1
The use o in o me ic me hods o s udy
di e si y in he scien i ic wo k o ce: A
li e a u e e iew
Nicolas Robinson-Ga cia1, Ca men Co ona-Sob ino2, Zaida Chinchilla-Rod íguez3, Daniel
To es-Salinas1 and Rod igo Cos as4,5
1 Uni o Compu a ional Humani ies and Social Sciences (U-CHASS), EC3 Resea ch G oup, In o ma ion and
Communica ion depa men , Uni e sidad de G anada, G anada (Spain)
2 Depa men o Sociology and Social An h opology, Uni e si a de València, Valencia (Spain)
3 Ins i u o de Polí icas y Bienes Públicos, Cen o Supe io de In es igaciones Cien í icas, Mad id (Spain)
4 Cen e o Science and Technology S udies (CWTS), Leiden Uni e si y, Leiden (Ne he lands)
5 Cen e o Resea ch on E alua ion, Science and Technology (CREST), S ellenbosch Uni e si y (Sou h A ica)
Abs ac
This li e a u e e iew examines he applica ion o in o me ic me hods o assess di e si y wi hin he
scien i ic wo k o ce, ocusing on ecen ad ances in au ho name disambigua ion, esea che
p o iling, and he e alua ion o indi idual-le el me ics. The s udy aces he e olu ion o
quan i a i e app oaches, om adi ional p oduc i i y me ics o mode n mul idimensional models
ha inco po a e con ex ual ac o s such as ca ee ajec o y, esea ch p ac ices, and social
engagemen . Emphasizing me hodological inno a ions, he e iew explo es he po en ial o
ad anced algo i hms and new da a sou ces (e.g., OpenAlex, ORCID) o o e a nuanced
unde s anding o di e si y in science. The e iew highligh s gaps in he cu en li e a u e, pa icula ly
he need o accoun o di e se indi idual cha ac e is ics, including gende , e hnici y, and eam
dynamics, and sugges s pa hways o u u e esea ch. The indings con ibu e o ongoing discussions
in he ield o scien ome ics ega ding esponsible esea ch assessmen and he de elopmen o
equi able e alua ion amewo ks.
U-CHASS
Whi e Pape #2 Di e si y in
he wo k o ce
Oc obe , 2024
Sugges ed ci a ion: Robinson-Ga cia, N., Co ona-Sob ino, C., Chinchilla-Rod íguez, Z., To es-
Salinas, D., & Cos as, R. (2024) The use o in o me ic me hods o s udy di e si y in he scien i ic
wo k o ce: A li e a u e e iew. U-CHASS Whi e Pape s #2. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.13880355
This a icle is a p ep in and has no been ce i ied by pee e iew.
2
Keywo ds
Di e si y in scien i ic wo k o ce, Scien ome ics, In o me ic me hods, Gende and e hnici y in
academia, Resea ch e alua ion
1 INTRODUCTION
Since Lo ka’s i s s udy on p oduc i i y inequali y (Lo ka, 1926) and De Solla P ice’s law on he
exponen ial g ow h o science (P ice, 1963), in e es in quan i a i ely analyzing esea che s’ ac i i y
has been cons an (Die z & Bozeman, 2005). This in e es was o iginally oo ed in he sociology o
science and i s a emp s a unde s anding i s social s a i ica ion (Cole, 1973; C ane, 1972; Me on,
1973). Soon a e Ga ield launched he Science Ci a ion Index, Me on and Zucke man saw he alue
o hese da a o empi ically es many o he heo e ical de elopmen s in he ield (Wou e s, 1999,
pp. 110–111). Bu scien ome ics shi ed owa ds esea ch assessmen in he la e 1980s (Abbo e
al., 2010; Ging as, 2020). I s obus ness o analyzing indi idual pe o mance was seen as limi ed and
inadequa e (Wou e s e al., 2013), a o ing la ge uni s o analysis such as ields, coun ies o
ins i u ions.
His o ically, scien ome icians ha e cau ioned agains using only quan i a i e me ics o e alua e
schola s, as indi idual cha ac e is ics can dis o he ou comes (Moed, 2005, p. 54). E alua i e
scien ome ics has ocused on he de eloping pe o mance indica o s, con iding he app op ia e
in e p e a ion o policy make s and adminis a o s in wha is de ined as “in o med pee e iew”
(Nede ho & Van Raan, 1987). This us comes a a cos , as use s may lack he expe ise o
unde s and he ca ea s o he measu es being used (Wal man, 2019), may igno e he policy con ex
in which hey a e applied (Robinson-Ga cia & Rà ols, 2020), o may no make a esponsible use o he
me ics (Hamma el & Rush o h, 2017).
Excessi e ocus on pe o ma i i y has led academics, p ac i ione s and decision-make s o ques ion
e o s o quan i y esea che s’ ac i i y (Benedic us e al., 2016; Haddow & Hamma el , 2019; Pa do-
Gue a, 2022), ueling a enewed deba e on esponsible esea ch assessmen (RRA) ha c i icizes
p io i izing p oduc i i y o e quali y, social engagemen , open p ac ices, and he socio-economic
impac (Pon ika e al., 2022). In e na ional ini ia i es such as he San F ancisco Decla a ion on
Resea ch Assessmen (DORA) in 2012 o he mos ecen Coali ion o Ad ancing Resea ch
Assessmen (CoARA) in 2022 e lec his e-examina ion. Acco ding o Rà ols (2019), one eason o
i s misuse is he aming “in pu ely echnical e ms, paying scan a en ion o i s con ex and use” (p.
8). The main conce n is ha indica o s based on publica ions and ci a ions ha e been inapp op ia e
and coun e p oduc i e o he scien i ic communi y, masking he po en ial o scien ome ic me hods.
O e he las decades, he e inemen in da a p ocessing and me hodological inno a ion has o e ed
new oppo uni ies o con ex ualizing indi idual pe o mance (To es-Salinas e al., 2023). Ad ances
such as machine lea ning algo i hms, imp o ed bibliog aphic me ada a, and new da a sou ces (e.g.,
OpenAlex, Al me ic, ORCID, O e on), ha e expanded he ield’s capabili ies. Scien ome ic me hods
can now ack ca ee ajec o ies (Ju owe zki e al., 2021; Moed e al., 2013; Robinson-Ga cia e al.,
2019), s udy gende bias in science (H. Boekhou e al., 2021; Huang e al., 2020; La i iè e e al.,
2013) and analyze schola s’ engagemen in social media (Cos as e al., 2020), among o he a eas.
These ad ancemen s b idge be ween pe o ma i e and sociological, con ex ualized app oaches.
Thus, abandoning a scien ome ic p ac ice whe e “supe la i es can be used, dicho omous hinking is
ealis ic, wi h a esul an "ze o-sum" men ali y, and he "make a hypo hesis - ind a co ela ion"
me hod makes sense” (Mo a csik, 1984, p. 75).
3
This e iew examines he ecen de elopmen o au ho -le el me ics ocused on explo ing he
condi ions unde which science is p oduced. Table 1 summa izes he ocus a eas o a selec ion o
e iews which pa ly ouch upon he use o scien ome ic me hods applied o he scien i ic
wo k o ce. These e iews ha e ocused on au ho -le el me ics and hei pe o ma i e oles in
measu ing esea ch p oduc i i y and impac (Alonso e al., 2009; Me ing, 2017; Wal man, 2016). De
Rijcke e al., 2016) and Gau iau (2021), also conside eam dynamics and collabo a ion pa e ns,
al hough he o me om a policy pe spec i e, while he la e om a me hodological iewpoin .
