Are women greener than men? A preference analysis of women and men from major German cities over sustainable urban mobility [original]

Are wom en gr ee ner t ha n men ? A pr efe renc e an al ysis of w omen and me n
fro m maj or Ge rman ci tie s ove r sust ai nabl e urb an m obil it y
Ine s Ka wga n-Ka g an
Te chni sc he Un iv ersi tä t Be rlin , St raß e des 17 . Ju ni 1 35, 1 062 3 Ber lin , Ger ma ny
ABSTRACT ARTICLE INFO
Arti c le hi sto ry:
Re ceiv ed 1 8 Jun e 20 20
Re ceiv ed in re vise d fo rm 15 Sep temb e r 2020
Ac cept ed 6 Oct ob er 20 20
Av aila bl e on lin e 25 Oc to ber 20 20
Travel p atterns in dail y life di ffer greatly between women an d men, and differences in socialisat ion substantially impact
travel mode choice. The lit erature has demonstrated a hig her af ﬁ nity to wards loc al public transpo rtatio n and su stainabi l-
ity for wo men. Men, by c ontrast, s how a highe r af ﬁ nity towards cars, techno logy, and innovation. Howev er, sex and gen-
der factors have not been considered when examining innovative , sustainable urban mobility so far. A gender-sensitive
pe rspe ct ive , t here fo re , is n eces s ary to i ncre as e the po ssi bi li ty of u si ng su st ain able mo d es of tr an spo rt ati on , inc lu din g
carsharing with b attery-power ed elect ric vehicles and, t herefore, improve the quality of life in larger cities.
Th is art icl e clos es thi s re sea rch ga p wit h an anal ys is of a repr es ent at ive sam pl e of 240 0 resp on den ts fr om four ma jo r
cit ies i n German y bas ed on Ro bin La w's theo re tica l fra mewo rk of ge nder ed da ily mobi li ty from 19 99. In ad diti on t o
socio-d emograp hic, economi c, and mobilit y-relate d factors, att itudes toward s transpor t modes and the prefere nces
fo r e-ca rsh ari ng serv ic es are an al ysed to pr ovid e deep er i nsig ht s int o gend er dif fe re nces of urb an dwe ll er s.
Gro up ed by age a nd ge nder , the pr es ence of a ch ild i n the hou seh ol d is assoc i ated wi t h dif fe ren t chan ge s in pref eren ce s
for speci ﬁ c mode s of transp ort for women an d men. Altho ugh the re sults ind icat e that urban wo men are more con -
cern ed ab ou t envi ron ment ally -f rien dl y mobi lit y in ge nera l and u se ca rs le ss oft en tha n men, mo re wo men th an me n
pr efer go in g by car if th ere is a chi ld un der th e age of 14 yea rs in th e hous eh old. Ther e is uneq ua l acces s to res ou rces
in mo bili ty , which is in li n e wi th ﬁ n an cial a spec ts be ing t he ma in re as on aga i nst ca r o wner sh ip fo r ur ba n wome n. Pa r-
ent hood ha s a posi tive ef fect on th e acce ptan ce of cars hari ng wit h batte ry-p ower ed elec tri c vehicl es fo r women and
men. In co nclu sio n, gend er di ffer ence s res ult from di ffer ent da ily ta sks , but th ere ar e also si gni ﬁ cant di ffer ences be -
yo nd thi s as pect t hat s how a s ocia ll y cons t ruct ed ge nde re d mean in g of su st aina bl e urb an mo bi lit y.
Th is res ea rch i mpro ve s the un ders ta nd ing of s us tain ab le urb an mo bi lit y rega rd ing ge nd er d iffe ren ce s, th at is, th e in -
crea se of ca r use of wo me n with ch ild ren , and th e re je ct io n of wo me n of new mo bili ty s ervi ce s. Onl y when ge nd er dif-
ference s are consider ed in planning proc esses, it will be poss ible to improve the quali ty of living in urban area s by
re duci ng u rba n spa ce sc arci ty , lo ca l and gl ob al em iss io ns, a nd n oise ex po sur e.
Ke ywor ds :
Su sta inab le u rban mo bi li ty
Ge nde r diff er en ces
E- Cars har in g
At titu de s
1. In tr odu c tio n
Urban mobi lity is beco ming in crea singl y mor e ﬂ exibl e, incl udi ng a
tren d towa rd s single -p asse nge r tran spor t. This de ve lopm ent co nsid ers th e
cons iste ntly sma ll or eve n decreas ing nu mbers of pas seng ers per car
( infas, 2018 ; Tru on g et al ., 201 7 ). Ho w eve r, sin gl e- pass en ger tr a nspo r t cat-
eg ori ca ll y exc lud es in d ivid u als o n th e mov e to get he r wi th oth er s li ke c hil -
dren and indiv iduals una ble to oper ate a vehicle, for insta nce, childr en,
eld erly i ndivi dual s, or ind ivi duals witho ut a va lid dr iving li cenc e.
Wo men, ev en in urb an ar eas, te nd to be mo re oft en resp on sibl e for oth er s
and have , accor ding ly, dail y tasks esp ecia lly beca use of additi onal ho use-
hold and child care tasks that lead to various requirements for transport
( Kawga n-Kaga n an d Popp, 2018 ; Nobis and Len z, 20 05 ). The upt ake of
th e mobi l ity tr en ds is mor e pr efer r ed by me n th an by w om en ; in par ti cu la r,
the us e of BEV s in ca rsh aring att rac ts mal e cons ume rs ( Kawgan -Kagan ,
2015a ). Howev er, is the responsibi lity for children th e key factor for this
phenom eno n? To address the new develo pments on the mo bilit y market ,
th is st ud y in ves tig at ed fact o rs to eli mi nat e th em and pr ev en t a ge nde r mo -
bi lity g ap i n su sta ina bl e ur ba n mob il ity at a po i nt in ti m e whe n se rvi ce s an d
pr odu cts c an be sh aped ac co rd in gl y.
A gender mobility gap has been observed in transport research ( Law,
1999 ; Rose nblo om, 20 00 ). Neve rthe less, this gap ha s bee n rep eate dly
redis cover ed in almost every qu antit ative analy sis of mobilit y behavi our,
wh erev er it wa s in cl ud ed in the a nal ysi s , an d ofte n w it hou t fu rth er su i tab le
co nsi de rati o n. Di ffe ren t soc ia l roles m an ife st sta ti st ica lly in si gn i ﬁ cant ly di-
vergent trave l behaviour : On the one hand , difference s in travel patte rns
hav e long been kno wn be caus e of diff er ent da ily ta sks fo r women and
me n es pec ia ll y wh en ch il dren l ive in th e hou se hold ( Be st and Lan ze ndor f,
2005 ; Gord on et al., 1989 ; Nobi s and Lenz, 2005 ); on the othe r hand, car
use an d th e use o f pub lic tr an spor t (P T) ha ve be en hist o ric ally d ev elop ing
in si gni ﬁ ca nt ly dif fe ren t wa ys ( Konrad, 2016 ). Gen de r an aly ses o f sust a in-
abl e mobil ity ha ve t hus fa r foc used on wome n usi ng PT mo re of ten
Tra ns port at ion Re sea rc h Inter di sci pli na ry Pers pe cti ve s 8 (202 0) 10 0236
E-m ail ad dr es s: ine s. kawg an- ka ga n@tu -b er lin .de ..
ht tp: //d x. doi .org /1 0.10 16 /j. tri p. 202 0.1 00 236
259 0- 198 2/© 2 020 T he Au th or(s ). Pu bl is hed by El se vi er Lt d. T his i s an op en a cc ess a rt icl e un der t he C C BY li ce nse ( ht tp: //cr ea tiv ec ommo ns .or g/li ce nse s/b y/ 4.0 / ).
Con te nts l ists av a ila bl e a t Scie nc eDi rec t
Tra nsp ort at ion Re sea rc h Int erd is cipl ina ry Pe rs pect iv es
journal homepage: https://www.journals.elsevier. com/transportation-research -
interdisciplinary-perspectives

concl uding hasti ly tha t women are mor e susta inabl e in tran sport with out
kn owi ng wom en 's ac tu al pre fe ren ce s ( E uropean Parliam ent, 2012 ).
The im port ance of ge neral at titud es af fect ing an indi vid ual' s intenti on
an d ha s bee n el abo rat ed by Aj zen (1991) to pred ic t and ex pla in be ha vio ur.
