Resum
El p esen a icle in en a ede ini la elació en e eo ia i p àc ica a pa i de la concepció
de la in es igació en l’acció. La in es igació en l’acció (IA) no es oba només o ien ada
cap a la millo a de la p àc ica, de la ma eixa mane a que la in es igació no es oba només
o ien ada cap a la p oducció del coneixemen . El coneixemen p àc ic, que es de i a de la
in es igació en l’acció, po se conside a com a eò ic. En al es pa aules, la na ació de
la IA inclou l’ac i i a eò ica com un aspec e de la p àc ica. La IA és pe cebuda com una
modali a d’acció sis emà ica.
En els discu sos pos mode ns ac uals, aques a o ma de conceb e la in es igació en
l’acció no po se exclosa del domini del coneixemen públic. La IA engloba l’es udi dels p o-
esso s com a agen s de can i i la mane a com les se es in encions a ec en els can is po
eali za -se a pa i de ecolli múl iples pe spec i es de la si uació en qües ió. Aques es
ep esen acions poden se usades ambé com a ecu sos pe in o ma la se a comp ensió
dels aspec es pa icula s de la si uació que, com a agen s, han de con on a , conjun amen
amb els in es igado s educa ius. En sín esi, la IA esol el p oblema de la elació en e eo-
ia i p àc ica, eo i zan des de la pe spec i a que l’agen educa iu és un agen ac iu de can i
en les si uacions educa i es.
Pa aules clau: in es igació en l’acció, elació eo ia i p àc ica, coneixemen p àc ic, p o-
esso s, agen ac iu de can i.
Abs ac
This pape a emp s o ede ine he ela ionship be ween heo y and p ac ice in e ms o he
idea o ac ion esea ch. Ac ion esea ch is no only aimed a he imp o emen o p ac ice,
and esea ch is no only aimed a he p oduc ion o knowledge; p ac ical knowledge, which
s ems om ac ion esea ch, can also be alued as heo e ical. In o he wo ds, he accoun
o ac ion esea ch includes heo e ical ac i i y as an aspec o he p ac ical.
Ac ion esea ch is iewed as a sys ema ic o m o ac ion. In oday’s pos mode n dis-
cou ses, such unde s anding o ac ion esea ch can no be excluded om he domain o
public knowledge. Ac ion esea ch in ol es he s udy o eache s as agen s o change and
he way hei in en ions o e ec changes can be done by ga he ing mul iple pe spec i es
on he si ua ion in ques ion. Such ep esen a ions can be also used as esou ces o in o m
hei unde s anding o pa icula aspec s o he si ua ion hey ace as educa ional agen s,
Educa 34, 2004 11-26
The s uggle o ede ine he ela ionship be ween
«knowledge» and «ac ion» in he academy: some
e lec ions on ac ion esea ch
John Ellio
School o Educa ion and P o essional De elopmen .
Cen e o Applied Resea ch in Educa ion
Educa 34 001-176 7/1/05 13:06 Página 11
oge he wi h educa ional esea che s. In sum, ac ion esea ch esol es he heo y-p ac ice
p oblem by heo ising om he s andpoin o he educa ional agen as an ac i e agen in
changing educa ional si ua ions.
Key wo ds: ac ion esea ch, heo y-p ac ice p oblem, p ac ical knowledge, eache s, ac i e
agen , changing educa ional si ua ions.
Resumen
El p esen e a ículo a a de ede ini la elación en e eo ía y p ác ica a pa i de la con-
cepción de la in es igación en la acción. La in es igación en la acción (IA) no se halla sólo
o ien ada hacia la mejo a de la p ác ica, del mismo modo que la in es igación no se halla
sólo o ien ada a la p oducción del conocimien o. El conocimien o p ác ico, que se de i a
de la in es igación en la acción, puede se conside ado como eó ico. En o as palab as, la
na ación de la IA incluye la ac i idad eó ica como un aspec o de la p ác ica.