Con ex is only conside ed by de Rijcke e al. (2016) and (Ma ín-Ma ín e al., 2018), al hough again
om di e en pe spec i es, wi h he la e looking mo e in o beha io al aspec s in luenced by social
media. Howe e , he e emains a signi ican gap in add essing he ole o disambigua ion algo i hms
and he ecen me hodological ad ances o s udying indi idual cha ac e is ics like gende and
na ionali y, as well as con ex ual ac o s such as ca ee ajec o y and esea ch p ac ices. This e iew
add esses mul iple ace s o he scien i ic wo k o ce which can se e unde s and and in o m on he
ac i i ies, oles and condi ions which shape scien is s’ pe o mance, key o unde s anding how
scien ome ics can con ibu e o ou knowledge o di e si y wi hin he scien i ic wo k o ce. This
e iew aims o ill hese gaps, o e ing a mo e nuanced unde s anding o he di e si y wi hin he
scien i ic wo k o ce and he ools a ailable o s udy i .
Table 1. Compa ison be ween bibliome ic e iews ela ed wi h indi idual-le el me ics and di e si y
Re e ence
Au ho
Focus
Pe o ma i i y
Con ex
Indi idual
cha ac e is ics
Team
Dynamics
Au ho
algo i hms
Alonso e al., 2009
✔
✔
de Rijcke e al., 2016
✔
✔
✔
✔
Gau iau, 2022
✔
✔
✔
Ma ín-Ma ín e al.,
2018
✔
✔
✔
Me ing, 2017
✔
✔
Wal man, 2016
✔
✔
✔
Wildgaa d e al., 2014
✔
✔
✔
Wildgaa d, 2019
✔
✔
The e iew is di ided in o ou sec ions. Sec ion 2 examines changes ela ed o da a sou ces, which
ha e been key o he de elopmen o he ield and he explo a ion o new me hods and enues. I
ocuses on wo speci ic aspec s: 1) imp o emen s in au ho name disambigua ion algo i hms and 2)
he expansion o au ho p o iles. The nex h ee sec ions look in o di e en componen s which a ec
4
he condi ions unde which esea ch akes place. Sec ion 3 examines me hods de eloped o s udy
indi idual cha ac e is ics o he scien i ic wo k o ce such as gende , ca ee leng h o na ionali y.
Sec ion 4 ocuses on measu ing con ex ual a iables ela ed o indi iduals such as ca ee ajec o y,
esea ch p ac ices, unding o social ou each. Sec ion 5 examines me hods o s udy eam dynamics
and he oles esea che s adop , s udied scien ome ically h ough au ho ship, con ibu ion
s a emen s o collabo a ion pa e ns. We conclude by discussing he implica ions and oppo uni ies
hese new scien ome ic app oaches b ing o he ields o sociology o science, esea ch policy and
science o science, as well as poin ing o po en ial gaps in he li e a u e and u u e lines o inqui y.
2 DATA SOURCES
The de elopmen and implemen a ion o indi idual le el-me ics is linked o ha o da a sou ces.
Thei inclusion o me ics, he launch o au ho p o iles and he imp o emen o he bibliog aphic
me ada a ela ed o he au ho s o he publica ions ha e os e ed he popula i y o ce ain me ics
and he possibili ies o quan i ying indi iduals’ academic ac i i ies. Resea ch on au ho name
disambigua ion has a long adi ion wi hin and beyond he ield o scien ome ics (e.g., Rod igues e
al., 2024). Bu due o he economic cos , in as uc u e and expe ise needed o de elop hem, hei
use has no expanded un il da a p o ide s inco po a ed hei own disambigua ion algo i hms and
made public au oma ically popula ed esea che p o iles.
The i s miles one on he p o ision o au ho p o iles and pa icula ly au ho -le el me ics was he
in oduc ion o au ho iden i ie s by he main bibliome ic da abases. New da a p o ide s such as
Mic oso Academic
1
, Dimensions (Visse e al., 2021) o OpenAlex
2
ha e also in oduced hei own
unique au ho iden i ie s. Au ho iden i ie s and p o iles ha e expanded he analy ical po en ial o
scien ome ic s udies, as well as becoming a undamen al sea ch ool o da abase use s, e alua o s,
esea che manage s and scien is s. He e we e iew he main miles ones on how da a p o ide s ha e
con ibu ed o expand he use (and misuse) o indi idual le el me ics (Haddow & Hamma el ,
2019), while a he same ime inc easing he oppo uni ies o mo e de ailed and ine-g ained
analyses. We obse e h ee majo de elopmen s: he in oduc ion o au ho name disambigua ion
algo i hms, he c ea ion and expansion o au ho p o iles and egis ies, and he in oduc ion o
esea che -le el ea u es.
2.1 Au ho name disambigua ion
Au ho name disambigua ion is a ask ha has his o ically been conduc ed by lib a ians h ough
au ho i y con ol o de eloping ca alogs and c ea ing au ho headings (Tille , 2004). Fo ins ance,
OCLC in oduced in 2003 i s Vi ual In e na ional Au ho i y File (VIAF) which aims a s anda dizing
and linking au ho names ac oss lib a y ca alogs and da abases. This issue soon became a majo
conce n in he ield o scien ome ics (Smalheise & To ik, 2009) due o he exponen ial inc ease o
esea ch publica ions and au ho s (Bo nmann e al., 2021; Miloje ić e al., 2018). This si ua ion
equi ed au oma ing he disambigua ion p ocess o au ho names. In hei seminal e iew,
Smalheise and To ik (2009) al eady acknowledge he oppo uni ies ha a p ope disambigua ion
app oach could b ing o he ield, when indica ing ha “a aching a pe son o a se o documen s is a
key s ep owa ds a majo b eak h ough in in o ma ion science” (p. 6-34). Howe e , a he ime he
1
Now o be eplaced by OpenAlex (h p://openalex.o g).
2
Mo e in he OpenAlex online documen a ion a h ps://docs.openalex.o g/api-en i ies/au ho s/au ho -
disambigua ion
5
app oaches p oposed did no mee he op imal quali y o ul ill such expec a ions. The main
challenges can be summa ized as ollows:
● Lack o incen i es o c ea e a global au ho egis y. Especially in he case o occasional and low
p oduc i e au ho s (De Solla P ice, 1980), who ep esen a la ge po ion o he scien i ic wo k o ce
(Ioannidis e al., 2014).
● Technical and easibili y issues o manually cu a e au ho da a in la ge bibliog aphic collec ions o
da abases.
● Challenges o assessing and alida ing unsupe ised machine lea ning app oaches.
● Limi a ions o he bibliog aphic me ada a o allowing a comp ehensi e selec ion o ea u es ha
could be used in he disambigua ion p ocess (e.g. classi ica ions, au ho -a ilia ion linkages,
au ho e-mails, e c.).
Issues such as linking a ilia ions wi h au ho s in bibliog aphic eco ds, ull indexing o e e ences o
he use o ex e nal in o ma ion such as au ho egis ies can imp o e machine lea ning models when
dealing wi h ambiguous au ho names. Au ho name disambigua ion me hods can be g ouped in o
wo ca ego ies (Fe ei a e al., 2012): au ho g ouping me hods and au ho assignmen me hods. In
mos cases, hese a e all unsupe ised me hods. In au ho g ouping (o clus e ing) me hods, a gi en
simila i y unc ion is calcula ed o a ma ix o publica ions based on hei bibliog aphic me ada a
(e.g., au ho names, a ilia ions, e e ences, e-mails, e c.), which a e hen clus e ed oge he . Each
clus e o publica ions will ep esen a disambigua ed ‘au ho ’.
