TONI MORRISON AND THE TRANSLATION
OF HISTORY IN MARGARET GARNER
Leon James Bynum
Columbia Uni e si y
Abs ac
This a icle p obes how Toni Mo ison ansla es biog aphical his o y in Ma ga e Ga ne in ela ion o
Black women’s sel -de e mina ion. Ma ga e Ga ne was ega ded wi h bo h ep oach and e e ence
o mu de ing he wo-yea -old daugh e o p e en he child om being e u ned o sla e y a e
hey escaped in 1856. W i ing he 2005 ope a Ma ga e Ga ne , Mo ison made a numbe o changes
o he his o ical na a i e o he eponymous he oine. The ocus o he ansla ion is no on p esen ing
an accu a e ecoun al o his o y; a he , he goal is o ed ess he limi a ions placed on Black
women’s sel -de e mina ion by g an ing hem agency h ough his in e p e a ion o Ga ne .
Key Wo ds: Ma ga e Ga ne ; Toni Mo ison; agency; his o y; ansla ion; ilicide; Belo ed; ope a
In oduc ion
Ma ga e Ga ne was ega ded wi h bo h ep oach and e e ence o
mu de ing he wo- yea -old daugh e o p e en he child om being
e u ned o sla e y. In he ensuing yea s, he 1856 inciden cap u ed he
in e es s o w i e s o di e se poli ical sensibili ies, om F ances Ellen
Wa kins Ha pe o John Jolli e o Dolo es Kend ick. The case also kindled
he c ea ion o Toni Mo ison’s acclaimed 1987 no el, Belo ed. Following
he wo k’s success, Mo ison once again in e p e ed Ga ne 's li e, his
ime less obliquely in an ope a ha bea s he name.
W i ing he 2005 ope a Ma ga e Ga ne mo e han a decade la e ,
Mo ison, wi h compose Richa d Danielpou , made a numbe o changes
o he his o ical na a i e o he eponymous he oine. The cons uc ion o
he ope a’s lib e o, cha ac e de elopmen , and physical p oduc ion
ypi y Ga ne as a woman o s eng h, i ue, in elligence, and p inciple.
The ocus o he ansla ion is no on p esen ing an accu a e ecoun al o
his o y; a he , he goal is o ed ess he limi a ions placed on Black
women’s sel -de e mina ion by g an ing hem agency h ough his
in e p e a ion o Ga ne .
TONIMORRISONANDTHETRANSLATIONOFHISTORYINMARGARETGARNER
To es ablish ha Mo ison u ilizes he e sion o Ga ne o g an
agency o sla e women, he ollowing h ee ocal poin s will be
in e oga ed: Ga ne ’s his o y, om he escape om sla e y h ough he
habeas co pus hea ing; Mo ison’s ansla ion o hose same e en s o
he ope a; and how a ious elemen s o he inaugu al p oduc ion o
Ma ga e Ga ne bu essed Mo ison’s aims.
Ma ga e Ga ne ’s Ques o F eedom
Bo n on June 4, 1833 on Maplewood plan a ion in Ken ucky,
Ma ga e Ga ne was a bi acial sla e woman who spen mos o he li e as
a domes ic wo ke in he home o he owne , A chibald K. Gaines. By all
accoun s, Gaines was a cap iciously b u al owne . Ma ga e , he mo he ,
Cilla, and he ou child en we e owned by Gaines; he husband, Robe ,
and his pa en s we e owned by a neighbo ing plan e .
Snow ell con inuously on ha a e ul las Sunday in 1856. The
en i e Ga ne amily planned o end hei ensla emen by absconding ia
he Unde g ound Rail oad. Ra he o ui ously, he Ohio Ri e , usually he
ba ie o eedom, had ozen solid. In i s win y condi ion, he i e
would se e as he b idge o libe y o he Ga ne amily. They in ended
o s op b ie ly a he home o hei ecen ly manumi ed cousins in
Cincinna i be o e a elling o sa e y and eedom in Canada.
