D aoulec & Pé y-Woodley 2003, 2005, Ho-Dac
& Pé y-Woodley 2008) co esponds o he capaci y o ini ial ad e bials o di ide
in o ma ion in o blocks i.e. segmen s wi hin which sen ences clus e a ound an
in e p e a ion c i e ion, o en bu no necessa ily he e e ence exp essed by he
ad e bial.
G amma ical subjec s may also unc ion as o ien e s o he es o he message.
In example 1, he i s subjec se s he main opic o he en i e pa ag aph (and e en o
he sec ion) : he discussion be ween ... In his case, Theme may be ela ed o he no ion o
abou ness o in Halliday's e ms: “ ha wi h which he clause is conce ned” (Halliday 1985:38).
1.2.2 Theme as connec ion
A second discou se unc ion associa ed wi h Theme consis s in backwa d-looking
connec ion: Theme connec s he es o he message o he p eceding discou se by
exp essing elemen s ha allow he eade o in eg a e incoming in o ma ion in a
cohe en way in o he men al model in cons uc ion. As Halliday s a es:
“Theme is he peg on which he message is hung” (Halliday, 1970:161)
Theme as a peg is seen as a cohesion de ice. The common s a egy ha a w i e
can employ o indica e ha incoming in o ma ion is linked o he p eceding
in o ma ion is o exp ess gi en in o ma ion in Theme posi ion, and new in o ma ion in
Rheme posi ion. In example 1, all g amma ical subjec s (excep he i s ) connec he
sen ence o he p eceding one. In o he wo ds, hey c ea e opical con inui y in his
con inua ion span. Con e sely, because con inui y is he de aul , he absence o he
ini ial ad e bial could be in e p e ed as a cue o ime e e ence con inui y.
2 CONFIGURATIONS OF CUES FOR MARKING DISCOURSE ORGANISATION
In p eceding sec ions, I ha e p esen ed my heo e ical poin o iew on he ole o
Theme in discou se o ganisa ion. My conce n is mo e speci ically o iden i y he cues
ha ha e he capaci y o indica e con inui y o discon inui y. My main in e es is o
disco e he kind o cues ha we mus ake in o accoun in o de o desc ibe and
unde s and he ex ual le el o discou se o ganisa ion.
My claim is ha discou se o ganisa ion is signalled by con igu a ions o cues
a he han by single ma ke s. Mo eo e , w i e s and eade s ha e o manage se e al
le els o o ganisa ion which include hema ic con inui y bu also ime and space
e e ence, he o ical a icula ion and documen s uc u e. As discou se cues may
simul aneously con ibu e o se e al o hese in e dependen le els, a global iew o
5

discou se o ganisa ion is needed. A da a-d i en app oach seems o be a ele an way o
ha e such a global iew.
The con igu a ions o cues ha I aim o disco e can be de ined as ollows: he
co-occu ence o elemen A wi h elemen B in a speci ic ex posi ion in a pa icula
ex - ype leads he eade o in e p e ei he con inui y o shi be ween he p eceding
discou se segmen and incoming in o ma ion. In his de ini ion, I men ion h ee kinds
o cues: he lexico-syn ac ic elemen s A and B, ex posi ion and ex - ype. The es o
his sec ion desc ibes hese h ee ca ego ies o cues.
2.1 LEXICO-SYNTACTIC ELEMENTS
The se o lexico-syn ac ic elemen s aken in o accoun co esponds o all he elemen s
ha occu in Theme posi ion. I choose o de ine Theme posi ion as he equi alen o
he o e all p e e bal zone like F ies (1995), Ma hiessen (1995) and Be y (1995) do.
This choice de i es om he global iew o discou se o ganisa ion adop ed in his
s udy.