This is he app oach ollowed a he Cen e o Science and Technology S udies (CWTS) a Leiden
Uni e si y (Ca on & an Eck, 2014). I uses a ule-sco ing app oach in which publica ions sha ing a
high numbe o bibliog aphic elemen s a e gi en a g ea e chance o belonging o he same
indi idual. I g oups me ada a in o ma ion in o ou g oups: au ho da a, a icle da a, sou ce da a
and ci a ion da a. Elemen s om each g oup ecei e di e en sco es and hen pai s o pape s wi h
high sco es a e ma ched oge he . Nex , a clus e ing app oach is ollowed o add new pape s o he
o iginal pai , cons i u ing an au ho ’s oeu e. The algo i hm a o s p ecision upon ecall. Tha is,
when unce ain y exis s, i will no g oup publica ions and assign publica ions o di e en ‘au ho s’,
meaning ha while he e a e no gaps in e ms o co e age, au ho spli s a e qui e common
especially among Eas -Asian names and disciplines wi h hype -au ho ship (Robinson-Ga cia e al.,
2019; Sugimo o e al., 2017, app. Supplemen a y In o ma ion). Tekles & Bo nmann (2020) a emp ed
o assess he pe o mance o he CWTS disambigua ion in compa ison wi h h ee o he app oaches,
concluding ha i was he mos e ec i e o he ou . In a di e en con ex , (Ab amo & D’Angelo,
2023) discussed he di e ences be ween using ex e nal da a o disambigua e names e sus he
algo i hm when analyzing indi iduals’ p oduc i i y a he ins i u ional le el.
Ano he example o au ho g ouping me hods is ha de eloped o he Mic oso Academic G aph
(MAG) (Sinha e al., 2015) and now con inued in OpenAlex (P iem e al., 2022). In his case, hey
adop a g aph-based app oach in which hey examine he ela ionships be ween an a ay o ea u es
including au ho name, a ilia ed ins i u ions, concep s agged in hei wo ks, ci a ions, coau ho s,
and hi d-pa y iden i ie s. As a alida ion me hod, hey ely on he ORCID au ho egis y (discussed
below) as a golden se , helping o es ablish ini ial clus e s and esol e ambigui ies. The sys em
con inuously upda es clus e in o ma ion, gi ing p e e ence o au ho clus e s wi h highe ma ching
sco es. This dynamic p ocess includes a sa egua d agains ORCID clashes wi hin a clus e , ensu ing
6
consis ency in names. Acco ding o he documen a ion p o ided by OpenAlex
3
, up o July 2023, he e
a e a ound 92 million au ho p o iles cu en ly wi hin he OpenAlex da abase.
Au ho assignmen me hods use a p obabilis ic app oach o de e mine au ho ship employing
bibliog aphic me ada a (e.g., likelihood o publishing in a opic, wi h ce ain co-au ho , in a jou nal,
e c.). I eeds om he lib a y adi ion, as obse ed om he app oach ollowed o he VIAF, which
uses a collabo a i e app oach o au ho name disambigua ion, in eg a ing da a om a ious na ional
lib a ies and au ho i y iles. Al hough he e is e idence ha la e hey a e also using g oup me hods
o be e disambigua e au ho s (Hickey & To es, 2014). The PubMed ID also applies an au ho
assignmen me hod by combining bibliog aphic me ada a and heu is ic echniques o uniquely
iden i y au ho s wi hin he PubMed da abase. The algo i hm begins wi h he collec ion and
p ep ocessing o de ailed bibliog aphic da a, including au ho names, i les, abs ac s, co-au ho s,
and a ilia ions. I hen ex ac s ea u es such as sha ed i le wo ds, jou nal names, medical subjec
headings, publica ion language, a ilia ions, and speci ic name a ibu es like middle ini ials and
su ixes. Using hese ea u es, he algo i hm applies heu is ic ules o e alua e he likelihood ha
simila o iden ical names ep esen he same indi idual, conside ing con ex ual de ails om co-
au ho s and a ilia ions (Liu e al., 2017).
Table 2. Types o au ho name disambigua ion me hods.
AUTHOR GROUPING METHODS
These me hods g oup a ious eco ds belie ed o belong o he same au ho based on simila i ies
in me ada a such as name, a ilia ion, co-au ho s, and publica ion enues.
Algo i hms
De ini ion
Examples (Re e ence)
Rule Sco ing algo i hm
G oups au ho eco ds by e alua ing he
simila i y o a ious a ibu es using sco ing
ules.
CWTS Au ho ID (Ca on
& an Eck, 2014)
G aph-based algo i hm
Uses a ne wo k o in e connec ed en i ies o
disambigua e au ho s by analyzing
ela ionships wi hin he g aph.
MAG Au ho ID (Sinha
e al., 2015)
OpenAlex ID (P iem e
al., 2022)
AUTHOR ASSIGNMENT METHODS
This me hod assigns eco ds o speci ic au ho p o iles using ules o algo i hms ha conside
indi idual a ibu es and ela ionships among eco ds o ensu e accu a e au ho iden i ica ion.
3
The in o ma ion ela ed o he au ho name disambigua ion me hod deployed by OpenAlex was e ie ed om
h ps://gi hub.com/ou esea ch/openalex-name-disambigua ion/ ee/main/V3
7
Algo i hms
De ini ion
Examples (Re e ence)
Collabo a i e algo i hm
In eg a es da a om mul iple au ho i y iles
o s anda dize and disambigua e au ho
names.
VIAF ID
(h ps:// ia .o g/)
Heu is ic-based
algo i hm
Applies p ede ined ules and heu is ics o
ma ch and di e en ia e au ho s.
PubMed ID (W. Liu e
al., 2014)
2.2 Au ho p o iles
Au ho name disambigua ion algo i hms ha e acili a ed he c ea ion and popula ion o esea che
p o iles. These p o iles display au ho s’ ou pu s along wi h addi ional indi idual ea u es and me ics.
The e alua i e cul u e a ound me ics and pe o ma i i y has spu ed hei use and popula i y
(Hamma el & Rush o h, 2017; Ma ín-Ma ín e al., 2018). ORCID and Google Schola Ci a ions
ha e been wo majo playe s in p omo ing and expanding hese ools, albei o di e en easons.
ORCID, due o i s open na u e and abili y o in eg a e wi h o he ools, ensu es da a quali y and
se es as a golden se o es and e ine algo i hms used by o he pla o ms. Google Schola Ci a ions
has gained immense popula i y among esea che s, pa icula ly h ough he in oduc ion o he h-
index and o he au ho -le el me ics. A lis o he main esea che p o iles cu en ly a ailable and
hei cha ac e is ics a e included in Table 3.
Scopus was he i s da abase o in oduce i s Au ho ID in 2006 (Boud y & Du and-Ba hez, 2020).
This iden i ie aims o p o ide indi idual-le el me ics and display esea che s’ academic wo k.
Scopus employs an au oma ic name disambigua ion algo i hm which au ho s can cu a e upon
eques . The Au ho ID algo i hm uses bibliog aphic me ada a (i.e., a ilia ion, subjec a ea,
geog aphic loca ion, co-au ho s, email add ess) o ensu e accu a e disambigua ion o au ho s wi h
simila names. This algo i hm a o s p ecision o e ecall (Moed e al., 2013), complemen ed by
manual cu a ion and es ed a golden se o a ound 12,000 cu a ed au ho p o iles (Baas e al., 2020).
P o iles a e en iched wi h ORCID da a, wi h s udies epo ing a 97%-98% ecall a e and 99%-100%
p ecision (Aman, 2018b; Kawashima & Tomizawa, 2015).
In 2008, Web o Science launched i s Resea che ID. Ini ially, i in i ed au ho s o c ea e hei own
p o iles and sugges ed publica ion lis s o manual cu a ion (Bo nmann & Williams, 2017). This
app oach was la e combined wi h algo i hmically gene a ed eco ds. In 2012, ORCID in eg a ion
u he enhanced Resea che ID, acili a ing in e ope abili y be ween pla o ms (Aman, 2018b). In
2017, Resea che ID me ged wi h Publons a e i s acquisi ion (Teixei a da Sil a & Al-Kha ib, 2019).
This in eg a ion allowed o e i ied pee e iew eco ds and enhanced esea che p o iles. Au ho s
can manually upda e hei p o iles and co ec any da a, ensu ing accu a e ep esen a ion.