Howe e , hei sec e plo had been disco e ed wi hin a ma e o
hou s and Gaines was in pu sui wi h a posse o en men. E en wi h he
unin e up ed snow all, he acks made by hei sleigh p o ed easy o
ollow. The Ga ne s had no been a hei cousins’ household long be o e
Gaines and his men o ced hei way in. Pandemonium eigned as pis ol
sho s we e exchanged.
Calm ye s eely in he esol e, in an ins an , Ma ga e decided o
kill he child en and hen he sel a he han be e u ned o sla e y.
While any numbe o hough s could ha e been swi ling h ough he
young mo he ’s head as his c i ical choice was made, one hing is
ce ain: Ga ne is on eco d as ha ing s a ed ha she wished o kill he
child en so ha hey would no be o ced back in o sla e y. Wi h such a
o ce ha i nea ly decapi a ed he oddle , Ma ga e i s sli he h oa o
wo-yea -old Ma y. She hen u ned he mo al a en ion o he wo sons
and in an daugh e , bu was unsuccess ul in hei mu de s.
The Ga ne s’ s o y and he inques ha ollowed added uel o
Ame ica’s al eady incendia y sla e y deba e. The hea ing would
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TONIMORRISONANDTHETRANSLATIONOFHISTORYINMARGARETGARNER
de e mine whe he he Ga ne s would be e u ned as sla es o hei
Ken ucky plan a ions. Newspape s all a ound he coun y began ca ying
he macab e de ails o Ma y’s mu de . The s o y mesme ized he na ion
o mon hs, no doub because o he sensa ionalism o he e en .
P o- and an i-sla e y commen a o s alike ook ad an age o he
oppo uni y o supe impose hei ideologies on Ga ne ’s mu de o he
daugh e . Fo p o-sla e y ac ions, he ilicide demons a ed ha A ican
Ame icans we e inhe en ly in e io sa ages who needed he guidance and
s uc u e o sla e y. By con as , om pulpi s o pamphle s and om
newspape columns o s ee co ne s, aboli ionis s used he inciden o
pain a po ai o sla e y causing such debasemen and deg ada ion ha
o he wise decen people we e educed o heinous, inhuman ac s. The e
we e consis en compa isons o Ma ga e Ga ne o e e yone om
Vi ginius o Pa ick Hen y. As opposed o depic ing hem as wicked o
insane, an i-sla e y agi a o s exempli ied mo he s like Ga ne as ca ing
pa en s who lacked op ions and had o go o de as a ing leng hs o ba le
he ins i u ion o sla e y.
A ene ic a mosphe e pe aded he Ga ne hea ing om he e y
beginning. The p esiding commissione , John Pende y, banned A ican
Ame icans om he cou house in o de o limi acial ace bi y du ing he
p oceeding. In he en i e annals o Ame ican ju isp udence, Ma ga e
Ga ne is he only accused ugi i e sla e on eco d as ha ing es i ied a
he own hea ing, which was also he longes and cos lies in his o y.
Wha ew eco ds emain indica e he e was much con adic o y
es imony.
Famed aboli ionis and an i-sla e y w i e , John Jolli e,
ep esen ed he Ga ne s; he used his ex ensi e knowledge o he
Cons i u ion and he Bible o a gue o Ma ga e ’s eedom. Qui e
explosi e was he es imony by his s a wi ness, aboli ionis Lucy S one.
Su p ising and scandalous a he ime was he connec ion she made
be ween Ma ga e ’s ac and he igh s and esponsibili ies o any Ch is ian
mo he o p o ec he child.
Despi e Jolli e’s passiona e se monizing and ca e ul legal
maneu e ing, Commissione Pende y uled ha he Ga ne s should be
e u ned o hei espec i e owne s. Ma ga e was ne e ied o he
mu de o he daugh e .
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TONIMORRISONANDTHETRANSLATIONOFHISTORYINMARGARETGARNER
Toni Mo ison and he Con empo a y Renaissance o
Ma ga e Ga ne
No much was hea d abou Ma ga e Ga ne o he nex cen u y
and a hal . Then in 1987, Toni Mo ison’s Puli ze P ize-winning no el,
Belo ed, debu ed and once again, he Ga ne ’s s o y ose o p ominence.