Theme mus be conside ed as simul aneously o ien ing and connec ing in o de o
ake in o accoun he complexi y o sequen iali y i.e. he ac ha he e a e di e en
le els o o ganisa ion (e.g. igu e, g ound o he o ical s uc u e). In example 1,
elemen s occu ing in he p e e bal zone o he i s sen ence o he second pa ag aph
(Mo e ecen ly, he discussion) pa icipa e in signalling ha he e is g ound discon inui y (in
ime e e ence) and igu e con inui y (in opical e e ence). In example 22, he same
phenomenon is obse ed: he sec ion is o ganized a ound a long opical con inui y
ma ked by he co- e e en ial g amma ical subjec s and a ound h ee empo al ames
in oduced by he ime ad e bials. Each ime ad e bial has a scope and ma ks a
discon inui y be ween h ee homogeneous segmen s in e ms o ime e e ence.
(2)
Flo ence-Milan, 1500 - 1513
[heading]
In 1500,
Leona do
goes o Man o a, whe e he d aws Isabella d'Es e's po ai , [...], o
Venice, [...], and o Flo ence, whe e -[...]- he will s ay ill 1506.
He
sha es his ime
be ween pain ing [...], and mili a y enginee ing p ojec s in he A no alley and in Piombino.
Leona do
esumes wo k on heT a a o s a ed be ween 1487 and 1792, and con inues
un il a ound 1513. F om 1506,
he
di ides his ime be ween Milan whe e [...], and
Flo ence whe e [...].
He
e u ns o his eques ian s a ue p ojec , [...].
He
deploys an
in ense scien i ic ac i i y: ana omy, ma hema ics, and p oduces a chi ec u al and deco a ion
p ojec s o Cha les d'Amboise. Bu , in 1513,
he
lea es Milan o good as he ci y is
eclaimed by he an i-F ench coali ion.
Rome-Amboise, 1513 – 1519
[heading]
In Rome, whe e he has his lodgings in he Bel ede e,
Leona do
inds himsel [...]
De ining Theme posi ion as he en i e p e e bal zone means he lexico-syn ac ic
elemen s aken in o accoun o he s udy a e hose ep esen ed in igu e 2:
2 The o iginal F ench e sion is gi en in appendix.
6
A i s dis inc ion is made be ween special and canonical cons uc ions. Special
cons uc ions (o cons uc ions wi h a ‘special Theme’) co espond o sen ences whe e
he g amma ical subjec has no e e en ial meaning. These cons uc ions may be used
o ocus on one pa o he sen ence (as in cle cons uc ions o le disloca ions), o
in oduce new e e en s (p esen a ional cons uc ions) o o indi ec ly exp ess an
e alua ion o he p ocess being exp essed (i -ex aposi ion). In canonical cons uc ions,
he g amma ical subjec is he opical Theme.
A second dis inc ion ela ed o syn ac ic in eg a ion is made be ween de ached
elemen s and in eg a ed elemen s. De ached elemen s a e hose which occu be o e he
g amma ical subjec , sepa a e o no wi h a comma (e.g. ad e bials, apposi ions, on ed
adjunc s). In eg a ed elemen s co espond o g amma ical subjec s.
2.2 TEXT-TYPE
Tex ual a ia ion is a ea u e ha mus be aken in o accoun in he desc ip ion o
sequen iali y. I is one o he bases o my me hodology: discou se o ganisa ion (and
sequen iali y in discou se) may be di e en in na a i e, desc ip i e, a gumen a i e, e c.
ex s. These di e en ypes o discou se o ganisa ion a e ela ed o he no ion o ex -
ype. This no ion is de ined he e ollowing Bibe 's iew ha ypes a e de e mined by
linguis ic cha ac e is ics in opposi ion o gen es which a e iden i ied wi h espec o
ex a-linguis ic pa ame e s such as social unc ion (Bibe 1988). F om his pe spec i e,
he e a e s a egies (as in Gou sos 1996) ha a e used mo e in ce ain ypes o ex .