La IA es pe cibida como una modalidad de acción sis emá ica. En los discu sos pos-
mode nos ac uales, es a o ma de concebi la in es igación en la acción no puede se exclui-
da del dominio del conocimien o público. La IA engloba el es udio de los p o eso es como
agen es de cambio y el modo como sus in enciones a ec an a los cambios puede ealiza se
a pa i de ecoge múl iples pe spec i as de la si uación en cues ión. Tales ep esen acio-
nes pueden se usadas ambién como ecu sos pa a in o ma su comp ensión de los aspec-
os pa icula es de la si uación que, como agen es, deben con on a , conjun amen e con
los in es igado es educa i os. En sín esis, la IA esuel e el p oblema de la elación en e
eo ía y p ác ica eo izando desde la pe spec i a de que el agen e educa i o es un agen e
ac i o de cambio en las si uaciones educa i as.
Palab as cla e: in es igación en la acción, elación eo ía y p ác ica, conocimien o p ác i-
co, p o eso es, agen e ac i o de cambio.
Ac ion- esea ch migh be de ined as « he S udy o a social si ua-
ion wi h a iew o imp o ing he quali y o ac ion wi hin i ».
(Ellio 1991, p. 69)
This de ini ion appea ed in my book Ac ion Resea ch o Educa ional Change
(1991) and is widely ci ed in books and pape s on ac ion esea ch. Ra he han
eeling pleased abou his, I ind mysel annoyed and i i a ed. Why? Because
I eel ha he au ho s neglec my a emp s o ede ine he ela ionship be ween
heo y and p ac ice in e ms o he idea o ac ion esea ch. A imes hey appea
o be using my de ini ion o place a igh bounda y be ween ac ion esea ch
12 Educa 34, 2004 John Ellio
Summa y
The pos s uc u alis challenge
and he heo y-p ac ice ela ionship
Hannah A end and he philosophy
o ac ion
Theo ising om he s andpoin o ac ion
Concluding ema ks
Re e ences
Educa 34 001-176 7/1/05 13:06 Página 12
aimed a he imp o emen o p ac ice and esea ch aimed a he cons uc ion
o heo y. The d awing o such a igh bounda y is o en based on he assump-
ion ha he p ac ical knowledge which s ems om ac ion esea ch is non-
heo e ical in cha ac e because i s alue is en i ely ins umen al o he ask o
imp o ing p ac ice as a means o an end. Such an assump ion implies ha he
pu sui o p ac ical knowledge h ough ac ion esea ch is o he sake o p ac-
ical goals ha can be de ined independen ly and in ad ance o he ac ion
esea ch p ocess, whe eas esea ch aimed a he cons uc ion o heo y is he
pu sui o knowledge o i s own sake. Concei ed in such ins umen al e ms,
p ac ical knowledge has no alue in i sel , and is se agains heo e ical knowl-
edge ega ded by hose who pu sue i as aluable in i sel . My own wo k was
being selec i ely app op ia ed o legi ima e a concep ion o ac ion esea ch
which p i ileged p ac ice o e heo y, whe eas I had seen i as an a emp o
ede ine he ela ionship be ween heo y and p ac ice in a way which dissol ed
he dualism.
In he la e ‘90s, I di ec ed a s udy o ac ion esea ch ca ied ou in he con-
ex o pos -g adua e cou ses o eache s wi hin he UK, and disco e ed ha
i was p edominan ly concei ed inside academic ins i u ions as he p oduc-
ion o ins umen al knowledge aimed a unde pinning imp o emen s in p ac-
ice in schools and o he educa ional o ganisa ions (see Ellio , MacLu e &
Sa land, 1996).
One obs acle o dissol ing he dualism be ween heo y and p ac ice is he
idea o a ‘ heo y’ as a gene alisable ep esen a ion o e en s and occu ences.