In o de o con ex ualize Mo ison’s in e p e a ion o Ma ga e Ga ne , i
is use ul o examine how she came o w i e Belo ed. Mo ison ook a
“less is mo e” app oach o esea ching Ga ne ’s li e. I was in 1973, while
wo king as a senio edi o a Random House and co-c ea ing The Black
Book, a compendium o essays commemo a ing Black his o y, ha she
i s encoun e ed a e y b ie a icle om 1856 on he Ga ne inciden .
“A Visi o a Sla e Mo he Who Killed He Child”, w i en by a minis e , P.
S. Basse , and published on Feb ua y 12, 1856 in Ame ican Bap is ,
desc ibed a b ie isi o Ga ne in jail, whe e she explained why she killed
he daugh e . I is one o he ew ex an eco ds o Ga ne ’s wo ds.
He imagina ion cap u ed, Mo ison was inspi ed o de elop he
s o yline o Belo ed. Though she began an exhaus i e explo a ion in o
sla e y and aboli ionism, she chose no o engage in addi ional esea ch
in o Ga ne ’s his o y o he si es o he inciden .
“I did no do much esea ch on Ma ga e Ga ne o he han he ob ious s u , because I
wan ed o in en he li e, which is a way o saying I wan ed o be accessible o any hing
he cha ac e s had o say abou i . Reco ding he li e as li ed would no in e es me, and
would no make me a ailable o any hing ha migh be pe inen ”. (DARLING 1988: 4)
De ails abou he li e and he inciden ma e ed less o Mo ison han he
symbolism o Ga ne ’s choices. Upon de e mining ha he alue o
Ga ne ’s s o y lay in he decision o asse he basic human igh s by
killing he daugh e , he o he ac s we e ende ed expendable.
Despi e ha Ga ne ’s ilicide plan ed he seeds o he no el in
Mo ison’s head, Belo ed was in no way a biog aphical accoun o he
exploi s. Se he’s li e di e ges om Maga e ’s in many subs an i e ways;
hei ages, he da es o he mu de s, he a es o hei husbands, and he
na u e o hei legal all di e .
In eading Belo ed, an acknowledged wo k o ic ion, audiences
an icipa e and unde s and ha de ails la ge and small ha e been al e ed
o li e a y pu poses. Expec a ions o Ma ga e Ga ne , he ope a ha
ca ies he name and ma ke s i sel as being abou he li e, ha e been
somewha di e en o many. Fo Mo ison’s ansla ion, he d ama ic
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TONIMORRISONANDTHETRANSLATIONOFHISTORYINMARGARETGARNER
needs o he ope a manda ed changing aspec s o he li e and appending
elemen s o o he sla e s o ies in o de o uni e salize Ma ga e Ga ne ’s
expe ience. Cons uc ing he li e as some hing oecumenic a he han
uly biog aphical acco ded he license o change ac s and es uc u e
e en s. Mo ison a e ed,
“…[Keep] in mind ha his is no a his o ical ope a in he sense ha e e y hing is ollowed
his o ically because, as a is s, we c ea e, some imes, an illusion in o de o keep a
g ea e u h and a is s do his kind o hing. We ake a is ic license, bu he gis o he
s o y and o hund eds o s o ies ha ha e, in a way, been assimila ed in o his wo k ha
we pu oge he .” (FULLER 2004)
A ce ain amoun o elescoping is s anda d o biog aphical
adap a ions; o he sake o simplici y, cha ac e s and e en s a e
equen ly combined, elided, o o he wise ende ed di e en ly. Howe e ,
Ma ga e Ga ne ’s edac ions we e done o o he a is ic easons; as will
be discussed mo e in dep h in he nex sec ion, i s mission s a emen
asse s ha he ope a’s pu pose o ini ia e dialogue abou “ he endu ing
ques o eedom in… ou communi ies” (MISSION 2009). This dialogue
is amed by Mo ison’s agency-g an ing, ac ually ansposed na a i e.