Nev er th eles s, at ti tu des di re ctl y rel ate d to the ﬁ el d of r es pec ti ve pr od uct s or
services of speci ﬁ c targe t groups must be under stood ( Hinkeldei n et al.,
2015 ). This work, t here fore , is de vot ed to di ffe renc es bet ween wome n
and me n with an d with out chil dre n to sho w the imp act of ge nder i n
te rms of a cces s to res ou rce s and to rev ea l the gen de red m ean in gs of mobi l -
ity th at re ﬂ ect di sti nct pe rcep tion s and at tit udes . Pre fere nces of urba n
wo men a nd me n wi th an d wi tho ut c hi ldre n r egar d ing su st ain a ble mo b ilit y
are ex pl ored . T he fo llo wi ng qu es ti on s are r ai sed : Ho w is u rba n su sta in abl e
mo bil it y sh ape d by ge nd er ? Ho w do es th e pe rce pti o n of su sta i nab le m obi l-
it y di ffer whe n chi ld ren liv e in th e ho useh o ld?
To answer these questions, the focus of this study is the attitu des to-
wa rd s var io us a spec ts of el ec tr ic m obil i ty to re vea l a gen d er-b a sed me an ing
of u rba n mo bil it y. Be si des , th e em phas is i s on su st ain a ble m ob ilit y b eyo nd
comparing PT to car use. To understand the differences between women
an d men , th e ef fe ct of g en der o n va rio us as pe cts of sha re d el ectr i c mob il ity
is pr es en ted u sin g pr ofo u nd co rr elat i on an d si gn i ﬁ cance testing . Instead of
usi ng ge nd er as one o f the va ria bl es, th is res ea rch u se s it to sho w si g ni ﬁ cant
dif fe ren c es th at h ave n ot b een an a lyse d be fo re .
2. Ge nde r an d su st ain a ble ur ba n mo b ilit y sta te of th e ﬁ eld
Thi s r esea rc h is b ase d on th e fr ame w ork of gen der e d dail y m obil i ty by
Rob in Law (199 9) combin ed with curr ent mobi lity tr ends in urban ar eas.
In the following, the current state of research is presented to understand
th e rel ati on of g en der ed d ail y mo bil it y and in no va tiv e sust a ina bl e mob il ity .
Law (19 99) conceptualised a gender-al igned approach of ‘ gender and d aily
mobility, ’ completing the pictu re of how gender i n ﬂ uences these aspects :
• Ac tiv it y patt er ns in ti me an d spac e;
• Ac ces s to res our ces o f time , mo ney, sk il ls, te c hno log y;
• Ex per ie nc e of emb o dim en t;
• Meaning of mobility practices, settings, things (masculinity, femininity); and
• Environment o f land use, infr astru cture, servic es, public space .
Thes e aspe cts le ad to ge nde r diff erenc es in da ily m obi lity, name ly,
mode choice, travel beh aviour , perc eptio n, and experi ence s of mo bility
and can be found all over the world. Regarding gendered experiences of
embodi ment and gender ed environ ment of lan d use, serv ices, an d public
space , the re searc h has mai nly foc used on heal th and saf ety to pics . Later ,
fo r ins ta nce, the re sea rc h incl ud ed fe ma le or pr eg nan t cr ash te st dumm ie s
or psych ologica l aspec ts of PT stati ons and vehicle des ign ( Ell away et al.,
2003 ; Hami lton and Je nkins , 200 0 ; Rupp , 2001 ; Ulfa rsson and
Mannering, 2004 ). Th e pr es ent st u dy lea ve s ou t thes e tw o as pec ts (e x per i-
ence of embodi ment a nd env iro nment of land us e, serv ices , and p ublic
space) and focu sses on the in ﬂ uenc e of gender on (i) access to resource s,
(i i) ac ti vit y pat te rn s, a nd ( iii) gen der ed m ean in g of mo bi li ty sh ap in g dai ly
mo bil it y, wh ich is el abo ra ted i n d eta il in th e next sec ti on .
2. 1. G end er ed u rba n mo bi li ty pa tt er ns
The diffe re nce s betw ee n wom en an d me n in tr av el pa tt erns ha ve been
researched frequently, beginning with the question that whether gender
differ ences are obs erved in trave l behavio ur. Althou gh gender roles hav e
em erg ed in ter ms of lab our pa rti cip at io n, wome n con tin ue to be re spo nsi-
ble fo r tasks re sultin g fro m hous ehold work and ch ild ca re ( Be st and
Lanzendorf, 2005 ; E uropean Pa rliament, 2012 ; Konrad, 2016 ). In les s tr ad i-
ti ona l urb an a rea s , wome n wi th ou t chi ld ren wo r k ful l-t i me as o fte n as me n
do ; neve rthe less , wo men te nd to wo rk pa rt -tim e mor e ofte n and are more
often responsible for the household as soon as they have a child ( Berlin-
Brand enb urg, 20 17 ; D ribe an d Stan for s, 20 09 ; Nit sche an d Grunow ,
2016 ; Schneeb aum and Mader, 2013 ). Th es e (ad dit io na l) tas ks lea d to sig-
ni ﬁ ca ntl y diff eren t tr avel pa tt ern s of wo me n and men : In cont ras t to men,
wo men s ho w comp l ex tr ip c hain s wi th s hor te r part ia l ro ute s in a r ath er ra -
dia l ar ea cl ose r to th ei r re sid en ce ( B auhardt, 1999 ; Ka wgan -K a gan , 201 5a ;
Kn oll et a l., 2 009 ; Nob is and Lenz, 2005 ; Sc heiner, 2016 ). In to tal , the tr av -
elled distances are smaller despite the greater number of trips ( Sovacool
et al., 2018 ). Household and childcare-related tasks are usually closer to
th e resid en ce th an wor kp lac es ( Fan, 2017 ). Be ca use of th e lo nge r dista n ces
to wo rk an d bec ause mo r e men wi t h chi ld ren wo rk f ull -t ime th an chi ld les s
me n, th ey cov er lon ger d is tan ces o n aver a ge ( Crane, 2007 ; K awg an -K aga n,
201 5a ). These d iffer en ces ar e su bjec t to di ffer ent st ag es of life and, th ere-
fore , occu r for in divi dual s at an age when chil db irth as a key even t in life
is most li kely ( Lanze ndor f, 201 0 ; Sche iner , 201 6 ; Sche iner an d Holz- Rau,
2017 ; St iewe and Krause, 2012 ). Thi s gen der mo bil ity g ap is visi b le wher -
ever gende r dif fere nces w ere co nside red in t he anal ysi s and up to da te,
no s tu dy an ywh er e has sho wn th a t ther e i s no ge nd er m obi li ty ga p.
2. 2. Im pact o f gen dere d ac ces s to reso u rce s
A gen der m obi li ty g ap h as be en o bs erv ed i n ev ery co u ntr y th at an al ys ed
travel patter ns. Especia lly in les s develo ped countr ies it can be explai ned
with a gende red access to re source s ( Car rut hers et al ., 20 05 ; Clar ke,
2012 ): Both gend ers, wom en an d men sh ow highe r rates of car us e when
they wor k. Wo men ten d to wo rk les s of ten, e spec ially full -t ime, w hich
lead s to a sm alle r inc ome. Beca use of th e high er ﬁ na ncial re stri ctio n,
wo men , th eref o re, h av e les s ac cess to p ai d mobi l ity op ti on s: W ome n ca nn ot
afford cars , bicycles, and public tran sport, especia lly in poorer countrie s,
com pared wi th men. Ev en in urban ar eas in dev elope d countr ies, wom en
earn less on av erage than men ( Behr a nd Th eune , 2018 ; For tin et al .,
2017 ). Par en tho od has a su bsta n tia l imp act on ﬁ n an cia l res our ces in We st-
ern soc ieti es: Wome n with a child bu t with out a partn er have the hi ghest
ris k of pove rty ( Da mask e et al., 2017 ; Hübge n, 2 018 ). Si mila rly, Be st and
Lanzendor f (2005) showed that having childr en leads to le ss car use for
wome n but more ca r use for me n; how ever, ca r use inc rea sed ove r the
past 30 ye ars in Ge rma ny fo r wo me n with chil dre n ( Konrad, 2 016 ). Nota -
bly, ac cess to a car or ho ldin g a driv ing lice nce has be en obse rved to be a
key f actor of so cial in clus ion an d emp loyme nt of w omen ( Ange ll et al .,
2018 ; Dobb s, 20 05 ). Ow ner shi p of dri vi ng li cen ces , alth ou gh its ac qui si ti on
is rela tive ly expensi ve in Germ an y and, th eref ore, not un corre late d to ac-
cess to ﬁ nancia l re sourc es, gr ants acce ss to c arsh arin g sche mes. In
Germany , the sha re of drivi ng licen ces remain s unequa l for women and
me n in g ener al ; nev er thel es s, th e is ex pe cted to co nt inu e al ign ing be c ause
of a lig ned a cqu is iti on ra te s fo r yo ung w om en a nd me n ( K onr ad , 201 6 ), pr e-
su mabl y in di ca tin g a cl osi ng g end er mo bi lit y g ap in Ge rm an y.