These s a egies depend on discou se o ganisa ion i sel a he han on gen e. Fo
example, my co pus is composed wi h ex s ha ha e in common mono- e e en ial
p ope y ( hey a e cons uc ed a ound a single opic). Con e sely, he e a e plu i-
e e en ial ex s s ongly o ganized wi h space and ime e e ences. Sec ion 3.1
desc ibes my co pus and explains his ex - ype cha ac e isa ion.
Tex - ype is a cue ha wo ks oge he wi h o he mo e ex ual cues. In o he
wo ds, he eade pe cei es (i is al eady in e p e a ion) ha he ex co esponds o a
pa icula ype. On he basis o such a ca ego isa ion, he cons uc s assump ions
ela i e o he cons uc ion o he ex . Tex - ype has o ien ed his in e p e a ion.
7
Figu e 2: Lexico-Syn ac ic elemen s aken in o accoun
2.3 TEXT POSITION
The las ea u e ha o ms he basis o my analysis is ex posi ion. Tex posi ion is
linked o he le el o o ganisa ion ha is ma ked by documen s uc u e. O ien a ion
and connec ion p ocesses a e likely o a y acco ding o he le el o o ganisa ion:
whe he he Theme s a s a new sec ion, a new pa ag aph, o me ely a new sen ence
inside a pa ag aph.
This hypo hesis is based on he idea ha documen s uc u e s ongly pa icipa es
in cons uc ing he meaning o a ex . I conside ha , om he eade 's poin o iew,
he beginning o a new sec ion o a new pa ag aph igge s speci ic discou se p ocesses
ha o ien he in e p e a ion. These discou se p ocesses a e no o en s udied in
linguis ics. In his s udy, I gi e a cen al ole o documen s uc u e. Th ough ‘playing’
wi h he h ee ex posi ions (in h ee ex - ypes), I will disco e con igu a ions o cues
ele an o discou se o ganisa ion.
The choice o h ee ex posi ions ollows a common (and qui e in ui i e)
associa ion be ween discon inui y and sec ion o pa ag aph b eak. The e o e, he h ee
ex posi ions aken in o accoun a e:
–S1 = sec ion ini ial posi ion;
–P1 = pa ag aph ini ial posi ion3;
–P2 = pa ag aph in e nal posi ion.
2.4 SOME ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT THESE CUES
Acco ding o he mo pho-syn ac ic ca ego ies o g amma ical subjec s, he
syn ac ic unc ion o de ached elemen s, and he di e en ex posi ions, po en ial
co ela ions can be de i ed be ween hese cues and hei con ibu ion in indica ing
con inui y o discon inui y in discou se o ganisa ion. The main assump ions a e
p esen ed in able 1.
Table 1: Po en ial co ela ions be ween cues and hei con ibu ion in indica ing discou se
o ganisa ion
Co ela ion wi h discon inui y con inui y
a expe ien ial le el
igu e G amma ical subjec s wi h a
low deg ee o accessibili y
(A iel 1990), pa ag aph
b eaks (P1), headings and
new sec ions (S1)
G amma ical subjec s wi h a
high deg ee o accessibili y
(A iel 1990), pa ag aph
in e nal posi ion (P2)
g ound ci cums ance ad e bials, apposi ion, on ed adjunc s,
3 P1 is no aken in o accoun when he pa ag aph begins a new sec ion (S1 and P1 a e
exclusi e).