(Re)Cons uc ing Ma ga e Ga ne , Pa I: The P oduc ion
An a en ion o eclaiming he legacy o Ame ican sla e y was no
limi ed o he c ea ion o he lib e o. The c ea o s and p oduce s sough
ou he audience ha was mos likely o be ecep i e o ha message:
he Black communi y. As only ou pe cen o Ame ican ope a-goe s a e
Black, pa icula a en ion was paid o a ac ing a la ge han a e age
A ican Ame ican audience.
Subsequen o a ges a ion pe iod o mo e han se en yea s,
Ma ga e Ga ne p emie ed in De oi on May 7, 2005 a he Michigan
Ope a Thea e ; he inaugu al p oduc ion subsequen ly played a he
Cincinna i Ope a in July 2005 and a he Ope a Company o Philadelphia
in Feb ua y 2006. The aim was o p emie e he ope a in ci ies wi h
sizable A ican Ame ican popula ions. Sales in all h ee ci ies we e e y
s ong.
In addi ion, Ma ga e Ga ne ’s co po a e sponso s had s ong ies
o he Black communi y. P oc e and Gamble, Gene al Mo o s, and
Cadillac ha e la ge Black clien eles and Mon gome y, McC acken, Walke ,
and Rhoads, LLP is acclaimed in Philadelphia o i s suppo o di e si y
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TONIMORRISONANDTHETRANSLATIONOFHISTORYINMARGARETGARNER
ini ia i es. These sponso s helped o aise he ope a’s p o ile wi hin he
Black communi y.
The ope a’s mission s a emen plainly iden i ied a ac ing a
non adi ional audience base as an objec i e:
“Michigan Ope a Thea e, Cincinna i Ope a, and Ope a Company o Philadelphia ha e
pa ne ed o c ea e a powe ul new Ame ican ope a o las ing a is ic signi icance ha will
esona e locally and na ionally. The mission o Ma ga e Ga ne is o
- Sha e he poignan and his o ically signi ican s o y o Ma ga e Ga ne wi h adi ional
and non adi ional ope a audiences h ough he c ea ion o a new Ame ican g and ope a;
- Po ay he s o y wi h in eg i y and espec h ough he ision o a wo ld-class c ea i e
eam and a p oduc ion o he highes a is ic s anda ds;
- Inspi e passiona e eac ions and meaning ul dialogue abou he endu ing ques o
eedom in Ame ica ha eaches beyond he ope a house and in o ou communi ies.”
(“MISSION” 2009)
This “non adi ional” audience o a la ge ex en was cons i u ed by A ican
Ame icans. Ca e was aken o gi e he ope a he g ea es appeal possible
o A ican Ame icans. A ican Ame ican classical music supe s a s Denyce
G a es, G egg Bake , Angela B own, and Jessye No man all essayed
leading oles in Ma ga e Ga ne a a ious poin s. Kenny Leon, well
ega ded o his s age appea ances and di ec ion o Hansbe y and Wilson
plays, assumed his i s wo k in he ope a as di ec o o Ma ga e Ga ne .
Bes known o he dances he c ea ed o se e al S e ie Wonde ou s,
Pa d o Ha is se ed as he cho eog aphe .
Mo ison and he p oduce s de eloped an ins uc i e elemen ha
would in o m audiences abou he b oad implica ions o ha which was
depic ed in he ope a. This educa ional componen accompanied he
inaugu al p oduc ions; i was in ended o ensu e esponsible elling o
Ga ne ’s s o y. Independen schola s, including Delo es Wal e s o he
Na ional Unde g ound Rail oad F eedom Cen e , and S e en
Weisenbu ge , au ho o Mode n Medea: A Family S o y o Sla e y and
Child Mu de om he Old Sou h, we e b ough in o “communi y
ou each.” They ga e p e- and pos -show lec u es o educa e he
non adi ional audiences on he issues he p oduce s deemed cul u ally
and his o ically signi ican .