In ad dit io n to ﬁ na nci al res t ri cti on, Bauhardt (1999) a rg ued th a t ther e is
a po we r gap wit hi n a ho use ho ld th at lea ds to men b ei ng th e pe rso n to use a
ca r; th us , wom en are for ced to use oth er mo d es , mos tl y pu blic tr an spo rt. A t
ﬁ rs t gla nc e, this th ou ght s eems ha rs h and old -f as hi oned ; nev er thel es s, it has
histo ricall y evol ved as has been descr ibed, for in stance , by Fan (20 17) or
Scha rff (1 992) . Empir ical da ta sho ws that in Be rlin , women us e publi c
trans port more an d cars le ss ( Ahre ns, 20 14 ). A st udy fr om Col ogne ,
Germ any, by S che iner an d Holz -Rau (2 012 ) could n ot, how ever , ﬁ nd evi-
denc e fo r this po we r gap an d re stri ct ion of ac ce ss wi thin a ho use hol d due
to diff er ent ﬁ nanc ial resou rces. They fo und no e vide nce fo r a gende r-
affe ct ed con nect io n betw ee n car u se and pa rti ci pati on in pa id a nd un paid
wor k, cont radi ctin g man y studi es a ssert ing t he exi ste nce of this ga p
( Adeel et al., 2017 ; Liu e t al., 2018 ). Al tho ug h a stu dy fr om Sto ckh o lm cov -
ering dat a from 1985 t o 2015 show ed that the ge nder gap in car us e and b i-
cycl ing ‘ clos ed complete ly ’ in the inne r cit y of St ockho lm, th is ga p
continues to exist the outer areas ( Bastian and Börjesson, 2018 ) and has
be en evid en t in man y o ther g lo bal st ud ies ( Abasahl et al., 2018 ; Europ ean
Pa rli am en t, 2012 ; Sovacool e t al., 20 18 ).
2. 3. Ge nd ere d at tit ud es to wa rds in nov a ti ve, s ust ain ab le e lec tr ic mo bi lit y
Ge nder d iff eren c es res ulti ng fr om gen der -t ypic al ta sk div isio ns a re not
th e onl y det er min an ts to expl ai n the c urr en t dif fe ren ces in ur ban mo bi l ity ,
es pe cia lly in mo de cho ice . Sch einer and H olz-Rau ( 2012) ar gu ed tha t th er e
I. Ka wga n-Ka ga n Tr ans por ta tio n Rese ar ch Int erdi s cipl in ary Pe rsp ect ive s 8 (202 0) 100 23 6
2

mus t be more be hind t he diff ere nt soc ial role s af fect ing ca r use tha n
in trah ou se hol d dif fer enc es . R ob in Law' s fra me wor k inc lud es the g end ered
meanin g of mob ility pra ctice s, settin gs, and th ings ( Law , 1999 ). Notably,
the ge nder ed me anin g of cars ha s been studie d in sc ienc e and te chno log y
st udi es d es crib in g th e asc r ipt io n of m ascu l ini ty to pr iva te c ar us e an d fem -
in in ity to th e use of publ ic tr an spo rt ( Lee, 2 017 ; Samuels son, 2014 ). Hi s tor -
ical ly, ot her asc rip tions we re evo lvin g during t he begi nni ng of the
auto mobi le era: Wo men we re supp osedl y limit ed to the femi nine pri va te,
dom es tic sp he re , wher ea s th e pu bli c spa ce wa s oc cu pied by me n ( El law a y
et al. , 200 3 ; Sc ha rff, 1 99 2 ), th a t is, me n alo ne wa s su pp ose d to be mo bi l e.
This public mascu linity was then supplement ed with individual autom o-
biles. If wom en needed to go som ewhere, they wer e driven by their men
an d also , th e priv ate femi nin ity wa s br oad ened by th e use of publ ic tr an s-
po rt, and th es e ori g ins c on tin ue to sha pe th e at ti tu des to wa rd s an d pe rc ep-
tion of mobility ( Polk, 2009 ). The combina tion of publicly available and
pr iva te ly us ed c ar s in car sh ar in g, ho we ver , th wa rts th e as si gn men t of f em-
inin e pu blic trans port and ma sculi ne pr iv ate ca r use. Due to th e hist or ical
ascri pt ion, mo st of the stu di es reve alin g gender diffe rences in the perc ep-
ti on, me anin g of, and att it udes towa rds mo des ha ve fo cu sed o n the us e of
tw o opp osi tes : cars an d pub lic tr a nsp or t.
Much researc h h a s been conducted on the adoption of electric vehicle s
(E Vs) an d cars har in g. It has rev eal ed th at envi ro nme nta l awa ren ess, af ﬁ n-
ity tow ards tech nolog y, and in nova tion as life style are t he main fa ctor s
in ﬂ u enci ng th e a ccep ta nce of new sus tai na ble m ob ilit y in clu d ing o ne- wa y
carsharing and e-mobility ( Li et al., 2017 ; Rezvani et al., 2015 ; Shaheen
et al., 20 15 ). Li et al. (20 17) lis ted gend er in thei r literat ure revi ew of 40
studies as a soci o-demographic factor in ﬂ uencing the intentio n to adopt
an EV in ad dit io n to a ge a nd ed uc ati on , alth o ugh wi tho ut fu r ther consi d er-
atio n. Rezva ni et al. (201 5) compre he nsive ly revi ewed up -to-d ate stu dies
abou t in ﬂ uenc ing at titud es and fac to rs and el uc idat ed thei r ef fect s on th e
acc ep ta nce of pl ug-i n E Vs. Nota bl y, wh er ev er in clu ded in th e an al ysis , g en-
der wa s obs erv ed to be a cr ucia l fac to r.
Nev er th eles s, n eith er Rezvani e t al. ( 2015) nor th e a uth or s of th e or igi-
na l stud ie s con cl ude th at a gen der -b ase d per spec ti v e is nece ss ary to id ent i fy
obs ta cl es a nd b arr ier s ag ain st con sum er ad o pti on o f plu g-i n E Vs. Ba se d o n
numb ers suc h as 95% be ing ma le users of BE Vs in Swed en ( Ha ustei n and
Jense n, 2018 ) or 84% male use rs of carsh aring in Ber lin ( Kawg an-K agan ,
2015a , 2015b ), this is cl ea rly an u nder st atem en t of the impo rta n ce of this
fa cto r. Be c aus e of th e m ore f req ue nt u se o f PT , wom en a re so me ti me s pre-
sum ed to be more conc erned ab out susta inable mob ili ty than men. Othe r
studi es hav e provid ed the respect ive ev idenc e: Wom en are wi lling to pa y
more fo r envi ron ment ally -f rien dly mo bili ty and to ch ange th eir tr avel be -
haviour ( Matthies et al., 2002 ; Polk, 2009 ). Studies about acceptan ce of
tec hnolog y ha ve ob serve d a muc h hi gher op enne ss to inno vati on for
ma les th an fo r fe m ales ( Ba in and Ric e, 20 06 ; Venk atesh et al ., 2000 ).