8
Co ela ion wi h discon inui y con inui y
pa ag aph b eaks (P1),
headings and new sec ions
(S1)
ini ial connec o s
a he o ical le el ex ual ad e bials (o ex ual
ma ked Theme), ini ial
connec o s, pa ag aph b eaks
(P1), headings and new
sec ions (S1)
pa ag aph in e nal posi ion
(P2)
G amma ical subjec s a e ep esen ed he e in e ms o hei deg ee o
accessibili y as in he scale de ised by A iel (1990). Accessibili y models such as hose
o A iel (1990), Gundel e al. (1993) o Cen e ing Theo y (Walke e al. 1998) aim o
explain cogni i e p ocesses in ol ed in he ac i a ion o discou se e e en s. One o
hese p ocesses is conce ned wi h he con inued ac i a ion o a gi en e e en . In
A iel's wo k, one way o keep a e e en ac i a ed is o use mo pho-syn ac ic elemen s
ha a e co ela ed wi h a high deg ee o accessibili y (e.g. p onouns, demons a i e
NPs, e c.). Con e sely, he in oduc ion o a new e e en mus be accomplished ia
elemen s co ela ed wi h low accessibili y (inde ini e desc ip ions, new p ope names,
e c.). A iel's accessibili y scale enables me o classi y e e en ial exp essions in a way ha
may co espond o he no ions o con inui y o discon inui y. The nex sec ion gi es an
o e iew o he p oposed co espondences be ween deg ee o accessibili y and
g amma ical subjec mo phology.
I we look back on example 1, we can see ha all sen ences ha e a opical Theme
( s. a special Theme). In he i s sen ence, he comple e de ini e desc ip ion co ela es
wi h a middle-low deg ee o accessibili y (deg ee o accessibili y = 2). This non co-
e e en ial exp ession se s he main opic o he sec ion. In subsequen sen ences,
se e al cues o opical con inui y occu : an anapho ic p onoun (wi h he highes deg ee
o accessibili y = 7), a educed co- e e en ial de ini e desc ip ion (wi h a medium
deg ee o accessibili y = 3), a educed co- e e en ial demons a i e desc ip ion (wi h a
high deg ee o accessibili y = 6) and inally a comple e demons a i e desc ip ion (wi h
a high deg ee o accessibili y = 5). Looking now a se ings (i.e. g ound), he e a e a
numbe o discon inui y cues in he o m o ci cums ance ad e bials. These ad e bials
indica e o he eade ha he ame has shi ed: om one ime e e ence o ano he , o
in o a speci ic domain o knowledge.
In example 2 ex ac ed om ex s o ano he ex - ype, anapho ic p onouns a e
seen o be mo e equen . This equen use indica es a s ong opical con inui y in his
ex . Time ad e bials ha e he same unc ion he e as in example 1. These wo examples
a e o ganized, o he igu e, a ound a main con inua ion span and, o he g ound,
a ound h ee empo al ames. S angely, he Theme o hese wo documen s uc u e
segmen s (he e sec ions) exp esses a ci cums an ial e e ence and he opic o he
segmen . In example 1, each pa ag aph begins wi h a ime ad e bial and a e e ing
exp ession ela ed o he opic. In example 2, he i s sec ion (no di ided in o
pa ag aphs) begins wi h a ime ad e bial and he second wi h a space ad e bial. The
9
Time ad e bials can be seen o occu signi ican ly mo e in he i s sen ence o a
sec ion and in he i s sen ence o a pa ag aph while space ad e bials occu
signi ican ly mo e in P1 only. Con e sely, he e a e signi ican ly ewe ime ad e bials in
in apa ag aphic sen ences. The di e ence be ween space and ime ad e bials may be
explained in e ms o local discou se unc ion s. global discou se unc ion. Space
ad e bials a e associa ed wi h pa ag aph ini ial posi ion bu no wi h sec ion ini ial
posi ion. Mo eo e , he de ia ion as ega ds space ad e bials in P2 is no signi ican .
This means ha i is no a e o ind a space ad e bial in pa ag aph in e nal posi ion, in
con as wi h ime ad e bials. These esul s may indica e ha space ad e bials ul il a
mo e local discou se unc ion han ime ad e bials. The nex esul s will con i m hese
obse a ions.
Figu e 7 indica es he esul s o he same z-sco e es applied in each sub-co pus
in o de o know i hese associa ions wi h ex posi ions a e s able ac oss he h ee
ex - ypes.