F om such a s andpoin , heo y gene a ion implies a la ge-scale s udy o sam-
ples and he exclusion o small-scale s udies o pa icula e en s and si ua ions.
Hence my de ini ion o ac ion esea ch as ‘ he s udy o a social si ua ion wi h
a iew o imp o ing he quali y o ac ion wi hin i ’ will be ead as an accoun
o a o m o small-scale esea ch ca ied ou in pa icula se ings, such as a
single class oom o a school, wi h a iew o gene a ing a highly pa icula ised
and he e o e non- heo e ical ep esen a ion o ac ion.
Ea lie in my book Ac ion Resea ch o Educa ional Change, I am mo e
explici abou he ela ionship be ween he p ac ical aim o ac ion esea ch
and he p oduc ion o knowledge.
The undamen al aim o ac ion esea ch is o imp o e p ac ice a he han o
p oduce knowledge. The p oduc ion and u ilisa ion o knowledge is subo di-
na e o, and condi ioned by, his undamen al aim. (p. 49)
As I shall explain mo e ully la e , I was ying o signi y he p imacy o he
p ac ical s andpoin as a con ex o knowledge gene a ion. I was saying ha
in he p ocess o ac ion esea ch he in en ion o p oduce knowledge canno be
sepa a ed om he in en ion o imp o e p ac ice. Howe e , I see now ha my
wo ds can be ead as a p i ileging o p ac ice o e heo y. Jus as o p i ilege
heo y o e p ac ice implies he exclusion o he p ac ical s andpoin , so o
p i ilege p ac ice o e heo y excludes he heo e ical s andpoin .
The s uggle o ede ine he ela ionship be ween «knowledge» and «ac ion» Educa 34, 2004 13
Educa 34 001-176 7/1/05 13:06 Página 13
Resea ch ha p i ileges p ac ice o e heo y does no dissol e he heo y-
p ac ice dualism by linking heo y o p ac ice. I simply excludes he heo e-
ical s andpoin . In doing so, i is shaped by he same assump ions which shape
o ms o educa ional esea ch ha p i ilege heo y o e p ac ice; namely, ha
« heo y» consis s o gene alisable ep esen a ions o e en s, and is gene a ed
by ac i i ies ha in hemsel es a e dissocia ed om he p ac ical in en ions o
human agen s. In ailing o challenge hese assump ions, much o wha coun s
as ac ion esea ch in he ield o educa ion ails o dissol e he dualism be ween
heo y and p ac ice. I simply se s up a ension inside he academy wi h hose
o ms o educa ional esea ch ha p i ilege ‘ heo y’. Educa ional ac ion esea ch
is pi ed agains educa ional science, and as such con ined o a lowly s a us in
he academic hie a chy o knowledge as a mino «sub-discipline» in he ield
o educa ional esea ch.
The sha ed assump ions ou lined abo e posi i ely shape he conduc o
educa ional science whe eas hey nega i ely shape he conduc o educa ional
ac ion esea ch. They e ec i ely exclude ac ion esea ch om he domain o
public knowledge and con ine i o he domain o p i a e knowledge. In e ms
o hese assump ions, public knowledge is de ined om a s andpoin which
p i ileges heo y o e p ac ices. F om his s andpoin , wha coun s as public
knowledge is de e mined by conside a ions conce ning he alidi y and u h
o heo e ical p oposi ions a he han conside a ions conce ning hei p ac-
ical use ulness. The la e may be impo an o add ess bu hey a e ex insic
o he ac i i ies o knowledge p oduc ion. In he UK, educa ional esea che s
a e being asked o add ess he ele ance o hei esea ch o po en ial use s
be o e hey design i , and o play a mo e ac i e ole in dissemina ing hei ind-
ings o he public. Al hough esea che s may ega d such conside a ions as
impo an hey a e iewed as qui e dis inc om me hodological conside a-
ions abou he conduc o he esea ch i sel .