The in oduc ion o Google Schola Ci a ions in 2011 ma ked a signi ican miles one. This ee se ice
equi es esea che s o sign up o c ea e hei p o iles, which hey can ei he cu a e hemsel es o
popula e au oma ically based on Google Schola ’s algo i hm. While ini ially me wi h skep icism,
pa icula ly om olde scien is s (O ega, 2015), Google Schola Ci a ions has become one o he
mos popula academic pla o ms alongside Resea chGa e and Academia.edu (Ma ín-Ma ín e al.,
2018). I s popula i y has been somewha con o e sial due o i s in o mal misuse in esea ch
assessmen (Bohannon, 2014) being a ool ha lacks o quali y con ol and hence is subjec o
manipula ion and gaming (Delgado López-Cóza e al., 2014).
8
Table 3. O e iew o he main esea che p o iles a ailable
1
Resea che
P o ile
Yea
S uc u e
Upda e me hod
Co e age
Owne
Indi idual-le el ea u es
In e ope abili y
ORCID ID
2012
Alphanume ic
Manually
cu a ed
Comp ehensi e
ORCID.
Bio, wo k his o y, g an s, no
me ics
In eg a es wi h C ossRe , Da aCi e, o he
academic da abases, expo op ions
Scopus Au ho
ID
2006
Nume ic
Algo i hmically
upda ed
Indexed in Scopus
Else ie
Basic bio, a ilia ions, h-index,
ci a ions
Limi ed in eg a ion wi h ORCID, expo
op ions
Web o Science
Resea che ID
2008
Alphanume ic
Supe ised
au oma ed
Indexed in Web o
Science
Cla i a e
Bio, wo k his o y, publica ions, h-
index, ci a ions
In eg a es wi h Publons, expo op ions
Dimensions
Resea che ID
2018
Alphanume ic
Algo i hmically
upda ed
Indexed in
Dimensions
Digi al Science
Basic bio, a ilia ions, ci a ions,
al me ics
In eg a es wi h ORCID, expo op ions
Google Schola
P o ile
2011
Alphanume ic
Supe ised
au oma ed
Comp ehensi e
Google
Bio, wo k his o y, esea ch
in e es s, h-index, ci a ions
Limi ed in eg a ion, expo op ions
Resea chGa e ID
2008
Alphanume ic
Supe ised
au oma ed
Comp ehensi e
Resea chGa e
GmbH
Bio, wo k his o y, publica ions,
esea ch in e es s, RG Sco e,
ci a ions
Limi ed in eg a ion, expo op ions
Academia.edu ID
2008
Alphanume ic
Manually
cu a ed
Comp ehensi e
Academia.edu
Bio, wo k his o y, publica ions,
esea ch in e es s, no me ics
Limi ed in eg a ion, expo op ions
CRIS P o iles
(e.g., Con e is,
Pu e)
--
Alphanume ic
Ins i u ional
Manually cu a ed
and supe ised
Ins i u ional
da abases
Va ious (e.g., Cla i a e, Else ie )
Comp ehensi e bio, wo k his o y, unding,
publica ions
2
9
ORCID ID, launched in 2012, s ands ou o i s uni e sal app oach o esea che iden i ica ion.
P o iding unique iden i ie s, ORCID in eg a es wi h mul iple da abases, enhancing
in e ope abili y and ensu ing consis ency ac oss pla o ms. Resea che s can manually cu a e
hei ORCID p o iles, which include comp ehensi e in o ma ion such as bio, wo k his o y, and
g an s. ORCID’s in eg a ion wi h da abases like C ossRe and Da aCi e unde sco es i s ole in
he b oade academic ecosys em, acili a ing seamless da a exchange and e i ica ion. Despi e
becoming pi o al as a benchma king ool o he es o he p o iles, i is an unde u ilized da a
sou ce in scien ome ic s udies (Cos as e al., 2024).
Dimensions Resea che ID, in oduced in 2018, ollows a wo-s ep algo i hm simila o he
CWTS algo i hm, using a ilia ion da a, co-au ho ship, ci a ion pa e ns, and subjec a ea ai s
o clus e publica ions belonging o indi iduals (Hook e al., 2018). These clus e s a e
connec ed using ORCID and DOIs, esul ing in a unique esea che ID assigned o 20 million
esea che s. This sys em has success ully assigned esea che IDs o abou 87% o publica ion-
au ho combina ions.
CRIS (Cu en Resea ch In o ma ion Sys em) au ho p o iles, such as hose om Con e is and
Pu e, p o ide ano he app oach o managing esea che s’ in o ma ion. These sys ems a e o en
used by ins i u ions o in eg a e in e nal pe sonnel da abases wi h ins i u ional eposi o ies
and o he ex e nal da abases (Rybinski e al., 2017). CRIS p o iles ypically include
comp ehensi e in o ma ion abou esea che s’ ou pu s, unding, a ilia ions, and o he
ac i i ies, o e ing a ich da ase o analysis and epo ing. Fo ins ance, he Flemish Resea ch
In o ma ion Sys em connec s a ound 95% o i s esea che s wi h hei ORCID IDs o acili a e
in e ope abili y be ween sys ems, enhancing he accu acy and comp ehensi eness o he da a
collec ed ( an Leeuwen e al., 2016). CRIS p o iles o e come some limi a ions o au ho name
disambigua ion algo i hms by allowing esea che s o manually cu a e and e i y hei
in o ma ion, al hough hey may s ill con ain pa ial o incomple e da a i no ully main ained
by he esea che s hemsel es also making i a cos ly sys em.
The ise o academic social ne wo ks like Resea chGa e and Academia.edu has u he
expanded he landscape o esea che p o iles. These pla o ms o e enues o esea che s o
display hei wo k, engage wi h pee s, and enhance hei isibili y. Howe e , hey also p esen
challenges ega ding da a eliabili y and p i acy (Gumpenbe ge e al., 2016; Thelwall &
Kousha, 2015).
Each o hese p o iles—Scopus Au ho ID, Web o Science Resea che ID, Google Schola
Ci a ions, ORCID ID, Dimensions Resea che ID, Resea chGa e, and Academia.edu—has unique
ea u es and limi a ions. Scopus and Web o Science p o ide obus , p op ie a y sys ems wi h
a ying deg ees o esea che con ol. Google Schola and ORCID o e open, esea che -
managed p o iles wi h b oad adop ion and in e ope abili y. Dimensions combines au oma ed
upda es wi h comp ehensi e me ics, while academic social ne wo ks like Resea chGa e and
Academia.edu ocus on communi y engagemen and isibili y. Toge he , hese p o iles enhance
he e alua ion o scien i ic pe o mance by p o iding di e se ools and pla o ms ha ca e o
di e se needs and p e e ences wi hin he academic communi y.
16
Figu e 1. Con ex ual ac o s a ec ing indi iduals’ pe o mance
Con ex ual ac o s in luencing he p oduc ion o knowledge can be key o unde s anding
academic success as well as p o iding he op imal condi ions o academic de elopmen . These
ha e been explo ed by la ge in ields closely ela ed o scien ome ics such as sociology o
science, science policy o managemen (D’Es e & Robinson-Ga cía, 2023; El-Ouahi e al., 2021;
F anzoni e al., 2018; La ou & Woolga , 1979; Robinson-Ga cia e al., 2018). In his s eam o
li e a u e we ind s udies on he e ec on p oduc i i y o in e sec o al job changes (Die z &
Bozeman, 2005), con ex ual ac o s leading o in e na ional mobili y and pe o mance
(F anzoni e al., 2018), ins i u ional ac o s and logics a ec ing pe o mance (Saue mann &
S ephan, 2012) o he ela ion be ween in e disciplina y esea ch and socie al ele ance
(D’Es e & Robinson-Ga cía, 2023) among o he s.
Figu e 1 esumes he ou ypes o con ex ual ac o s ha can a ec indi idual pe o mance.