Figu e 7 shows ha all h ee co po a display he de ia ions associa ed wi h ime
ad e bials: mo e ime ad e bials in S1 and P1 and ewe in P2. The z-sco e in P1 o
GEOPO and PEOPL may be accep ed as signi ican de ia ion, bu no in ATLAS.
De ia ions conce ning space ad e bials a e only linked o ATLAS in compa ison wi h
ime ad e bials. The discou se unc ion o ci cums ance ad e bials seems o be mo e
de ini e in his sub-co pus. Time ad e bials begin sec ions while space ad e bials begin
16
Figu e 6: Time and space ad e bials: de ia ions acc. o ex posi ion
Figu e 7: Time and space ad e bials: de ia ions acc. o ex posi ion in each sub-co po a
Time Ad Space Ad
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
S1
P1
P2
ATLAS GEOPO PEOPL
-5
-2,5
0
2,5
5
S1 P1 P2
Time Ad
ATLAS GEOPO PEOPL
-5
-2,5
0
2,5
5
S1 P1 P2
Space Ad

pa ag aphs. This ole dis ibu ion is acili a ed by he ac ha , in ATLAS, sec ions a e
e y sho and hie a chically embedded compa ed wi h PEOPL o GEOPO.
These i s esul s lead us o conclude ha ad e bials may cons i u e good
discon inui y ma ke s because o hei s ong associa ion wi h he s a ing poin o
documen s uc u e segmen s. I mus howe e be ca e ul in my in e p e a ion o da a.
Fi s ly, his associa ion has o ake in o accoun ex - ypes ( ime ad e bials appea o be
less speci ic han space ad e bials). Secondly, his associa ion does no mean ha
ad e bials signal discon inui y on hei own o example, when hey appea in non
sec ion o pa ag aph ini ial posi ion. To cla i y his las poin , le us obse e he lexico-
syn ac ic en i onmen o ad e bials.
4.2.2 S ep 2: a ia ions in g amma ical subjec p eceded by an ad e bial
This analysis co esponds o he second s age o my me hodology. I measu ed
a ia ions in subjec posi ion which can be associa ed wi h he p esence o an ad e bial
in de ached posi ion. All he esul s a e gi en in Ho-Dac & Pé y-Woodley (2008). In
his pape , I will only p esen he in e p e a ion o hese esul s.
Fi s ly, he discou se unc ion o space/ ime ad e bials seems o be e y sensi i e
o ex posi ion. I seems ha space/ ime ad e bials a e good segmen a ion ma ke s
when hey occu in S1 o P1. In P2, i seems ha he discou se unc ion o space/ ime
ad e bials depends o he ex ual s a egy used. Tex may be o ganized a ound a
dominan opical con inui y o a dominan space/ ime s uc u e.
Va ia ions measu ed o g amma ical subjec s acco ding o ex - ype and ex
posi ion indica e ha PEOPL is o ganized a ound a s ong opical con inui y unlike
ATLAS and GEOPO, as was seen in he p e ious sub-sec ion. The powe o his
opical con inui y is also ele an in a ia ions obse ed in hos and ollowing sen ences
o space/ ime ad e bials and may explain he s ong di e ence which opposes ATLAS
and GEOPO o PEOPL.
In ATLAS and GEOPO, space/ ime ad e bials may indica e discon inui y bu
only in speci ic con igu a ions. Space/ ime ad e bials colloca e signi ican ly mo e wi h
ei e a ions ha co ela e wi h medium accessibili y. This kind o subjec may be used
o emphasise a opical con inui y when he e is a shi in he se ing (i.e. g ound) o he
he o ical s uc u e bu no in hema ic s uc u e (i.e. igu e). Space/ ime ad e bials also
colloca e signi ican ly mo e wi h new p ope names ha co ela e wi h lowe
accessibili y. This colloca ion may indica e ha he e is simul aneously a g ound and a
igu e discon inui y. Bu a ia ions in he ollowing sen ences do no suppo his
sugges ion. I he opening o a new ime o space con inua ion span co esponds o
he opening o a new hema ic con inua ion span, he subjec in he ollowing sen ence
should co ela e wi h high accessibili y. Bu my da a shows ha i is no he case.