Wha coun s as public knowledge gene ally de e mines wha ge s pub-
lished. Academics who wish o suppo ac ion esea ch wi h eache s and o he
p o essional p ac i ione s (eg nu ses and social wo ke s) end in he main o
publish accoun s o he esea ch p ocess and me hodology. The knowledge
ou comes a e o en no deemed o be o su icien s a us o epo and ind
accep ance in p es igious academic publica ions. Academic ac ion esea che s
end o ind hemsel es ma ginal playe s in he educa ional esea ch es ab-
lishmen . Mos o hem go along wi h his. They compensa e by iden i ying
wi h communi ies o p ac i ione s and may acqui e he s a us o ‘big ish’ in he
small ac ion esea ch pool inside he academy, bu hey lea e he domain o
educa ional esea ch essen ially in ac and unchallenged.
Cu en ly he mos in luen ial challenge o his domain inside he acade-
my is s emming om he ideas o pos s uc u alis hinke s like De ida, Lacan,
Lyo a d and Foucaul (see Belsey, 2002). F om he pe spec i e o pos s uc-
u alis educa ional esea che s, such as S onach and MacLu e (1997), inasmuch
as he idea o ac ion esea ch p i ileges p ac ice o e heo y i is apped in he
pa e ns o dualis ic hinking ha cha ac e ise he wes e n adi ion o enligh -
14 Educa 34, 2004 John Ellio
Educa 34 001-176 7/1/05 13:06 Página 14
enmen hough es ablished by he philosophy o Desca es. Fo example,
MacLu e (1995) has applied he pos s uc u alis me hodology o «decon-
s uc ion» o he ex s c ea ed by ac ion esea che s in he ield o educa ion.
I will now examine he pos s uc u alis challenge o enligh enmen hinking
wi h a iew o asking wha i s implica ions a e o he heo y-p ac ice p ob-
lem and he idea o ac ion esea ch as a esolu ion o his p oblem.
The pos s uc u alis challenge and he heo y-p ac ice ela ionship
I is o en assumed ha heo ising is a men al ac i i y and ac ion a physical
ac i i y. In his mind-body dualism esides he p oblem o heo y and p ac-
ice. F om a heo e ical s andpoin he «sel » is a hinking subjec ha con-
s ues he wo ld as an objec o con empla ion a he han an objec o change.
Desca es’ Cogi o e go sum (see 1968) es ablished « he sel » as a subs ance whose
essence is hinking and he e o e he p imacy o he heo e ical o e he p ac-
ical s andpoin . F om he s andpoin o he «Cogi o», easons o ac ion ha e
hei sou ce ou side he con ex o he p ac ical a ai s o e e yday li e in he con-
empla i e knowledge o he « hinking subjec ». Such knowledge can he e-
o e be applied o p ac ice bu no de i ed om i . The «Cogi o» has de ined
he ela ionship be ween heo y and p ac ice in he wes e n enligh enmen
adi ion and shaped he p ocess o knowledge p oduc ion wi hin he acade-
my. In doing so i challenged adi ional au ho i y on ma e s o belie and
cons i u ed a decla a ion o independence. As he Sco ish philosophe John
Macmu ay (1957, p. 75) explained, i o hink is my essen ial na u e hen «I
ha e he igh and he du y o hink o mysel , and o e use o accep any
au ho i y o he han my own eason as a gua an o o u h.» This logic was ad-
ically challenged by Macmu ay himsel as well as by he pos s uc u alis and
pos mode n hinke s on he Eu opean con inen du ing he la e hal o he
20 h Cen u y.
Pos s uc u alis hinke s elabo a ed on he wo k o Saussu e (1916, ans
1974) and b ough he idea o he subs an ial sel whose essence is hinking
in o ques ion, and along wi h i he idea o eason as a gua an o o u h.