These a e ela ed o pas ajec o y, p ac ices, unding condi ions and socie al ele ance o
esea ch ou comes. Scien ome ic measu es a he indi idual le el ha e been de eloped
une enly o each o hem, being pas ajec o y he one ha has ecei ed mos o he
a en ion.
4.1 T ajec o y and ca ee
Ca ee ajec o ies ha e been s udied in scien ome ic by p o iling schola s’ expe ience
h oughou hei ca ee leng h by looking in o a ilia ion changes. This allows acking and
s udying ca ee changes. Ca ee ajec o y has also been s udied o analyze academic success
o iden i y sys emic cons ain s a ec ing indi idual ca ee p ospec s. An example is he e ec
ha au ho posi ion, ─ a longs anding p oxy o leade ship in e alua ion p ocesses (Chinchilla-
Rod íguez e al., 2019), ─ has on indi iduals’ chances o ha e a long academic ca ee (Miloje ić
e al., 2018), o how ask specializa ion may a ec such ca ee leng h (Robinson-Ga cia e al.,
2020).
Laudel (2003) was among he i s o sugges using bibliog aphic da a o econs uc ca ee
ajec o ies. She saw he po en ial o scien ome ics, no only o look in o ins i u ional mobili y,
17
bu also o econs uc ‘cogni i e ca ee s’ o ‘ esea ch ails’, i.e., “successi e s ages o
knowledge p oduc ion building on each o he ” (Gläse & Laudel, 2015, p. 301). Howe e , i is
he in oduc ion o au ho p o iles and au ho name disambigua ion algo i hms ha made his
ype o app oach inally possible a a la ge scale.
The i s la ge-scale scien ome ic s udies analyzing ca ee ajec o ies ocused on geog aphical
mobili y (Moed e al., 2013; Moed & Hale i, 2014; Robinson-Ga cia e al., 2016; Sugimo o,
Robinson-Ga cia, e al., 2017). Since hen, s udies on he in e na ional mo emen o schola s
using scien ome ic me hods ha e inc eased. He e he ange o s udies goes om
me hodological app oaches (Aman, 2018a; Robinson-Ga cia e al., 2019) o in es iga ing
in e na ional ends (Chinchilla-Rod íguez e al., 2018; Mu ay e al., 2023; Sanli u k e al.,
2023) o ocusing on speci ic egional dynamics (El-Ouahi e al., 2021; Mi anda-González e al.,
2020; Subbo in & A e , 2021; J. Wang e al., 2019). We also ind s udies analyzing he in e play
be ween speci ic indi idual ai s o eam dynamics and mobili y. These s udies ha e se e o
con i m gende di e ences in e ms o in e na ional mobili y (Momeni e al., 2022; Zhao e al.,
2023), analyze he ole o mobili y on collabo a ion pa e ns (Wang e al., 2019) as a ein o cing
mechanism (Boekhou e al., 2021), o unde s and how ins i u ional and geog aphic cons ain s
a ec ca ee ajec o ies (Vacca io e al., 2020).
Also looking in o mobili y, bu in his case, in e -sec o al mobili y, Yeg os-Yeg os e al. (2021)
explo ed he ole esea che s holding mul iple a ilia ions play in b idging be ween ins i u ions.
They epo ed ha esea che s holding mul iple a ilia ions wi hin a coun y b idge be ween
sec o s, while hose wi h in e na ional mul iple a ilia ions will b idge be ween uni e si ies.
Using a simila app oach, Ju owe zki e al., (2021) looked in o he phenomenon o scien i ic
b ain d ain om academia o he public sec o in he ield o AI.
4.2 Resea ch dissemina ion p ac ices
Building upon p e ious esea ch (Robinson-Ga cia e al., 2023), we de ine esea ch
dissemina ion p ac ices ac i i ies, wo k lows and ou ines which may o may no be in luenced
by cul u al, disciplina y o ins i u ional logics and which de ine ways o ope a ing ex e nal o
he quali y o p oduc i i y o schola s (i.e., esea che s conduc ing ieldwo k may publish less
han hose ocused on me a-analyses, and hei numbe o pape s may no necessa ily e lec
hei p oduc i i y as scien is s). These p ac ices include bu can go beyond open schola ship o
esponsible p ac ices (Mohe e al., 2020). Scien ome ic a emp s ha e ocused on he
cha ac e iza ion and p o iling o esea che s based on hei esea ch p ac ices. In some cases,
his is done by combining scien ome ic da a wi h o he da a sou ces such as su ey da a (e.g.,
D’Es e & Robinson-Ga cía, 2023; Ramos-Vielba e al., 2022).
Fo ins ance, we obse e au ho -le el analyses on publica ion pa e ns which aim a iden i ying
dis inc p o iles o esea che s by hei use o di e en communica ion channels (A oyo-
Machado & Robinson-Ga cia, 2023; Ve leysen & Ossenblok, 2017). O he a emp s ela e o
cap u ing speci ic ac i i ies which a e no p esen in bibliog aphic da abases. An example can
be ound in he wo k by Mongeon e al. (2017) who link au ho ships o da ase s wi h
publica ions in o de o explo e da a sha ing p ac ices among schola s. Wi h ega d o da a
sha ing, we ind se e al a emp s a de eloping au ho le el me ics, due o he in e es in
p omo ing anspa ency (Bie e e al., 2017). Six o-Cos oya e al. (2021) in es iga ed ORCID as a
po en ial ool o in es iga e da a sha ing p ac ices a he au ho le el. While Hood &
Su he land (2021) sugges ed di e en me ics o encou age da a sha ing and da a ci a ion.
18
4.3 Funding
The ole unding plays has also been s udied h ough scien ome ic means, in his case looking
in o ques ions such as i s e ec on ca ee ad ancemen (Bol e al., 2018) o he pe inence o
unding schemes (Fedde ke & Goldschmid , 2015). Howe e , hese s udies end o combine
scien ome ic da a wi h o he sou ces, as linking au ho ship wi h unding sou ces is no always
easible. This explains he lack o esea ch in his a ea. The indexa ion o unding
acknowledgemen s by bibliog aphic da abases (Cos as & an Leeuwen, 2012) has opened he
possibili y o explo e he ole o unding in science. S ill, echnical issues linking au ho s o
unding schemes , along wi h he omission o unding bodies in many publica ions impede hei
use a he indi idual le el (Ál a ez-Bo ns ein & Mon esi, 2021). In his ega d, au ho name
disambigua ion algo i hms may no be he answe o sol e his issue, bu he expansion in he
use and in eg a ion o au ho egis ies like ORCID o o he CV-based applica ions, in which
hese o he ac i i ies can be included and easily linked o o he ac i i ies and ou pu s o
indi idual esea che s (Cos as e al., 2024).
4.4 Social media ou each
The a en ion ga he ed a ound he i up ion o social media (Sugimo o, Wo k, e al., 2017) has
also included he s udy o indi idual’s beha io wi hin al me ic s udies. In his ega d e o s
ha e been di ec ed in ou di ec ions.
Fi s , ying o iden i y and desc ibe esea che s’ p esence on di e en social media pla o ms
(Ma ín-Ma ín e al., 2018; To es-Salinas & Milanés-Guisado, 2014). These s udies end o
depa om a lis o esea che s o which hen an online p esence in di e en pla o ms is
acked in o de o es ima e he usage scien is s make o hese ools. Then, hey ollow up by
looking a hei le els o ac i i y and in e ac ion h ough he o mula ion o a ious me ics.
Second, we ind s udies cha ac e izing and p o iling esea che s who ac i ely use social media
ools o p omo e hei esea ch o in e ac wi h o he audiences (B uns e al., 2014; Díaz-Faes
e al., 2019; Holmbe g e al., 2014; Robinson-Ga cia e al., 2018). Thei aim is o unde s and
how hey use hese ools a he han o obse e i hey do use hem. In his ega d, hey ocus
on in e ac ions wi h o he use s o sel -depic ions on hese pla o ms.