G amma ical subjec s o sen ences ha ollow a P2 sen ence in oduced wi h a
space/ ime ad e bial a e signi ican ly mo e associa ed wi h he bo om o he middle o
he accessibili y scale. We can also no ice a signi ican associa ion wi h demons a i e
NPs. Demons a i e NPs co ela e wi h high accessibili y, bu hey mean mo e han jus
e e en ial accessibili y. The p e e en ial use o demons a i e NPs in compa ison o
he use o p onouns is o en associa ed, in F ench, wi h “ eclassi ica ion”.
Reclassi ica ion consis s in exp essing a known e e en s ipped o i s ini ial
ci cums ances (De Mulde 1997). The e e en 's eclassi ica ion nega es he possibili y
17
o an ex ension o he ad e bial's scope (see Ho-Dac & Pé y-Woodley 2008 o mo e
de ails).
The signi ican posi i e a ia ions obse ed in he sen ence ollowing a
space/ ime ad e bial's hos sen ence may be a sign ha space/ ime ad e bials do no
open a new con inua ion span a g ound le el. They me ely loca e he p ocess o he
hos -sen ence. Con igu a ions whe e he hos sen ence's subjec is a new p ope name
and he ollowing sen ence's subjec is a demons a i e NP may indica e a discon inui y
o do wi h he igu e bu no wi h he g ound.
The case o PEOPL is e y di e en . The opical con inui y is so s ong in his
ex - ype ha ime ad e bials seem o align hei beha iou wi h he o ganisa ion
es ablished by opical con inui y. In PEOPL, ime ad e bials co-occu signi ican ly
mo e wi h high accessibili y co- e e en ial exp essions such as p onouns, possessi e
NPs and epea ed p ope names.
These associa ions in PEOPL a e in ag eemen wi h he gene al model: in P2
subjec e e en s p esen a ema kably high deg ee o accessibili y, indica ing opical
con inui y. This con inui y is absolu ely no dis u bed by he p esence o a ime
ad e bial in ini ial posi ion. The powe o opical con inui y is so s ong ha i is
possible o ha e such associa ions in sec ion ini ial o pa ag aph ini ial posi ions. This
esul ag ees wi h obse a ions p esen ed in Le D aoulec & Pé y-Woodley (2003) whe e
au ho s show ha , in na a i e ex s, ime ad e bials do no open a discou se ame bu
a he loca e he ch onological s a ing poin o a succession o e en s. This is exac ly
wha we ha e wi h he i s ime ad e bial in example 2 whe e In 1500 does no eally
ex end i s seman ic scope un il he second ime ad e bial. The seman ic c i e ion o he
i s empo al ame is om 1500 o 1506 ins ead.
Ne e heless, we may s a e ha in example 2, ime ad e bials s uc u e he ex by
indica ing he bounda ies o he h ee pe iods o Leona do's li e be ween 1500 and
1513. Bu his s uc u ing powe would ce ainly be less s ong wi hou his heading and
i he sec ion did no begin wi h a ime ad e bial p edic ing a ime o ganisa ion o he
es o he documen s uc u e segmen .
5 CONCLUSION
The e a e wo aspec s o my conclusion: he i s conce ns me hodology while he
second conce ns ad ances in he s udy o discou se o ganisa ion.
Conce ning me hodology, I ha e shown he capaci y o he da a-d i en app oach
o p o ide new insigh s. Fi s ly, i has p o ed o be a good ool o manipula ing da a.
The z-sco e es is e y simple o manipula e and enables us o es he s uc u ing
powe o each ea u e ha may in e ac in he signalling o discou se o ganisa ion.