Acco ding o Saussu e, ‘meanings’ such as heo ies abou he wo ld do no
o igina e om a « hinking sel ». The la e is a p oduc o he meanings indi-
iduals lea n om hei cul u e, and ha o igina e in i s symbolic sys ems o
discou ses. The wo ds and o he symbols ha make up a language do no e e
o meanings ha exis ou side he language i sel . They nei he ep esen an
objec i e o de o hings in he wo ld o he ideas o a hinke ha exis s inde-
penden ly o hei use wi hin he cul u e. Meaning esides in he sign, no
beyond i . I is di e en ial a he han e e en ial (see Belsey, 2002, p. 10) in
he sense ha i is cul u ally di e en ia ed and has no exis ence beyond he
wo ds and symbols ha signi y i .
Pos s uc u alis hough decons uc ed a concep ion o heo e ical knowl-
edge as he p oduc o a hinking subjec , cons ued as he «essen ial sel », con-
empla ing independen ly exis ing objec s in he ex e nal wo ld. I he hink-
The s uggle o ede ine he ela ionship be ween «knowledge» and «ac ion» Educa 34, 2004 15
Educa 34 001-176 7/1/05 13:06 Página 15
ing subjec is he e ec o lea ning he ajec o ies o meaning embedded in
he symbolic sys ems o he cul u e, hen i does no exis as an uncondi ioned
consciousness. The subjec is decen e ed as he o igin o hough . I hinks
only wha i is pe mi ed o hink wi hin he cul u e i is condi ioned by. The
wo ld i «knows» is he e o e a cul u ally di e en ia ed one a he han an
objec i e wo ld ha exis s independen ly o he knowe . One canno e en alk
in elligibly o he decen e ed subjec possessing pe sonal knowledge o his p e-
supposes a cul u ally uncondi ioned consciousness o «sel ». I he objec s o
knowledge a e cul u ally di e en ia ed and he knowe is he e ec o cul u e,
hen indi iduals a e no in a posi ion o cons uc pu ely pe sonal knowledge.
Wha hey belie e is always wha hei cul u e pe mi s. Pos s uc u alism,
h ough i s me hod o decons uc ion, dissol es he bina y opposi ion ensh ined
in Desca es’ Cogi o be ween « he knowing subjec in he e and he objec s o
i s knowledge ou he e» (see Belsey, 2000, p. 72-73).
Foucaul in pa icula poin ed ou he implica ions o his decen e ed ision
o he subjec o he way powe ope a es in socie y (see 1979a & 1979b).
Lea ning and main aining he ways o hinking abou he wo ld di e en ia -
ed by he cul u e, i s heo e ical and no ma i e discou ses, in ol es submis-
sion o he au ho i ies esponsible o hei ansmission and main enance. Fo
Foucaul all social ela ions connec ing he indi idual o social ins i u ions a e
ela ions o powe . Powe is no a hing some indi iduals ha e and o he s do
no , ha can be gained o los . Ra he i de ines he ela ion be ween all indi-
iduals and hei cul u e, including hose au ho i ies who a e esponsible o
he ansmission and main enance o ha cul u e. The la e exe powe in
hei ela ions wi h o he s by i ue o hei own compliance o he cul u ally
di e en ia ed meanings ci cula ing wi hin he socie y. Acco ding o Foucaul ,
his ela ional concep ion o powe implies he possibili y o esis ance. Indi-
iduals can always e use o con o m, al hough usually a a p ice, and c ea e
e e se discou ses o main ain hei esis ance o he dominan ones ope a ing in
he socie y. Powe ela ions a e a si e o s uggle and con lic . One migh indeed
in e p e he ac ion esea ch mo emen in such Foucaul ian e ms as a e e se
discou se o esis ance o he p e ailing discou se o esea ch in he academy;
namely one which p i ileges heo e ical knowledge o e p ac ice.