The hi d s eam o li e a u e ela es o he de elopmen o me hodological solu ions o
moni o esea che s’ ac i i ies on social media pla o ms. The goal is o ind ways in which
social media accoun s can be linked o esea che p o iles o a leas agged as academic
accoun s. To do so, wo app oaches ha e been obse ed. The i s one elies solely on he
in o ma ion depic ed by he desc ip ions included in social media lis s (Ke e al., 2017). The
second app oach consis s on ma ching social media in o ma ion wi h publica ion da a ia
au ho p o iles in o de o iden i y hose esea che s who also ha e an online p esence (Cos as
e al., 2020; Mongeon e al., 2023).
The las g oup o s udies ela es o pe o ma i i y and social isibili y. He e, al me ic indica o s
a e g ouped a he au ho le el by using au ho iden i ie s and hen schola s a e p o iled o
compa ed based on he social media ac i i y su ounding hei publica ions. Fo example,
Ramos-Vielba e al. (2022), combine scien ome ic and su ey da a o p opose a alue c ea ion
model o science-socie y in e ac ions. Wi hin he same p ojec and using he same da ase ,
D’Es e & Robinson-Ga cía (2023) explo e he ela ion be ween in e disciplina y esea ch and
socie al isibili y. Finally, A oyo-Machado & To es-Salinas (2023) p opose de eloping al me ic
p o iles a he au ho le el ocusing on di e en aspec s o dimensions o socie al isibili y.
19
5 TEAM DYNAMICS
A weakness in esea ch e alua ion is i s di icul y in econciling he no ion o indi idual
e alua ion in he con ex o collabo a ion and eamwo k (Walsh e al., 2019). In a se ing in
which eams in science become he no m (Mongeon, Smi h, e al., 2017; Wuch y e al., 2007),
many s udies on esea ch ca ee s poin owa ds an excessi e ocus on p omo ing scien i ic
leade ship o he de imen o au ho s who a e eam membe s (Chinchilla-Rod íguez e al.,
2024; Miloje ić e al., 2018; Robinson-Ga cia e al., 2020). The ise o eams leads o u he
di e si y in he way esea che s collabo a e, dis ibu e wo k and specialize, always media ed by
disciplina y di e ences and cha ac e is ics. The li e a u e on esea ch collabo a ion and eam
dynamics is as , bo h in sociology o science as well as in scien ome ics. Howe e , he e a e
impo an di e ences in he app oaches and indings epo ed in each ield. Sociologis s o
science ha e ocused on he in e nal mechanics o scien i ic eams such as powe dynamics,
social in e ac ions, cul u al no ms o in e nal s uc u e (Kno -Ce ina, 1982; La ou & Woolga ,
1979; Walsh & Lee, 2015; Whi ley, 2000). Scien ome icians and scien is s o science, on he
o he hand, ha e looked in o quan i iable aspec s o scien i ic collabo a ion, such as co-
au ho ship ne wo ks, la ge-scale analyses on scien i ic communi ies and ne wo k s uc u e
(Bö ne e al., 2010; Cale o e al., 2006; Newman, 2004; Raan, 2008). Fu he mo e, hei
ope a ional de ini ion o eams also a ies wi h esea ch eams being de ined h ough co-
au ho ship (e.g., Xu e al., 2022), depa men al uni s (e.g., Engels e al., 2013) o p ojec -based
eams (e.g., Bone e al., 2020).
A he indi idual le el, we can g oup scien ome ic s udies on eam dynamics in o h ee
g oups: 1) s udies analyzing o de and hie a chy in he au ho byline o publica ions, 2) s udies
p o iling esea che s based on hei co-au ho ship pa e ns and ne wo ks, and 3) mo e
ecen ly, s udies looking in o con ibu ion s a emen s and specializa ion.
5.1 Au ho o de
Au ho ship plays an essen ial ole in academic ca ee p og ession, as i is used as a sou ce o
ecogni ion o c edi , being he en y poin in o wha is known as he ‘ ewa d sys em’ o
science (Biagioli, 2003; Me on, 1968). Howe e , collabo a i e esea ch challenges how c edi
should be dis ibu ed. Fo ins ance, in a mul i-au ho ed pape , he mo e p es igious au ho s
will ga he mo e ecogni ion han hose less known (Me on, 1968).
Di e en ields ha e esponded di e en ly o such challenges. While in some cases, au ho s a e
lis ed alphabe ically, in mos , c edi is dis ibu ed unequally on he au ho byline o pape s.
Tha is, adhe ing di e en le els o p es ige, depending on au ho s’ posi ion (F andsen &
Nicolaisen, 2010; Ma ušić e al., 2011). Some disciplines o de au ho s by dec easing o de o
con ibu ion (Bu e al., 2020; G ando & Be nha d, 2003), whe eas mos lab-based disciplines
exhibi an in e ed U-shape, wi h i s au ho s and las au ho s ha ing pe o med he mos
con ibu ions (La i iè e e al., 2021). The e a e excep ions o hose dominan ends—such as
economics, ma hema ics and business, managemen and accoun ing—whe e esea che s show
a s ong end o sign in alphabe ical o de (Fe nandes & Co ez, 2020; Wal man, 2012;
Wohl abe & Bo nmann, 2022).
When compa ing au ho posi ion wi h con ibu ion s a emen s, we obse e ha i s au ho s
will be he mos in es ed esea che s in a gi en s udy, las posi ion will be hold by hose
esponsible o coo dina ing, supe ising o acqui ing unding, while middle posi ions will be
ese ed o less in ol ed au ho s, no mally hose con ibu ing wi h echnical o ield wo k
20
(Escabias & Robinson-Ga cia, 2022; Saue mann & Haeussle , 2017). Howe e , his alignmen
migh change based on disciplina y di e ences, ins i u ional policies o misconduc , con lic o
aud in au ho ship (Biagioli, 2003; F andsen & Nicolaisen, 2010; Walsh e al., 2019).
As au ho ship plays an impo an ole in ca ee p og ession om unde g adua e o
p o esso ship, he posi ion o au ho s in byline publica ions is usually used in he assessmen o
esea che ’ scien i ic con ibu ions (Bhanda i e al., 2004; Hess e al., 2015; Pe nege e al.,
2017). This na u ally leads o a ela ion be ween au ho ship o de and ca ee leng h, especially
when looking a i s and las au ho posi ions (Escabias & Robinson-Ga cia, 2022; Robinson-
Ga cia e al., 2020). Bu also leads o unequal powe dynamics (Xu e al., 2024), which in he
con ex o e alua ion, can lead o malp ac ices such as he inclusion o non-con ibu ing
au ho s (known as “hono a y” o “gues ” au ho s) o he exclusion o quali ying au ho s
(known as “ghos ” au ho s), gaming and limi ing he po en ial o scien ome ic me hods o
cap u e c edi h ough au ho ship in an e e mo e eam-based science (G eenland &
Fon ana osa, 2012; Jabbehda i & Walsh, 2017).
The scien ome ic communi y has de ised a a ie y o coun ing me hods o dis ibu e c edi
among membe s o mul i-au ho ed pape s (Gau iau, 2021). These ange om ull coun ing, –
ha is, gi ing ull c edi o all au ho s o a gi en publica ion –, o ac ional coun ing, –
dis ibu ing c edi equally by he numbe o au ho s o a publica ion. In be ween he e is a
la ge ange o di e en weigh ing sys ems which aim a dis ibu ing c edi unequally among
au ho s on he basis ha posi ion o de e lec s hei le el o in ol emen in a gi en
publica ion. Some examples a e ha monic (Hagen, 2008) o geome ic (Liu & Fang, 2023)
alloca ion o c edi among o he s. Howe e , all hese me hods a e somewha a bi a y and
unsubs an ia ed, as he ue con ibu ion o each au ho can a y signi ican ly and is no always
accu a ely e lec ed by hei posi ion in he au ho lis . This inhe en a bi a iness aises
ques ions abou he ai ness and accu acy o hese c edi dis ibu ion me hods (Kim & Kim,
2015).