Secondly, i o e s new pe spec i es o he s udy o discou se o ganisa ion. I enables
us o iden i y he ex ual cha ac e is ics o global o ganisa ion. Fo example, ATLAS
seems o ha e a s ong spa io- empo al o ganisa ion while PEOPL has a mo e opical
o ganisa ion. Thi dly, his me hodology makes i possible o es he discou se unc ion
o speci ic lexico-syn ac ic elemen s such as ime ad e bials. Finally, his kind o s udy
is e y mo i a ing o u he discou se s udies. As we ha e seen, he e a e o he
elemen s ha a e associa ed wi h documen s uc u e segmen s. I would be in e es ing
18
o desc ibe hei discou se unc ion in a same way as we ha e jus done o space/ ime
ad e bials.
Conce ning now he ad ances in he s udy o discou se o ganisa ion, wo poin s
a e essen ial. Fi s o all, he hypo hesis conce ning he ma king o discou se
o ganisa ion has been pa ially alida ed. I is clea ha we canno speak abou he
s uc u ing powe o a lexical ma ke by i sel . I is a he a ma e o con igu a ions o
cues whe e lexico-syn ac ic elemen s play a ole. These con igu a ions seem o be qui e
complex. The case o ime ad e bials is a good illus a ion o his complexi y.
This alida ion shows also ha discou se o ganisa ion is s ongly sensi i e o ex -
ype. In my s udy, conside ing ex - ype co esponds o aking in o accoun he shape
o a documen and he ex ual s a egies used in he documen . A p omising u u e
di ec ion would be o es he use o he con igu a ions o cues disco e ed in his s udy
in au oma ic ex - ype p o iling.
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Language S udies 15(2). 115-130.
De Mulde , Wal e . 1997. Les démons a i s : des indices de changemen de con ex e. In
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APPENDIX
O iginal F ench e sion o example 1.
(1) Depuis la in de la gue e oide,
le déba en e spécialis es des ela ions
ansa lan iques
s'es op sou en con en é d'oscille en e les bons sen imen s e la
simpli ica ion.
Il
ne s'es pas su isammen po é su l'ampleu des changemen s de ond
endus [...]
Plus écemmen ,
la discussion
s'é ai po ée su un éloignemen supposé des aleu s
sociales en e les deux i es de l'A lan ique, auquel les é énemen s du 11 sep emb e 2001
on au moins p o isoi emen mis in.
Ce déba
se pou sui , mais il es main enan limi é
à la sphè e de l'analyse sociale. En e mes de poli ique é angè e,
ce e discussion
20
su la dé i e des con inen s
a p is la o me d'une opposi ion en e l'unila é alisme de
la poli ique amé icaine e le mul ila é alisme de leu s pa enai es eu opéens.
O iginal F ench e sion o example 2.
(2)
Flo ence-Milan, 1500 - 1513
[heading]
En 1500,
Léona d
se end à Man oue, où il dessine le po ai d'Isabelle d'Es e, [...], à
Venise, [...], e à Flo ence, où - [...]- il a es e jusqu'en 1506.
Son ac i i é
se pa age
en e des a aux de pein u e : [...], e des a aux d'ingénieu mili ai e dans le al d'A no
e à Piombino.
Léona d
eme en chan ie le T a a o commencé en e 1487 e 1492, e y
a aille jusque e s 1513. À pa i de 1506,
il
pa age son emps en e Milan où [...], e
Flo ence, où [...].
Il
e ien au p oje de s a ue éques e, [...].
Il
déploie une g ande ac i i é
scien i ique : ana omie, ma héma ique, e ou ni des p oje s d'a chi ec u e, de déco s pou
Cha les d'Amboise. Mais, en 1513,
il
qui e dé ini i emen Milan econquis pa la
coali ion an i ançaise.
Rome-Amboise, 1513 – 1519
[heading]
À Rome, où il loge au Bel édè e,
Léona d
se ou e [...].
21