So success ul was hei aim o inc ease Black audiences ha he
Philadelphia Inqui e ’s e iew o Ma ga e Ga ne began,
“[…The] Michigan Ope a Thea e p emie e on Sa u day was a public- ela ions iumph…
D ama u gical lapses a e he e, bu he s eng hs o Ma ga e Ga ne a e so conside able
and wide- anging ha he piece is legi ima ely des ined o make new iends o ope a
wi hou aliena ing old ones.” (STEARNS 2005)
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Da id Pa ick S ea ns seems o be mo e imp essed by he ope a’s abili y
o augmen Black iewe ship han by he ac ual wo k i sel . The c ea o s
we e ca e ul o c ea e an ope a ha was lashy enough o appeal o hose
who do no ypically equen he ope a, ye su icien ly conse a i e o
appease hei adi ional audience base.
Tha eage - o-please sensibili y a ec ed he sco e. Danielpou ’s
easily accessible, audience- iendly music was no s ong enough o
suppo Mo ison’s powe ully complex, ye au ly w i en lib e o.
Danielpou ’s neo- oman ic sco e shows hin s o gospel, blues, R&B, and
jazz, wi h mo e han sligh ly anach onis ic sugges ions o Leona d
Be ns ein’s, Aa on Copeland’s, and Ca lisle Floyd’s composi ions. The
Whi e cha ac e s o en sing Nine een h Cen u y wal zes, P o es an
hymns, blueg ass, and pa lo songs while he Black cha ac e s mos ly
pe o m jazz-in lec ed spi i uals and wo k songs. Leon desc ibed he
sco e as “ope a, bu i eels like a classical bed o all he music ha
embodies ou musical pale e” (BENNETT 2008). Howe e , wi h he
hea y eliance on pas iche, Danielpou ’s ue musical oice is some imes
di icul o disce n. Mo ison encou aged him o w i e s ylis ically in he
modes wi h which he was mos com o able, and acco dingly, he music
has a pala able, con empo a y eel ha does no always suppo he
ope a’s mo e epic elemen s.
Ye Danielpou ’s musical choices do se e an impo an pu pose.
They o ge a link be ween con empo a y audiences and an ebellum
socie y o d aw he audience in o he ope a’s e en s. The o ches a ion’s
u iliza ion o ins umen s ypical o Nine een h Cen u y music, including a
co anglais, a celes a, and a con abassoon, o play con empo a y
Ame ican melodies s eng hens his link be ween e as and cul u es and
he eby u he uni e salizes Ma ga e Ga ne ’s s o y. Danielpou
desc ibes i as “ he spi i o he music ha migh ha e been hea d in he
1850s, bu expe ienced now h ough he il e o all he music we’ e
hea d in ou li es – hy hm and blues, jazz, gospel” (JOHNSON 2005).
This keeps he music accessible o he non- adi ional audiences in
a endance.
Fu he mo e, many o he jazz-in luenced melodies ha e mo e in
common wi h he wo k o Ge shwin han o he con empo a y classical
compose s. Conside ing his mas e y o composing in a ange o gen es,
his is likely an in en ional choice on he pa Danielpou , who migh ha e
ealized he bene i s o modeling his ope a in he s yle o Po gy and Bess,
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he mos amilia ope a wi h A ican Ame ican subjec ma e . Audiences
mo e immedia ely could iden i y wi h ma e ial ha eels so amilia .
(Re)Cons uc ing Ma ga e Ga ne , Pa II: The Na a i e
Ma ga e Ga ne begins in he own o Richwood S a ion, Ken ucky
in Ap il 1856. In he opening sequence, he ownspeople desc ibe he
sla es as in an ine onuses ha equi e domes iciza ion, as he sla es
con ey o each o he he joys hey expe ience ea ing and lo ing hei
child en.
The p o agonis s a e in oduced in quick succession. Agg essi e
and in ole an , Edwa d Gaines is making his e u n o Maplewood
plan a ion a e an absence o mo e han wo decades. Wi h him is his
o wa d- hinking adul daugh e , Ca oline. Ma ga e Ga ne , s unningly
a ac i e wi h a ie y empe , is quickly no iced by he new owne . The
wel a e o he amily is always o pa amoun impo ance o Ma ga e , an
ex emely de o ed wi e and mo he . Sha ing Ma ga e ’s home a e
Robe , his mo he , Cilla, and he couple’s young daugh e .