5.2 Con ibu ion s a emen s
To educe he a bi a iness o c edi dis ibu ion me hods based on au ho coun ing, he
in oduc ion o con ibu ion s a emen s in publica ion eco ds has g ea ly imp o ed
oppo uni ies o scien ome ically s udy au ho oles in mul i-au ho ed publica ions (Allen e
al., 2014). Con ibu o ship s a emen s eme ged in he la e 1990s, p ima ily in biomedical
jou nals, o add ess hese challenges (Rennie e al., 1997; Smi h, 1997). Con ibu ion
disclosu es show ha i s au ho s a e mo e likely o ha e concei ed esea ch, analyzed da a,
and w i en he pape , as well as pe o med esea ch and analyzed he da a han middle and
las au ho s. Las au ho s a e mo e likely o ha e concei ed esea ch and w i en he pape
han i s o middle au ho s (La i iè e e al., 2016; Pe nege e al., 2017).
Also, he numbe o con ibu ions conduc ed by each au ho seems o be in o med by hei
au ho byline. Lu e al. (2020) iden i ied h ee ypes o au ho s based on he dis ibu ion o
asks among co-au ho s. They di e en ia ed be ween hose who con ibu e o a ask by
hemsel es (specialis s), hose who sha e he bu den on mos asks ( eam playe s), and hose
who combine bo h oles ( e sa ile). These ypes seemed o be associa ed wi h speci ic
g oupings o asks. Team playe s would be in ol ed equally in he mos common asks ac oss
s udies (i.e., da a analysis, w i ing he d a , concei ing and designing he s udy, pe o ming
expe imen s). Ve sa ile au ho s ha e a simila p o ile, al hough mo e ocused on pe o ming
expe imen s. Bu specialis s would end o con ibu e o lesse common asks such as
21
con ibu ing wi h ools. These oles we e ound ac oss ields and we e no mally associa ed
wi h au ho posi ion, al hough hey we e less clea ly iden i iable in la ge eams (Lu e al.,
2022).
Mo e speci ically, Robinson-Ga cia e al. (2020), iden i ied h ee ypes o esea che s based on
hei di e en o ms o con ibu o ships. The me hodological app oach o de ine hese
ypologies is di e en om ha ollowed by Lu e al. (2019). They apply an a che ypal analysis
o iden i y ex eme combina ions o con ibu ions a he au ho le el. Howe e , he e a e
simila i ies be ween he indings o bo h s udies. Robinson-Ga cia e al. (2020) e e s o leade s
as hose “cha ac e ized by high coe icien alues o all con ibu ions” (p. 9), specialis s as
hose “cha ac e ized by high coe icien alues o PE and AD” (p., 9), - whe e PE e e s o
pe o ming expe imen s and AD o analyzing da a-, and suppo ing au ho s as hose
“cha ac e ized by gene ally low alues o all con ibu o ships” (p. 9). These ypes hold a g ea
esemblance wi h wha Lu e al. (2019) e e o as eam playe s, e sa ile and specialis s,
acco dingly. A s udy by Zhao e al. (2024) u he explo es his by examining he impac o he
numbe o hough leade s (as de ined by hose con ibu ing h ough concep ualiza ion asks)
on eam pe o mance. They epo ed ha eams wi h mo e hough leade s end o p oduce
mo e ci ed ou pu s bu we e less dis up i e. This nuanced unde s anding helps e ine how
c edi is a ibu ed and how eam dynamics a ec esea ch ou comes.
In e ing con ibu ions based solely on au ho o de can be highly p oblema ic, especially in an
e alua i e con ex , as hese a e majo ends a he han common and c oss-disciplina y
p ac ice (Saue mann & Haeussle , 2017). S ill, unde s anding eam dynamics and dis ibu ion
o labo can help unde s and and imp o e biases when a ibu ing c edi and designing science
policies p omo ing a heal hy and sus ainable scien i ic ecosys em (B and e al., 2015; Miloje ić
e al., 2018). The Con ibu o Roles Taxonomy o CRediT aims a p o iding a uni e sal
con ibu ion axonomy ha allows c oss-compa ison be ween jou nals, ields and o ganiza ion,
hus con ibu ing o such unde s anding (Allen e al., 2014; La i iè e e al., 2021). Beyond
unde s anding eam dynamics, his in o ma ion can also help unde s and biases in science such
as gende biases (La i iè e e al., 2021; Robinson-Ga cia e al., 2020) o geog aphical biases
( an Schalkwyk, 2023).
5.3 Collabo a ion pa e ns
Scien i ic collabo a ion is a c i ical dimension in analyzing esea che s’ ac i i ies and
pe o mance (Bozeman & Co ley, 2004; Pe kmann e al., 2013). I also plays a i al ole in
p omo ing di e si y wi hin he scien i ic wo k o ce by os e ing inclusi e esea ch
en i onmen s (F eeman & Huang, 2014). Beyond au ho o de , he e is a as numbe o
s udies examining co-au ho ship pa e ns, ypes o collabo a ion and size o collabo a ing
ne wo ks (Guime à e al., 2005; Heinze & Baue , 2007; Newman, 2001). These s udies end o
cha ac e ize collabo a ion pa e ns and ie hem wi h pe o mance o ou comes.
O e 50 yea s ago, De Solla P ice & Bea e (1966) highligh ed ha di e ences in p oduc i i y
among au ho s a e linked o collabo a ion. Since hen, we ha e lea ned ha collabo a ion is
s uc u ed in small wo ld (Newman, 2001) and sel -o ganized ne wo ks in which co-au ho ships
a e de e mined h ough p e e en ial a achmen and Ma hew E ec (Wagne & Leydesdo ,
2005). These ne wo ks o en acili a e di e se collabo a ions, which can b ing oge he a
a ie y o pe spec i es and expe ise. Fu he mo e, ex e nal ac o s a ec he dynamics o
collabo a ion, including s uc u al, clima e- ela ed, and ins i u ional aspec s (Adams e al.,
22
2014; Chinchilla-Rod íguez e al., 2018; Luukkonen e al., 1993). Ci a ion impac inc eases
exponen ially wi h he numbe o collabo a ing au ho s om he same ins i u ion and linea ly
wi h he numbe o domes ic and o eign ins i u ions (Gazni e al., 2012; Ka z & Hicks, 1997).
In e ms o me hodological app oaches, Social Ne wo k Analysis echniques a e dominan
wi hin hese s udies, applied o scien ome ic da a (O e & Rousseau, 2002). These echniques
can also be used o analyze he di e si y o collabo a ion ne wo ks and hei impac on
esea ch ou comes. Su ey o CV da a a e used in many cases ei he subs i u ing o
complemen ing bibliog aphic da a (Bozeman & Gaughan, 2011; Gaughan & Bozeman, 2002).
The dis inc ion be ween collabo a ion ypes is essen ial in o de o iden i y and unde s and he
ype and impac o ou comes p oduced. Bozeman & Boa dman (2014) sugges dis inguishing
be ween “knowledge-based collabo a ions” which enhance esea ch p oduc i i y and
“p ope y-based collabo a ions” which a ec economic de elopmen and weal h. This can be
ope a ionalized by looking in o in e -sec o al co-au ho ship (Yeg os-Yeg os e al., 2016) as a
p oxy o iden i y en ep eneu ial au ho s. Bu no only indus y collabo a ion can be iden i ied
h ough co-au ho ship, bu h ough a combina ion o al me ic (Robinson-Ga cia e al., 2018),
scien ome ic and su ey me hods (D’Es e & Robinson-Ga cía, 2023), i is possible o p o ile
esea che s based on hei socie al engagemen , linking hese p o iles wi h esea ch ou pu s,
in e disciplina y me ics and ci a ion impac measu es. The combina ion o scien ome ic
app oaches wi h o he da a collec ion me hods seems o be desi able, gi en ha co-
au ho ship, as collabo a ion is no mally ope a ionalized, ends o make isible only ce ain
ypes o collabo a ions (Laudel, 2002).