F om he pos s uc u alis pe spec i e, « heo ies» a e no a a ional oun-
da ion o o de ing p ac ical a ai s. In lea ning o apply hem o ou p ac-
ices, we a e no g ounding hose p ac ices in objec i e u hs abou he objec s
o ou expe ience, bu secu ing hei compliance wi h cul u ally di e en ia ed
sys ems o meaning ha ell us wha o hink abou wha we a e doing. The-
o e ical discou ses, unde s ood as sys ems o cul u ally di e en ia ed mean-
ings ci cula ing in socie y, cons i u e esou ces o exe ing epis emic so e -
eign y o e ou p ac ical hinking. The inc easingly policy-d i en
«e idence-based p ac ice» mo emen in he UK (see Ha g ea es, 1997) ha
holds p o essional p ac i ione s (eg doc o s, nu ses, social wo ke s and each-
e s) accoun able o he ex en o which hey g ound hei p ac ices in esea ch
e idence, is an a emp by he s a e o ge hem o base hei p ac ical judge-
16 Educa 34, 2004 John Ellio
Educa 34 001-176 7/1/05 13:06 Página 16
men s and decisions on he gene alisable ep esen a ions o good p ac ice ha
a e p oduced by esea ch. F om a pos s uc u alis poin o iew his mo e-
men can be in e p e ed as an indi ec and «so » a emp o exe a o m o
epis emic so e eign y o e he p ac ical hinking o p ac i ione s in he guise
o os e ing a ional p ac ices.
I , in applying heo y o p ac ice, social p ac i ione s such as eache s a e
managing hei own compliance wi h cul u ally de e mined sys ems o mean-
ing, how a e we o unde s and he p ac ices shaped by his p ocess? Desca es’
‘Cogi o’ assumes a sha p di ision be ween mind and body. Whe eas he hink-
ing and easoning mind is he essence o he sel , he body is simply an o gan-
ism i possesses (see Belsey, 2000, p. 66). When le o espond o i s en i-
onmen on he basis o i s own physiological make-up, he mo emen s o he
body a e en i ely independen o he easoning ac i i ies o he mind. How-
e e , he hinking and easoning mind can exe a measu e o con ol o e he
physical mo emen s o he body as a means o achie ing p ac ical ends ha
anscend he su i al needs o he o ganism. F om he s andpoin o he «Cog-
i o», he physical mo emen s o he body (beha iou ) a e ans o med in o
he p ac ices o a human agen (ac ions) by he capaci y o he mind o impose
some o m o a ional o de on hem. The pos s uc u alis challenge o he
«Cogi o» nulli ies his accoun o social p ac ices as he e ec o a ional human
agen s on he mo emen s o he body and cons ues social p ac ices as eac-
ions on he pa o he human o ganisms o s imuli in he cul u al en i onmen ,
mo i a ed by hei su i al needs. Such eac ions will in ol e consciousness
bu i will ake a di e en o m om consciousness concei ed in e ms o an
agen ha ing easons o ac ion. As Macmu ay (1957, p. 167) poin s ou ,
conscious eac ions o en i onmen al s imuli s em om mo i es connec ed o
he o ganisms su i al needs, a he han easons o ac ion. The ini ia i e o
such beha iou lies wi h he s imulus as opposed o a human agen , whe eas he
ini ia i e o ac ion lies wi h an agen who de e mines i in he ligh o hei
knowledge. F om he pe spec i e o pos s uc u alis heo y, social p ac ices
a e concei ed in e ms o adap i e esponses on he pa o human o ganisms
o cul u al s imuli a he han in e ms o sel -ini ia ed ac ions. Viewed in such
e ms, he ac i i y o applying heo y o p ac ice depic s no so much he
p ocess by which human agen s a ionally de e mine hei ac ions in he wo ld,
as he p ocess by which human o ganisms consciously adap hei beha iou in
esponse o cul u al s imuli.