A study from 2015 of early ado pters of ca rshari ng with and withou t
BE Vs r evea le d th at f ema le u ser s are sig ni ﬁ c antl y mor e attr act ed to bi cy cle
use th an ma le u se rs. Ho we ve r, f em ale u se rs s how a m uch low er af ﬁ nit y to -
wards technol ogy and are le ss ope n to inno vat ions ( K awgan -Kag an,
2015a ). Al so, th e res ul ts s ho w tha t ma le use r s are m ore in te res te d in th e ex -
citement of driving, and women use e-carsharing more pragmatically. A
com pl im en tin g stu dy o f urba n wo me n and th ei r da ily mo bi lit y pr ef er enc es
from 201 8 con ﬁ rms t hese ﬁ n din gs an d rev eals a ct ive d riv ing pr act i ce as an-
oth er pr in cipa l fa cto r for the ad op tion o f cars har in g ser vice s and re jec ti on
of too m any t echnic al gi mmic ks, es peci ally in EVs ( Kawgan -Kagan an d
Popp , 2018 ). Th e g end er d iffe r enc es o f par en tho od o n su st ain ab le an d el ec-
tr ic mobi l ity -r el ated a ttit u des ha ve ye t to be res ea rch ed .
2. 4. A ge nd er-b as ed pe rs pe cti ve o n inn ova tiv e a nd su sta in abl e urba n mo bi li ty is
necessary
Gend er is evide nt in al most al l stud ies ab out su sta inabl e mob ility as a
si gni ﬁ ca n t vari ab le an d must be ra is ed abo ve the st atu s of a contr ol va ria bl e
be cau se of it s st rik ing p ot enti al fo r di ffer en ces in dail y and el ec tr ic mo bil-
ity. Gender diff erences in daily mobility have been rediscove red without
the effort s of ﬁ nding expl anatio ns beyond ﬁ nancia l and saf ety topi cs and
diff ere nt da ily tas ks. Ne w form s of s ust ainab le mob ilit y hav e not bee n
analy sed rega rding gender differe nces in attitu des t hat are identi ﬁ ed to
be rele vant for the upta ke of such serv ices. Th us far, lite ratur e has sho wn
that w omen ar e more conc ern ed ab out the e nvir onmen t in gene ral an d
le ss in te res te d in te chn o log y in ge ne ra l. Mo re d et ail ed , gen der -s pe ci ﬁ c dif -
fe ren ces i n att it ud es to wa rds su s tai nab l e urba n m ob ili ty ha v e rec ei ved l itt l e
atte nti on in the liter at ure, al thou gh thei r import ance has been pr oven fo r
the past decade. As Hinkeldein et al. (2015) pointed out that it is crucial
to no t con si der gen er al at ti tu des bu t rel at e them to m obi li ty a nd tra nsp or t,
this wo rk ﬁ ll s this ge nder ga p in mobi li ty rese arc h and feed s Law 's fram e-
wo rk w ith ev i denc e r ega rd ing s ust ain a ble u rb an dai l y mob il ity c on sid er ing
new mo b ilit y se rvic es .
3. Res ea rch de sig n
This section provides insights into the method used to understand
gendered ur ban, sustainabl e mobility.
3. 1. Sam pl e
Th e effe cts o f diff er en ces in att it ud es and mo de cho ic e acco rd in g to gen -
der r equ ir es a qu ant it ati v e appr o ach wi t h a rep res en ta tiv e sa mpl e fo r urba n
ar eas. In th i s ca se, fo u r ma jor cit ies fro m Ge rm any are in c lude d i n a pr oba -
bi lity sam ple of 2400 res po nd ents fro m the ce n tres and th e ou ter co nur ba -
tion a reas of B erlin (n = 987) , Hamburg ( n = 548 ), Fr ankfurt ( n = 450) ,
and Munich (n = 415) ( Fig. 1 ). All these ci ties ha ve satis fac tor y PT
co ver ag e.
The s urvey w as conduc ted in 2012, by I nfas, a pr ivate an d inde pendent
social rese arch instit ute that conduct s resear ch for compani es, academi a,
and po litics t hrough comput er-aide d telepho ne in terview s (CATI). Data
from the ADM-Maste rsample (Häder-Gab ler-proc ess) ( Gabler and Häde r,
Fig. 1. Sa mp le di st ribu ti on i n Ge rman y, n = 240 0.
I. Ka wga n-Ka ga n Tr ans por ta tio n Rese ar ch Int erdi s cipl in ary Pe rsp ect ive s 8 (202 0) 100 23 6
3

2002 ) fo r each reg io n wa s we igh te d acc ord i ng to th e pr opo r tio n of th e po p-
ul ati on o f thos e reg io n s. In to ta l, a g ross sam pl e of 1 30, 66 4 tele ph on e nu m-
bers was rand omly dr awn acc ordi ng to t he pop ulat ion di stri but ion and
resulted in a ﬁ nal sample of 2400 realised interviews as the person with
th e las t bi rth da y (L ast- Bi rth d ay -App ro ach ) wa s in te rvi ew ed . Fin al ly, a s ec-
on d and ad just ed we i ght ing c ompe n sat ed th e dis tri bu tion s pr opo rt io nal to
the p opul ation aged 18 year s and ove r in the s elect ed re gions . Ta ble 1
sh ows the d et ail s of th e re spec ti ve su bs am pl es a nd, as a r ef er ence , th e ave r-
age of Germany. Urban inhabitants have a degree from a university or a
tech nical co llege . Mo re indi vidual s from the subsa mples wor k full- time
than t he Germ an aver age. Th e dif feren ces b etwe en the ci ties re main
sm all , ex ce pt for the oc cupa ti on sta tus an d a hig h discr ep ancy o f a lmos t €
40 0 in th e net eq ui va len t hou se hol d in come . On aver ag e, th e tota l sa mp le
ha s a si mi lar in co me to th e Ge rm an av era ge.
3. 2. Q ues tio n nair e
Soc io- de mog rap hi cal, so ci o-e con omi ca l quest io ns, as we ll as qu esti on s
regarding travel behaviour, were included in the questionnaire. Another
se t of qu es ti ons fo c usse d o n av ail ab ilit y o f car s an d bic yc les wi thin a ho use -
hold, with and without battery -electric dri ve. Also, differen t items were
aske d rega rdi ng mo de choi ce — the ac tu all y used m odes and th e pref er red
mode s of tra nspo rt; t he acc ept ance of ele ctri c mob ilit y was c overe d as
we ll. Ba se d o n th e ex ten si ve r esea rc h a bou t th e imp ac t of atti tu des on mo -
bi lity b y Hi nke ldei n et al. (2 015) , a ba tter y of it em s with a 6-p oin t Lik ert-
sc ale wa s i ncl ud ed in th e qu esti o nn air e to co ll ect d ata a bo ut env i ron men ta l
con c erns an d att it ud es to wa rd s sev er al a sp ects rel a ted to mobi lit y . A fac to r
an aly si s red uc ed th e dim en si on alit y of th e da ta pr es en tin g thes e st ate m en ts
to ni ne mob ilit y rela ted attitu des in clu ding re liab ili ty te sting. The
att it ud ina l i ndic e s wer e g ener at ed by co mp uti ng th e m ea ns o f th e va riab l es
lo adi ng on th e res pect i ve fac to r. The be ne ﬁ t o f th ese i ndi ce s is th ei r re la tio n
to mo bi lity , in ste ad o f co v erin g a rat her a bs tra ct va ri abl e, for in st an ce, en -
vir o nme nta l aw ar enes s . Ta ble 2 c onta in s ex am ples o f the qu es tio ns use d to
generate the indice s. For more details on the developme nt of the indices
pl ea se see th e publ i cati on by Hinkeldein e t al. ( 2015) .
3. 3. A naly si s
To g ive a n an swer to the re s earc h q ues tio n el abo ra ted in Se ction 1 ,t h e
lit er atu re r evi ew in Sect ion 2 is co mb in ed wit h to pic s from L aw's ge nd er ed
dai ly fram ew ork: ac ce ss to reso urces , mo de choi ce and mod e pref eren ce s,
atti tudes re lev ant to mobi lity in clu ding perc epti on of car s an d ca r owner -
ship, and accept ance of e-m obility . For each of the se topi cs, various var i-
able s ar e anal yse d with infer en tial st at is tica l test s to co mpar e wome n an d
me n. In p ar tic ul ar, th e r ela ti on of th e af ﬁ n it y towa rd s ca rs an d publ ic tr a ns-
por t is of st ron g int eres t bec ause st ro ng diff er ence s have be en ob ser ved in
th e l ite ra tu re, as des cr ibe d in Section 2.3 .