6 DISCUSSION
The scien ome ic oolbox has g ea ly expanded in he las decades, allowing o con ex ualized
app oaches a he indi idual le el which do no only benchma k bu also explain and desc ibe
i s di e si y. These de elopmen s expand he oppo uni ies o lea n and explain scien i ic
pe o mance, p oduc i i y and impac beyond ou da ed and simplis ic no ions o me i oc acy
and excellence (Moed & Hale i, 2015; Mo a csik, 1984). The in eg a ion o machine lea ning
algo i hms, he imp o ed quali y o bibliog aphic me ada a, and new da a sou ces such as
OpenAlex and ORCID, ha e allowed o mo e nuanced and de ailed analyses. These
ad ancemen s enable esea che s o ack ca ee ajec o ies, s udy gende bias, and examine
schola s’ engagemen in social media, b idging he gap be ween pe o ma i e and sociological
app oaches. S ill, i is impo an o no e ha he e a e many o he ypes o di e si y a he
indi idual le el ha canno be cu en ly accoun ed o using scien ome ics, such as cogni i e
and physical di e si y, socioeconomic di e si y, sexual o ien a ion di e si y o neu odi e si y
among o he s.
By inco po a ing a a ie y o me ics beyond simple publica ion and ci a ion coun s, such as
unding acknowledgmen s, au ho con ibu ions, and social media ac i i y, scien ome ic
me hods can p o ide a mo e holis ic unde s anding o esea che s' ac i i ies and hei
con ex s. This app oach helps o illumina e he di e se condi ions unde which science is
p oduced, o e ing aluable insigh s in o how indi idual cha ac e is ics, eam dynamics, and
con ex ual ac o s shape scien i ic pe o mance. Table 4 summa izes he main oppo uni ies
and gaps iden i ied in his e iew in o de o inspi e and se u u e esea ch goals and agendas.
Table 4. Summa y o he main oppo uni ies and limi a ions iden i ied in he li e a u e abou
he use o scien ome ic me hods o s udy di e si y wi hin he scien i ic wo k o ce
23
Sec ion
Subsec ion
Oppo uni ies
Limi a ions
Da a sou ces
Au ho name
disambigua ion
Imp o ed accu acy wi h
machine lea ning
algo i hms
High economic cos and
in as uc u e
equi emen s
Au ho p o iles
Enhanced esea che
p o iles wi h ORCID and
o he ools
Va iabili y in da a quali y
and co e age
Indi idual
cha ac e is ics
Ca ee leng h
T acking ca ee
ajec o ies using
bibliog aphic me ada a
Me hodological
di e ences and lack o
conside a ion o ca ee
b eaks
Gende
Imp o ing ou
unde s anding on gende
inequi y in academia
Reliance on bina y gende
models and po en ial
biases
Na ional and/o
e hnic
backg ound
Combina ion o su name
da a wi h a ilia ion o
e hnic classi ica ion
Limi a ions in da a sou ces
and po en ial
misclassi ica ion
Con ex
T ajec o y and
ca ee
Recons uc ing ca ee
pa hs using au ho p o iles
Di icul y in cap u ing ull
ca ee ajec o ies
accu a ely
Dissemina ion
p ac ices
P o iling esea che s
based on publica ion
pa e ns and o he
ac i i ies
Limi ed by da a a ailabili y
Funding
Linking esea ch
in es men and policies o
ou pu s
Challenges in accu a ely
ma ching au ho ship wi h
unding sou ces
Social ou each
S udying esea che s’
engagemen beyond
academia
Limi ed o social media and
da a eliabili y issues
Team
dynamics
Au ho o de
C edi dis ibu ion in mul i-
au ho ed pape s
Po en ial ein o cemen o
exis ing inequali ies
h ough au ho o de
Con ibu ion
s a emen s
De ailed insigh s in o
indi idual con ibu ions o
esea ch
Va iabili y in epo ing
p ac ices and con ibu ion
accu acy
Collabo a ion
pa e ns
Cha ac e izing
collabo a ion ne wo ks
and hei impac
Limi ed isibili y o ce ain
ypes o collabo a ions
24
Despi e hese ad ancemen s, signi ican challenges emain. Scien ome ic me hods ha e
his o ically aced c i icism o hei o e - eliance and p esump ions added o quan i a i e
me ics based on seconda y (i.e., publica ions) da a, which can some imes obscu e he
quali a i e aspec s o esea ch pe o mance. T adi ional me ics such as publica ion and
ci a ion coun s may no adequa ely cap u e he di e se con ibu ions o esea che s,
pa icula ly hose om unde ep esen ed g oups. The inhe en biases in hese me ics can
ein o ce exis ing inequali ies and ail o accoun o he a ied oles and esponsibili ies wi hin
esea ch eams.
Fu he mo e, me hodological challenges in accu a ely iden i ying and analyzing indi idual
cha ac e is ics such as gende and e hnici y pe sis . The assignmen o gende based on au ho
names and he classi ica ion o e hnic o igin using su names, while common, can in oduce
e o s and biases. These me hods o en ely on bina y gende models and may no accu a ely
e lec he complex, socially cons uc ed na u e o ace and e hnici y. Addi ionally, he lack o
comp ehensi e and eliable da a on hese cha ac e is ics can hinde e o s o s udy di e si y a
a la ge scale.
The con ex in which esea ch is conduc ed also plays a c ucial ole in shaping indi iduals’
scien i ic pe o mance. Fac o s such as ca ee ajec o y, esea ch p ac ices, unding condi ions,
and social ou each in luence he p oduc ion and isibili y o scien i ic knowledge.
Scien ome ic indica o s ha e adi ionally been used wi hou adequa e conside a ion o hese
con ex ual ac o s, limi ing hei abili y o p o ide a comple e pic u e o esea che s' ac i i ies
and achie emen s. Recen e o s o con ex ualize hese indica o s, by inco po a ing
in o ma ion om a b oad ange o sou ces and epo ing me ics in ways ha a e
comp ehensible o non-expe s, ep esen a s ep o wa d. Howe e , mo e wo k is needed o
de elop obus amewo ks ha can accoun o he di e se con ex s in which science is
p oduced.
The s udy o di e si y wi hin he scien i ic wo k o ce using scien ome ic me hods o e s bo h
oppo uni ies and challenges. Ad ances in da a p ocessing and me hodological inno a ions
ha e expanded he analy ical po en ial o hese me hods, allowing o mo e de ailed and
nuanced analyses o esea che s' ac i i ies and pe o mance. Howe e , signi ican challenges
emain, pa icula ly ela ed o he inhe en biases in adi ional me ics and he
me hodological di icul ies in accu a ely iden i ying and analyzing indi idual cha ac e is ics and
con ex ual ac o s. Add essing hese challenges equi es a c i ical and nuanced app oach o he
use o scien ome ic me hods. By in eg a ing di e se da a sou ces, de eloping mo e inclusi e
me ics, and conside ing he con ex in which esea ch is conduc ed, u u e esea ch can
p o ide a mo e comp ehensi e and equi able unde s anding o di e si y in he scien i ic
wo k o ce. This will no only enhance ou unde s anding o how science is p oduced bu also
in o m policies and p ac ices aimed a p omo ing di e si y and inclusion in academia.
FUNDING INFORMATION
This wo k is pa o he COMPARE p ojec (REF: PID2020-117007RA-I00) unded by he Spanish
Minis y o Science (Re : MCIN/AEI /10.13039/501100011033 FSE in ie e en u u u o.
Nicolas Robinson-Ga cia is unded by a Ramón y Cajal g an om he Spanish Minis y o
Science and Inno a ion (REF: RYC2019-027886-I).
25
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