Cilla wa ns Ma ga e o he dange s o becoming oo a ached o
he child because as a sla e, she is no acco ded all o he na u al, o
e en expec ed, pa en al igh s. As ime passes, Gaines equi es Ma ga e
o spend an inc easing amoun o ime oiling in his ki chen and less wi h
he husband and daugh e . Demo alized and b owbea en, Ma ga e
expends mos o he ene gy ying o s a e o Gaines’s iolen ly
lasci ious ad ances. He e en ually apes he in he summe o 1858.
The second ac begins la e in he win e o 1861, jus p io o he
s a o he Ci il Wa . By now, Ma ga e has gi en bi h o he second
child. F us a ed wi h sla e y’s limi a ions, Ma ga e and Robe asse
con ol by deciding o lee Maplewood. In he escape, Robe is o ced o
kill hei sadis ic o e see , Casey. Immedia ely, hey lee o he ou ski s
o Cincinna i, whe e Ma ga e and Robe hide wi h hei wo child en in
an unde g ound shed o mo e han h ee weeks. The p ospec o he
eedom ha hei child en will enjoy has hem op imis ic o he i s ime
in yea s.
Howe e , an ineb ia ed Gaines and a la ge c ew o sla e ca che s
suddenly o e ake he amily. The posse o ces i s way in o he shed and
lynches Robe in e enge o his mu de o Casey. Upon seeing he
husband’s limp body hanging om a ee, a dis augh Ma ga e
immedia ely ealizes ha he mo he ly du ies a e o shield he child en
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om all o he ho o s and indigni ies o sla e y; she sli s he h oa o
one child and hen s abs he o he o dea h. Alone wi h he hough s, she
gauges he ami ica ions o he ac ions and accep s hem wi h he
audaci y o digni y.
Two mon hs elapse and Ma ga e is on ial in Ken ucky. She is
cha ged wi h he capi al o ense o des uc ion o p ope y o he slayings
o he wo child en. Despi e aboli ionis s’ pleas o Ma ga e o be iewed
as a human being – and hus be cha ged wi h he mu de o he child en
a he han me ely p ope y damage – he panel o judges inds he
guil y. They a e ha as a sla e, she lacks any legal igh s o he li e o
he child en’s, and sen ence he o dea h by hanging. Upon hea ing he
e dic , Ga ne boldly asse s in on o he en i e cou oom ha she is
an indi idual o e whom no one has any powe .
Compunc ion inspi ed by a con e sa ion wi h Ca oline leads Gaines
o in e ene on Ma ga e ’s behal . His in e cession success ul, he judges
ule ha Ma ga e ’s li e will be spa ed and she will once again be
emanded o Maplewood i she only allocu es and epen s. Feeling ha
she has been b u alized enough by sla e y, Ma ga e a ows ha she
wishes o li e in a ai and jus communi y. Comp ehending ha none
exis s in 1860s Ame ica, she delibe a ely ips he s ool o hang he sel .
Th ough dazed by Ma ga e Ga ne ’s choice, he ownspeople a e le in a
s a e o deep con empla ion o e he signi icance o he ac . As he c owd
lamen s ha which has p oceeded, Gaines is le alone o con empla e he
lack o eedom ha he eels, leading a li e absen o ue mo ali y o
cha i y.
T ansla ing His o y
Ob iously, he ope a is mo e o an in e p e a ion o his o ical
e en s han a di ec ecapi ula ion. One immedia e ins ance is he
ea men o he imeline in he ope a. The e en s o he his o ical
Ga ne s’ escape om sla e y and he esul ing ial all happened be ween
Janua y and Ma ch 1856. They a e d awn ou o e he cou se o i e
yea s in he ope a, which does no e en begin un il Ap il 1856. Mo ing
he ope a’s e en s close o he ou b eak o he Ci il Wa unde sco es he
signi ican ole ha Ga ne ’s case played in he inc easingly con en ious
na ional sla e y deba e. Expanding he pe iod o e which he ope a akes
place u he illumina es he de elopmen o Ga ne ’s sense o agency
o e ime, as well as how i was a ec ed by changing socie al mo es.
DOLETIANA 3 OPERA AND TRANSLATION
9