To generate resilient results, women and men are compared, and age
and th e pres ence of ch il dren in th e hou seho ld mu st be cons ider ed as va ri-
ab les to dis tin ct su bs am ples of wo men a nd me n. Th er ef ore, age ca te gor ie s
are gen erate d in steps of 10 yea rs begin ning at 18 years , and a vari able
was generated representi ng children below the age of 14 year s living in
the household of the resp ondents. Indices were generated to obtai n vari-
ables th at repre sen t speci ﬁ c attitud es. Diffe renc es are tested to be signi ﬁ -
can t (Pea rson- Chi
2
, bino minal te sts , t -te sts acco rdi ng to re spe ctiv e
vari ab le), an d res ul ts are di sc usse d in th e conte xt of g end ered sust ai nab le
mobility. Final ly, conclusions are drawn from the results and prov ide in-
si ght s into g end er dif fer en ce s rega rd in g sust ain a ble ur ba n mo b ilit i es.
4. Results
Th is se cti on pr ov id es th e re sul ts of th e ana l ysi s cov er ing th e to pi cs of ac -
cess to mobility-related resources, differences in mode choice and mode
preferences, perception of car ownership and attitudes towards environ-
me nta l to pic s, a nd te ch nol og y and in n ov ati on .
4. 1. Acc es s to res our ce s
4. 1.1. De s cr ipt iv e o ver vie w
At ﬁ rst, Tab le 3 provides deta iled informati on about the respond ents'
so cio- d emo gr aph ic s and ot her va ria bl es th at re late to a cce ss to r eso urc es re-
ga rdin g mo bi lit y . The em pl o ymen t st atu s i s cor rel at ed w it h inco m e an d in -
dir ec tl y pro vid es in sig ht s abou t th e house h ol d d ivi si on . Nea rly 30 % of th e
women without a child work in full-time, and with 88%, the majority of
wom en with a chi ld under age 14 years in the house hold work pa rt-ti me.
For ma le re spond ents , more t han thr ee qu arter s hav e a child and work
fu ll-t im e, an d only a few res po n dent s wo rk part -t ime (3 % ). The net eq u iv-
ale nt hous eh old i ncome of f emal e res pond ents is sm alle r tha n th at of
ma le res po nde nt s. Ch il dren i n th e hous eh ol d lea d to a dec re ased h ou seh ol d
net in c ome e qu iva len t f or wo me n and me n . Pa rent h oo d incr ea se s the wo r k-
rela ted di stan ce s of trip s onl y for me n, wh ich is in line wi th the li tera tu re
( Nobis and Lenz, 2005 ; Sk ora, 2018 ).
Ta ble 1
Sa mple desc ri pt ion (G er man majo r ci tie s, n = 2 400 , sub sam pl es an d Ge rman y) .
Total, n = 2400 Berlin, n = 987 Hamburg, n = 548 Frankfurt, n = 450 Munich, n = 415 Average Germany, in 2012
a
Females 51.5% 51.5% 53.4% 50.8% 50.1% 51.0%
Average age in years 48.0 49.0 47.6 47.6 46.6 44.1
Child < 14 in household 23.9% 23,9% 19,9% 27,0% 25,2% –
Graduated from univers ity or technical college 35.4% 36.6% 30.2% 33,9% 32,5% 14.2%
Full-time occupation 39.3% 36.6% 36.2% 40.8% 47.0% 31.3%
Part-time occupation 12.3% 11.2% 13.2% 11.5% 14.4% 11.7%
Net equivalent household income per month in € 1827 1667 1824 1932 2042 1835
a
( St ati st isch es -Bu nd esam t, 2 01 8 ).
Ta ble 2
Mo bili ty -rel at ed att it ud es, In dic es ge nera ted by Hi n keld ei n et al. (2 015) .
Index Item example loading most highly on the index
Car af ﬁ nity I ﬁ nd driving an easy way to get around.
Bike af ﬁ nity I ﬁ nd cycling an easy way to get around.
PT af ﬁ nity I reach my destination without stress when using public transport.
Long-distance train af ﬁ nity I ﬁ nd using the train an easy way to get around.
Mobility service af ﬁ nity The use of mobility services allows me to reach all my important destinations.
Owning a car af ﬁ nity I am dependent on my car in my daily life.
Mobility-related environment af ﬁ nity Environmental protection is crucial for me in my choice of transport.
Technology af ﬁ nity I am quickly able to ﬁ gure out unknown electronic devices.
Innovator scale Other individuals often discover new travel ideas thanks to me.
I. Ka wga n-Ka ga n Tr ans por ta tio n Rese ar ch Int erdi s cipl in ary Pe rsp ect ive s 8 (202 0) 100 23 6
4

4.1. 2. Driving l icences
Mo st o f the i ndi vid ua ls o bta i n thei r d ri vin g lic en ce s at a n ag e whe n th ey
do n ot ha ve ch ild ren yet . The ref ore , th ere i s no dif fer en ce fo r re spo nd ents
with and without children expected. Fig. 2 shows the share of driving li-
cences across age categor ies and differenti ated according to gender. For
men, t he share is lo west , with almo st 77.9 %, in the young es t catego ry
an d in crea se s up to 94 .4 % for m en ag ed b et we en 58 a nd 6 7 yea rs. The dis-
tr ib uti on of dr ivin g lic en ces fo r fem ale re spo n den ts al so dif fer s over ag e: Al -
though the di stri buti on incr ease s with th e lowe st share in th e young est
gro up, it is not a s cons iste nt as for men an d decr ease s from the ma xim um
of 90 .4% be tween 38 an d 47 yea rs to 73% for wom en olde r tha n
68 ye ar s. As dat a fro m th e Fed er al Mo tor Tra n spo rt Au tho rit y of Ger ma ny
sh ow, yo ung wo me n and me n st arte d to al ign wi th th e shar e of dr iv ing li-
cences , and the gap continues to increase with a dvancing age of the respon-
dents ; this is be caus e, in the past, fe wer wo men obt ained d rivin g licen ces
( Kraf tfahr t-Bund esamt , 2018 ). Our da ta cont radict s the ﬁ ndi ngs fo r the
whole of Germany , where for indivi duals age d betwee n 18 and 27 years ,
simi lar num be rs of m en ha ve a dr ivin g lice nce compar ed to wo men:
Young adults have the highest difference between women and men. For
th e nex t age ca te gor y (2 8 to 37 ), th e di ffer e nce h as nea rl y va nis hed . Fo r in-
dividu als aged old er than 58 year s, the gap increase s again to almo st the
same difference and increases again for respondents older 68 years. The
vari atio n with in the su bsam ple of ma le res pond ents i s appro xima tely
16 .4 % poin ts , an d fo r wo men , th e va riat i on wi th in th e su bs am ple i s al mo st
tw ice a s hi gh wi th 3 0.2 % po ints . Th e dif fe ren c es be tw een wo me n an d me n
are s igni ﬁ cant ( p < .001).
4. 1.3. Ca r an d bic ycl e avai la bi li ty
Ano th er rele van t varia bl e repr esen ti ng acc ess to re sou rces is th e a vail -
abil it y of car s and bi cycl es wi thin a ho useh old . As pr esen ted in Sectio n 2 ,
trad it ion al ly, me n ha ve a hi gh er av ail abi lity of car s in th e ho use hol d than
wo men . Fi g. 3 sho ws th e nu mb er of c ars a nd bi cy cl es a vai lab l e in a hou s e-
ho ld. Ap p rox im ate ly ha lf o f the re sp on den ts hav e on e ca r in th e hous eh ol d,
an d the v al ues fo r wo men a nd me n ar e si mi lar , alth o ugh mo re wo m en ha ve
no car in the household tha n men. A child in the household rel ates to in-
creased number of cars on the household. The sha re of individua ls with
no car in th e hou seh ol d is big ger wi th 27 % f or wo men w ith chi ldr en co m-
pa re d to 2 2% f or wo me n wi tho ut ch il dr en . Th e sha re o f in div id ua ls w ith n o
ca r in the ho use ho ld fo r men di ff ers fro m 21 % wit h chil dr en to 8% wi th ou t
chi ldre n. Wome n with ch ild ren mo re ofte n have no ca r or two car s in the
hous ehold tha n men, an d only a sm all sha re of men wi th a chi ld have no
car. Stu dies s howed tha t the ﬁ rs t car in the hou sehol d is usu ally fo r the
male ho us ehol d memb er, an d the seco nd car is us ed by the fema le hou se-
hol d membe r ( Sche ine r and Hol z-R au, 201 2 ). Th is res ul t is com pati ble
with the higher share of 12% of mothers livi ng alone compared with the
2% o f sin gle fath er s liv ing w it h th eir ch il d fr om th e sa mpl e. Re ga rd ing b i-
cycles , the distrib ution is similar for wom en and men: Nearly half th e re-
spond ent s have on e bicyc le in the ho useho ld, an d one- ﬁ fth of t he
respondents do not have a bicycle in the household. Respondents with a
child have one bike sign i ﬁ cantly more often, with a plus of 10% poin ts,
an d acc ord i ngl y, le ss o fte n no bi ke i n the h ou seh ol d. Thi s ef fe ct is s tr ong er
for fem ale res pondents, in dicating that women might use mo re bicy cles
th an me n whe n th ey h ave c hi ld ren .