The pos s uc u alis challenge, as I ha e a gued, acknowledges he possi-
bili y o esis ance o he cul u al condi ioning i depic s. Human beings can
inhibi he endency o adap o hei cul u al en i onmen in he equi ed
ways bu only a he isk o hei su i al. They can ansg ess and dis up
hegemonic discou ses and e en es ablish e e se discou ses. Howe e , migh
such esis ances be simply in e p e ed as nega i e eac ions o cul u al s imuli
— ailu es on he pa o ce ain human o ganisms o adap app op ia ely o
he p e ailing hegemonic discou ses wi hin he cul u al en i onmen — a he
han o ming a basis o ee ac ion? I shall e u n o his ques ion a li le la e .
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Educa 34 001-176 7/1/05 13:06 Página 17
Hannah A end and he philosophy o ac ion
I is in e es ing o look a he iew o social p ac ice implici in pos mode n
decons uc ions o he p e ailing discou ses in wes e n socie ies in he ligh o
Hannah A end ’s accoun o he The Human Condi ion (1958). As Cano an
(1974, p. 54) poin s ou , A end ocuses he philosophy on desc ibing and
e alua ing he a ious o ms o human ac i i y, a he han ocusing, like mos
wes e n philosophe s ha e done, on e alua ing he p oduc s o human hough .
Human ac i i y she claimed had no been su icien ly hough abou and «i s
modes no clea ly a icula ed» (Cano an, p. 54). I would a gue ha such philo-
sophical neglec also ex ends o pos s uc u alis hinke s. Thei decons uc-
ions o wes e n enligh enmen hough appea o lea e us wi h a iew o social
p ac ices as o ms o cul u al condi ioning, bu hey a e less han clea abou
he ex en o which al e na i e modes o ac i i y a e possible.
A end dis inguishes h ee basic modes o human ac i i y: Labou , Wo k
and Ac ion. «Labou » is ac i i y dic a ed by wha is equi ed o sus ain li e. I
is basically li e li ed unde he domina ion o biological necessi y, al hough
A end eluc an ly acknowledges ha in he mode n wo ld wha is expe ienced
as necessa y o sus ain li e has been ex ended o co e he consump ion o
ma e ial goods ha go beyond he basic necessi ies o li ing (see Coul e , 2002,
p. 195). Ac i i ies o labou in ol e endless epe i ion. They a e no di ec ed
o some end de e mined by an agen . They ocus on means a he han ends.
I labou has an ‘end’ i is simply he pe pe ua ion o li e, he success ul adap-
a ion o human o ganisms o hei en i onmen , in an endless cycle. The
pos s uc u alis pe spec i e on social p ac ices in wes e n socie ies appea s o
ende hem p edominan ly ac i i ies o «Labou » in he A end ian sense o
his e m.
«Wo k», acco ding o A end , in ol es he c ea ion o endu ing objec s o
a e ac s o use a he han consump ion o sa is y basic needs (see Cano an,
1974, p. 56 & Coul e , 2002, p. 197). Unlike ‘Labou ’ such ac i i ies ha e
a beginning and a ini e ending consciously de e mined by he wo ke s hem-
sel es. Mo eo e , wo ke s deploy hei pa icula alen s and abili ies o c e-
a e hei «wo ks». «Wo k», in he A end ian sense o he e m, calls o h he
gene a i e capaci ies o human beings and, in doing so, as Cana an (1974,
p. 56) poin s ou , «is cha ac e is ically human as labou is no ». F om an
A end ian pe spec i e heo ies o ideas can be ega ded as he p oduc s o
human wo k. They o m pa o a cul u al en i onmen ha human beings
c ea e o hemsel es. Once c ea ed, cul u al a e ac s like heo ies and ideas
s and o e and agains human beings o de ine hei wo ld. Pos s uc u alis
heo y only lea es space o concei ing cul u e as ha which s ands o e and
agains human beings. F om his poin o iew « he sel » is an e ec a he
han an o igina o o cul u e. In des oying « he sel » concei ed as a hink-
ing subjec passi ely mi o ing an objec i e wo ld om a con empla i e
s andpoin , pos s uc u alis heo y has di icul y in concei ing o any loca-
ion o ‘ he sel ’ o he han as an e ec o cul u e. By ocusing on human
18 Educa 34, 2004 John Ellio
Educa 34 001-176 7/1/05 13:06 Página 18
ac i i y and i s dis inc modes, a he han hinking as such, A end is able
o explo e al e na i e loca ions o « he sel » o hose o he pu ely in ellec-
ual s andpoin and ha o an o ganism eac ing o an en i onmen ha is
se o e and agains i .