Ta ble 3
Des cr ipt ive over vi ew ( soci o- dem ogra ph ic s, mo bili ty -r elat ed i te ms, Ge rm an ma jo r ci ties , n = 24 00 ).
Women Men Total
No child Child in HH Total No child Child in HH Total No child Child in HH Total
Age 52.4 37.0 48.7 49.8 38.8 47.8 51.1 37.9 48.0
Full-time 28.8 19.1 26.5 45.9 75.4 52.9 37.2 46.1 39.3
Part-time 14.3 38.1 20.1 3.4 6.5 4.1 9.0 23.0 12.3
University degree 31.0 27.7 30.2 37.7 37.4 37.6 34.3 32.3 33.8
HH net equivalent income 1745 1514 1690 2025 1745 1957 1888 1633 1827
Driving licence 78.5 80.9 79.0 88.5 88.0 88.0 83.4 84.3 83.6
Car HH 72.9 77.8 74.0 78.6 92.4 81.9 75.6 84.8 77.8
Car km/a 10,784 10,749 10,773 13,778 18,243 14,804 12,405 14,541 12,921
Work-home distance 16.0 13.3 15.2 20.1 19.1 19.8 18.2 16.6 17.7
% sample 39% 12% 52% 37% 11% 49% 76% 24% 100%
N 939 297 1236 889 275 1164 1822 572 2400
Fi g. 2. Diff er ence s i n distr i but ion of dri vin g lice nce s of ur ba n dwel le rs, n = 24 00.
I. Ka wga n-Ka ga n Tr ans por ta tio n Rese ar ch Int erdi s cipl in ary Pe rsp ect ive s 8 (202 0) 100 23 6
5

To unde rstand t hese dif ferenc es, t he actual po ssibi lity o f driving a ca r or
bicycle must be analysed. Fig. 4 shows how often respondents holding a
driv ing li cenc e have ac ces s to a car or bicycl e as a dri ver or p asse nger.
The r e is no ev id en ce fo r diff er en ces be tw een wo me n a nd men wi th or wi th -
out chil dren in the avai labilit y of bic ycles. R egardi ng cars , signi ﬁ ca ntly
fe we r wo men res p ond ed th at they (a l most ) al way s hav e ac cess to th e m, es-
pecial ly when th ey have a child in the househ old ( p < .001). Com parin g
wo men and m en , dis tri bu ti on of ca rs in th e ho u seho l d an d the a vai l abil it y
of ca rs ar e si g ni ﬁ can t wi th p < .001.
4.2. Percep tion of cars, o f driving, and car owner ship
The use o f cars is les s freq u ent in u rb an ar eas co mp ar ed wi th Ge rm an y
in gen er al , espe ci al ly in rur al are as ( Herget, 2013 ). Th is r esu lt is rel at ed to
th e sati s fact o ry PT c ove ra ge, th e af fo rda bi li ty an d ef ﬁ cie nc y of th e PT, an d
th at ever yd ay de stin atio ns are mu ch cl os er to on e an othe r in u rban area s.
Nev erthe less , cars cont inue to s hape t he ci tysc ape, an d many dwell ers
have re taine d thei r privat e cars. This sect ion cove rs what urban resi dents
think of cars and car ownersh ip and how they perceive trav elling by this
mo de wit h res pe ct to gend er d iff eren c es.
4. 2.1. Me anin g o f car s for pe r son al mo bi lit y and car ow n ers hip
Fi g. 5 sh ow s the ag ree men t to sev era l mobi l ity -re la ted st ate m ents co m -
pa rin g wo me n an d me n with an d wit h out ch il dr en . For eac h sta te me nt th a t
ca n be fo un d on th e rig ht, ther e a re fo ur b ars r epr es enti n g the su bs am pl es
of the respondents, which give the share of the respective agreements to
thes e statem ents . Appr oxim ately half of the male an d fema le resp ondent s
st ate d th at th ey co ul d ea si ly go to im po rta nt des ti n ati on s by ca r, wi th a mar -
ginal di fferenc e of men agr eeing mor e than wom en. Ther e are no sig ni ﬁ -
can t diff erenc es be twee n women an d men wit h a ch ild bel ow age
14 ye ar s in th e ho use ho l d. Nev er th el ess , mo re wo men th an m en, es p eci al ly
wi th a chil d, sta te d that th ey do not nee d a c ar to be ﬂ ex ib le. T hi s r es ult is
su rpr is in g, bec aus e chi ld ren , esp ec ial ly , rep re sen t a fact or th at ca lls f or th e
nee d for a car fo r spon tane ous even ts ( Dowli ng, 20 00 ; Sc hne ider an d
Hi lger t, 201 7 ). Ag ree m ents to th e stat em ent of on ly bein g abl e to man age
li fe wi th a ca r i n the ho use ho ld d iffe r fo r w omen an d men w ith a nd wi th ou t
children. More women with a child tha n without, but fewer men with a
ch ild th a n wi tho ut a gree d to th e n eces si ty o f a car for th ei r da il y mobi l ity .
On e-qu a rte r of wo men sa id tha t it wa s tru e tha t th ey wo uld n ot b e able to
man age the ir dai ly life w ith out a car, bu t more w omen wi thou t a chil d
dis ag re ed with th i s st ate m en t.
Fi g. 3. Dist ri buti on of ca rs an d bi cycl es of urb an d well er s, n = 2 40 0.
Fi g. 4. Avai la bili ty of ca rs an d bi cycl es as dr ive r of ur ba n dwe ll ers, n = 240 0.
I. Ka wga n-Ka ga n Tr ans por ta tio n Rese ar ch Int erdi s cipl in ary Pe rsp ect ive s 8 (202 0) 100 23 6
6

Fig. 5. Agreement to statements regardin g ca rs, driving, and ow ne rship, n = 2400.
I. Ka wga n-Ka ga n Tr ans por ta tio n Rese ar ch Int erdi s cipl in ary Pe rsp ect ive s 8 (202 0) 100 23 6
7

Re ga rdin g th e perce p tio n of dri vi ng, mo re wo men co mp ar ed wit h men
agr ee d that u sin g a c ar is an unco mpl ic at ed man ner o f tra vel lin g. A you ng
chil d in the ho use hold ha s a pos itive i mpac t on the e valuat ion of this
item. Mo re women wit h a child stated tha t driving is more th an fun than
childless women. Men show the opposite effect and perceived driving to
be les s fun wh en the ha ve a chil d in the hou se hol d. Bei ng ask ed ab out th e
stre ss th ey exp erie nce whi le dr ivi ng, wom en wit h and wi tho ut a chi ld
and men witho ut a child answere d nearly in a simi lar manner. Men with
a chil d cons ide r drivi ng to be sig ni ﬁ ca ntly mor e stre ssfu l. Fo r more
wo men th an me n, it is imp ort an t no t to ha ve to shar e th eir ca r wi th a nyo ne.
For wo men wi th a chil d, th e di sagr eeme nt dec reas ed by 4.4 % po ints , and
fo r m en wi th a ch i ld, the pe rc en tage i ncr ea sed f rom 31 .0% to 39 .5 %.
4. 2.2 . Re ac h of de sti na tio ns
To understand the p erception of car s of urban d wellers, responde nts were
asked how many of their da ily trips can be covered only by car ( Fig. 6 ). Ap-
proximately the same sh are of women a n dm e nw i t h o u tay o u n gc h i l ds t a t e d
that almo st all of their tr ips must be taken by ca r. 55.8% of the femal e respon-
dents without a child stated that they do no t necessarily need a car or do not
have access to a car com pared with 46.1% of the respecti ve male group. The
stro ng est diff eren ce is obse rved for re spo nden ts with a child : None of the
male respondents stated that they never have a ccess to a car, and 36.1% of
the male respondents said that they woul d not ne ed a car. 7.5%, respectively,
44% of the women an swere d in this way. Corre spond ingly , signi ﬁ can tly
more men with a child compared with women with a child in the h ousehold
said that a car is needed for almost a ll their daily trips. Women with children
sai d that th e car is not as nee ded, si milar to what wom en wi thou t a chil d
stated.