A end ’s hi d mode o human ac i i y is ha o «ac ion», a ca ego y she
deploys o indica e he belie in human eedom (see Cano an, 1974, p. 58;
Coul e , 2002, p. 198-203). ‘Ac ion’ in ol es ini ia ing change in a social
si ua ion o b ing abou some hing new in he web o social ela ionships ha
cons i u e i . The consequences o «ac ion» o he agen and hose e ec ed
by hem, whe e hey will lead, canno be en i ely o eseen in ad ance. «Ac ion»
he e o e becomes a ma e o con inuous nego ia ion wi h o he s h ough he
cons uc ion in p ocess o ‘ ansien accoun s’ as i un olds in he p ocess.
The ull s o y o «ac ion» can only be pieced oge he a e he e en .
Since o A end «ac ion» is inex icably linked o communica ion wi h
o he s conside ed as equals, i occu s in public a he han p i a e space, which
she ega ds as he ealm o eedom. In his sense i is in insically «poli ical»,
and is no o be con used wi h he poli ical o ganisa ions human beings es ab-
lish o he pu pose o pe pe ua ing hei na u al biological needs. The sphe e
o «ac ion» anscends he hie a chical o so e eign ela ion be ween go e nmen s
and hei subjec s (Cano an, 1974, p. 68).
In he ac i i y o «labou », human beings a e bound by biological neces-
si ies and he e o e do no engage in hem eely. E en in he ac i i y o «wo k»
hei eedom is es ic ed by he objec i aims o c ea e. I is only in «ac ion»
—an ac i i y ha changes a human si ua ion by ini ia ing some hing new—
ha human beings expe ience uncons ained eedom. This is because in
«ac ion», in exe cising agency o e ec change, human beings e eal hei
unique indi iduali y o hemsel es and o he s. This is no «a sel » ha hey
a e awa e o p io o ac ing. Human beings lea n who hey a e om hei
‘ac ions’ in he human wo ld (see Cano an, 1974, p. 59). F om an A end ian
pe spec i e « he sel » is loca ed in i s «ac ions» and he expe ience o agency
which accompanies hem.
Since o A end «ac ion» is always ca ied ou in he company o o he s
concei ed as ee and equal indi iduals i possesses he win quali ies o plu ali y
and na ali y. In «ac ion» he agen akes in o accoun he unique poin s o iew
ha o he s hold owa ds he si ua ion in ques ion. This is no he same as ac -
ing on he basis o a nego ia ed consensus. In «ac ion» he agen e eals his o
he own dis inc i e iew o he si ua ion, bu i is de eloped in communica ion
wi h o he s and accommoda es o ‘in oices’ (my e m) hei own dis inc i e
ou looks. I is in his sense ha A end ega ds ‘ac ion’ as plu al. The mo e an
agen accommoda es he plu al oices o o he s, he mo e his o he ac i i y
cons i u es «ac ion». The concep o na ali y as a quali y o ac ion is used by
A end o con as ‘ac ion’ wi h me e ole go e ned beha iou . In ‘ac ion’ con-
di ions a e c ea ed ha enable he agen and o he s o e eal hei indi idual-
i y and uniqueness by s a ing some hing new and, in doing so, o anscend
wha is me ely equi ed o hem in hei oles in li e. I «ac ion» has an aim,
The s uggle o ede ine he ela ionship be ween «knowledge» and «ac ion» Educa 34, 2004 19
Educa 34 001-176 7/1/05 13:06 Página 19
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