4. 2.3. R eas o ns for re je cti ng a priv at e car
Th e rati o in this sa mp le bet we en wo men an d men wit h out th ei r own ca r
is un ev en : 24% fo r wo men to 1 7% fo r men (n o t incl ud ed in Fi g. 7 ). T he rea -
so ns why an in div id ua l ren oun ce s a car can be ma nif o ld. Th e inte rvi ew ee s
we re pro vi ded ﬁ ve poss i ble rea son s an d a sk ed for th eir ag ree me nt reg a rd-
ing each stateme nt with the possibility of multi ple answers. Fig . 7 shows
the total numbe rs of reaso ns to rejec t a private car . More th an half of the
women withou t a car said that the high acquisition cos ts or mainte nance
cos ts are a re ason w hy the y do not w ant th eir own c ar, an d 100 of t he
carles s me n name d this re aso n. Unequ al acces s to re sour ces is on e reaso n
why wo me n have fe we r car s than me n ( Se ct ion 2 ). This resu lt is re ﬂ ec te d
in the ﬁ nancial aspects being the main reason against car ownership for
urb an wo m en . For m ost me n, ho wev er , a car is no t nec es sar y to b e mob il e,
althou gh mor e women than me n cited thi s reason (14 2 women cit ed this
reas on). The di scre panc y in te rms of acce ss to resour ce s in th e form of
c o s t si sr e ﬂ ect ed in the se nu mbers : Wh ile i n rela tion, t he co nsci ous
renunciation or the renunciation because of environmental awareness is
importan t for more men than women, mo re women than men reno unce
th eir own v eh ic le for he alth r ea son s.
Fi g. 6. Freq uen cy of car u se fo r dail y tr ips , n = 240 0.
Fig. 7. Re as on s for ca r re je ct ion of urba n d well er s, n = 5 32.
I. Ka wga n-Ka ga n Tr ans por ta tio n Rese ar ch Int erdi s cipl in ary Pe rsp ect ive s 8 (202 0) 100 23 6
8

4. 3. Mo de c ho ice
The acc es s to d if fer en t mod es an d th e pe rc epti on of ca rs p ro vid e in dic a-
tions about onl y th e actu al tra vel be havi our an d us e of sp eci ﬁ cm o d e s .
Howe ver, th ey provide th e frame fo r dail y mobili ty. To under st and mode
cho ic e reg ard in g gen der a spec ts , it is impo r tan t to corr el ate th e pr efer en ces
for a sp eci ﬁ c mode of res pond ents with an d with out a chil d, resp ecti vely ,
acr o ss diff er ent ag e cat eg or ies .
4. 3.1 . Prim a ry mod e
Respo ndents we re asked ab out the mo de they use th e most fo r their
dai ly tr ips ( Fig . 8 ). In g ener al, mo st o f th e res po nden ts st ated th a t cars are
th eir m ai n mo de of tr an spo rt. Fem al e res po nden ts with a chil d in th e ho u se-
hold use cars signi ﬁ cantl y more often in thei r daily lives and less public
transport than female respondents without a child ( p < .001). For men,
in gen er al , har dly any d if fer en ce is obs erv ed in th ei r pri mar y mode c ho ice
wi th or wi th o ut a chi ld , in dica ti ng th at thei r m ode c hoi ce i s not af fe cte d by
this fac tor. For women, wa lking is mor e impor tant in the ir daily mobi lity
wh en they ha v e a ch ild . Othe r mod es do not sh ow a cru cia l diff eren c e b e-
tw ee n all wo me n an d men .
No ta bly , the se res ult ch an ges wh en sub g rou ps acc o rdi ng to ag e cat e go-
rie s a re gen er a ted : Fo r me n be tw een a ge 1 8 an d 27 ye ar s, ther e is a cru ci al
dif fe ren c e for the u se of ca rs an d the use o f publ i c tr a nspo r t is half a s hig h
fo r men w it hou t a you ng ch il d in th e hou se hol d. Wa lki n g pla ys a bi gg er ro le
for men betwee n age 18 and 27 and with a child years with 16% . For re-
spondents aged between 18 and 27 years, the rel ation to the chil d in the
ho use ho ld i s no t cl ear ; th er efo re, a gen der -t yp ica l ca ret ak in g div is io n ca n-
not be assumed. Nonetheless, literature shows that girls more often take
care of their younger brothers and sisters than boys ( Wikle et al., 2018 ).
For women betwee n 18 and 27, the main mo de of tran sport fo r most of
the ir dail y tri ps is pub lic t rans port , tha t is, gr eater tha n 50% no mat ter
wh et her th er e is a c hil d in th e h ous eho ld o r not.
Fo r men a ged be tw ee n 28 an d 37 yea r s, th e sam e diff er en ce reg ard in g
publ ic tra nspo rt and ca r use can be obser v ed, alth oug h publ ic tran spor t is
less important than that for younger men. For 40% of the women with a
young ch ild in the ho usehold , the car is t he primary mo de of transp ort.
Th e diff er en ces b et ween wom en an d me n wi th an d with o ut ch il dren d iff ers
sig ni ﬁ can tly ( p < .001) ma in ly the us e of cars an d PT. Me n with ch ildr en
use a bicycle less often when they live with a child. Women with a child
walk sig ni ﬁ ca ntly more acr oss all age categor ies ( p < .001). For the nex t
two ag e catego ri es of wom en and me n, the s hare of re spon dent s using
cars fo r most of their daily t rips sho ws is low er when the re is a ch ild in
th e hou seh ol d. Th is d iffe r ence is ba la nce d by mo re u se o f publ i c tran sp or t
and bicycles. Women aged between 38 and 47 years with a young child
sh ow an high er u se of bic ycl es an d walk in g and use fe wer ca r s an d les s pub -
lic t rans port . Wome n with c hildr en ac ross al l ag e cate gori es us e publi c
trans port ap prox imat ely half as of ten as women wit hout a chil d in the
ho use hol d. I n add i tio n, th ere is an o ppo si te ef fec t o n the u se o f publ ic tr ans -
port : Wo men wi th chil dre n walk more th an wo men wi th out ch ildr en. Fo r
th e age ca te gor i es 58 – 67 y ea rs a nd o lder th an 6 8 yea rs , ther e is a ba lan ced
ra tio a cro ss the mo des . Nev er the les s , wom en ol der th an 68 yea rs use f ew er
ca rs th an me n o f the s am e age .
4. 3.2. P re fer re d mode o f tran spo rt
By contrast with the actual primary mode of t ransport, Fig. 9 pro-
vides the shares of the preferred mode of transport of women and men
with and without a young child in the househol d. Almost half of the
sample said the car and approximately 20% said the bicycle was their
f a v o u r i t em o d eo ft r a n s p o r t .T h e s ev a l u e sa r es i m i l a rf o rm e na n d
women; nevertheless, the differences are signi ﬁ cant ( p < .001). The
main difference is within the accept ance of public transport, which is
ge nera l ly hi ghe r fo r wom en. Di vi de d int o sub sa mple s ac co rdi ng to h av-
ing a child in the hou sehold, men show a signi ﬁ cantly higher preference
fo r bic yc les w ith 3 1. 0% and b y con tr ast , a lo wer p refe re nc e of car s. Th e
Fig. 8. Pr i mary mo de of dai ly tri ps of urb an dwel le rs , n = 24 00.
I. Ka wga n-Ka ga n Tr ans por ta tio n Rese ar ch Int erdi s cipl in ary Pe rsp ect ive s 8 (202 0) 100 23 6
9

val ue s of t he sh are s r emai n clo s ely e qu al. Th e re is a shi ft in pre fere nc es
for men with children from motorised private transportation to greener
unmotorized private transportation, and slightly more women with a
child prefer a car than women without a child. Wom en also show a sig-
ni ﬁ cant shift towards bicycling when a c hild is in the household. Com-
pared to men, women's preferen ce for local public transport is lower
when they have a child in the household and sig ni ﬁ cant when compared
to women without a child. T he preferences between men and women
each differ signi ﬁ cantly between those wit h and without a child in the
household ( p < .00 1).
4. 3.3 . Ac tiv e ca r driv in g or be in g a pa sse nge r
Fi g. 10 sh ows th e fr eq uen cy o f car u se a s a driv er or as a pa s seng er fo r
wome n and men w ith and w itho ut a youn g chil d in the ho us ehol d. Car
use mu st be exa mined fr om dri ver s' and pas senge rs ' persp ectiv es,
rep r esen ti ng di ff eren t opp or tu nit ies fo r wom en an d men in mod e cho ice .
In line with the previous ﬁ ndings in the literature and this study,
more men than women in total drive a car themselves (almost) every
day (not inclu ded in the Fig. 10 ). For women, ther e is a gap between
women with and without a child of 15.5%. Fewer respondents with a
child use a car act ively (almost) never than respond ents without a
child. Regardin g car use as a passenger, the daily use is nearl y aligned
for all groups, with values between 3.7% and 6.0%. The main differ-
ences are that a pproximately 40% of the mal e respondents (almost)
never drive a car as a passenger, an d women with a child are passen gers
le ss o fte n com pa red t o wom en w ith ou t a car o n ave ra ge , ac cor ding ly to
the more frequent active use of cars. The values between men and
women differ signi ﬁ cantly ( p < .001) as well as between those with
and w ith out a c hi ld in th e hou seh old f or eac h sub sa mple ( p <. 0 0 1 ) .
4. 4. Ac ce pta nc e of s ust ain ab le an d in nov ati ve m ob ilit y
Fi g. 11 show s the de vi ati on fo r spec i ﬁ cs h a r e so ft h eo v e r a l ls a m p l eo f
tot al me an s of the z- sta nd ard iz ed var ia bl es rep re sen ti ng at ti tud es reg ar din g
th e mo bil ity of th e to ta l sam pl e. T he a tt itu des ar e di vid ed in to th re e ca teg o-
rie s: at titude s tow ards mo des, m obil ity -relat ed as pect s, a nd e-mo bili ty.
Eac h of thes e ind ices is ge ner a ted fr om vari ou s stat emen ts as pr es ente d in
Sec ti on 3 .2 .
Fi g. 9. Pre ferr ed mo d e of tra n spo rt of urba n dwe ll er , n = 240 0.
Fig. 10 . Act iv e and pa ss ive ca r us e of urb an dw el lers , n = 24 00.
I. Ka wga n-Ka ga n Tr ans por ta tio n Rese ar ch Int erdi s cipl in ary Pe rsp ect ive s 8 (202 0) 100 23 6
10

The at ti tu des to war d s spe ci ﬁ c mod es show th at wo me n and me n dif fer
si gni ﬁ ca n tly ( p < .00 1). R ega rd ing th e af ﬁ nit y towa r ds ca rs, me n wit h and
wi tho ut a chi ld be lo w age 14 y ears i n the ho use h old sho w ha rd ly an y dif fer -
en ces , wi th va lu es be tw ee n 0. 11 an d 0. 12 . By c on tra st, f or wo me n, ther e i s
a ga p of 0 .15 b et ween wo men wi th ou t an d wo men wi th a chil d. T he v alu e
of 0 .07 of wo me n wi th a chi l d is s imi lar to th e val ues of me n in gen er al . For
PT, si mil ar dif fe ren ces are ob ser ve d. Men wi th and wi thou t a chil d d o not
differ as much regarding their af ﬁ nity for PT. For women, the difference
is much stronger with 0.21, compared to men with and with out a child.
Wome n are wi th − 0.0 3 slig htly mo re PT-a f ﬁ ne than me n in gener al with
− 0.0 4; the ma in diff eren ce is in the fa ctor of pa ren thoo d thou gh. As al so
evi de nt in th e s tate d use o f bi cy cl es, th er e is a hig he r af ﬁ ni ty for bicycling
fo r wome n a nd me n wit h ch il dre n in co n tra st to with o ut ch il dren .
Th e att itu des to wa rd s env ir onme n tal pr ote ct ion , te chn ol ogi es an d inn o-
vati ons, mob ility as a se rvic e, an d priva cy di ffe r sign i ﬁ cant ly bet ween
women and me n ( p < .0 01). Th ese di ffe renc es ar e even gr eat er th an
those regarding the attitudes towards speci ﬁ c modes of transport. When
asked ab out env ironme nta lly-f riend ly mobi lity, wom en wi th child ren are
Fi g. 11. De viat io n of z- stan da rd ize d inde ce s rega rd in g sust ai nabl e an d inn ovai te mo bi lity , n = 240 0.
I. Ka wga n-Ka ga n Tr ans por ta tio n Rese ar ch Int erdi s cipl in ary Pe rsp ect ive s 8 (202 0) 100 23 6
11

mo re c on cer ned tha n the o th er su bgr o ups . The diff er en ce b etwe en wome n
an d men with a you ng ch il d in th e ho use ho ld is g re ater tha n th at for mal e
an d fem a le res po nd en ts wi th ou t a ch ild . Thi s r esu lt c on tra dic ts t he c han ges
in women's attit udes towards cars and PT but is in line with their higher
pr ef eren ce a nd a ttit ud e fo r bicy cl in g. The dif fer en ce s for m ale re sp on den ts
are sm a ll: 0. 02. T he grea te st ge nd er ga p can be fo und b y ana ly sin g the af ﬁ n-
it y towa r ds te ch no log y. I n esse n ce, 0 .97 po in ts is th e g rea tes t dif fe ren c e be-
tw ee n wom en with o ut a c hi ld a nd m en wi th a chi l d ac ross al l va ria bl es . For
wo men and men , a chi ld in th e ho useh ol d rel a tes to a hig her te ch nolo gy a f-
ﬁ n ity . This ef fe c t als o occ u rs for th e af ﬁ nit y to wa rd s in nov ati on s an d mob il -
ity as a ser vice , namel y car ren tal, ca r and bicy cle s harin g, or onli ne
ti cke ti ng. Not a bly, th e att itu de to wa rds pr iva cy do es no t d iffe r fo r wome n
wi th or with ou t a chi ld , an d wom en h av e a hig he r af ﬁ ni ty com par ed wi th
men. Th is factor stan ds for the nee d to have suf ﬁ cien t space and comfort
surrounding a person while travelling. The expectation was that women
would have a hig her pr efere nce fo r privac y with a child th an wit hout a
chil d due t o sec urit y reas ons ; nota bly, thi s expe ctat ion c anno t be con -
ﬁ rmed. For men, an opposite effect is observed, with a minus of 0.13 for
men with a child , indicat ing fewer co ncer ns about stran gers wh ile travel-
ling . The th ree as pect s - envir onme nta l conc ern, af ﬁ nit y towa rds te chno l-
ogy, and in nova tion - are id enti ﬁ ed as cr uci al vari able s rega rding the
acc ep ta nce o f e-m obi li ty , as pr ese nt ed in Se cti on 2 . Be ca use th es e three v ar -
iabl es d iffe r sig ni ﬁ ca nt ly fo r wome n an d me n, they are ke y fact or s for th e
gen d ered ac ce pta n ce of e-m obi li ty re sul t.
The pe rce ption of B EVs is ne arly e qual fo r me n witho ut a chil d an d
wo men bu t is sig ni ﬁ ca ntl y hig h er fo r me n with a yo ung c hi ld in the ho u se-
hold. This difference is also re ﬂ ected in the intention of using BEVs in a
ca rsh ar ing sche me an d th e d esir e to buy a BE V a s soo n as po ss ibl e. Neve r-
theless, the willingness to spend more money on an electric engine for a
car is less fo r men w ith chi ldren . Wang e t al. (201 7) f ound tha t women
we re mor e wi llin g to pay a hig he r pr ice fo r su sta in abl e urba n tr ans po rt in
Beiji ng, C hina (e -cars hari ng in t heir ca se), t han men . In thi s study ,
wome n and m en pos itiv ely ag reed equi vale ntly. Howe ver, fo r wom en
with a chi ld, th ere is a mor e positiv e evalu ation tha n for women withou t
a chi ld . Fo r men wi th ch il dr en i n the ho u seh ol d, the r e is a muc h mo re po s-
it iv e per ce ptio n o f e-mo bi lit y . By co ntr as t, w omen wi th a ch il d are wi l lin g
to pay mo r e fo r an env iro nme nta l ly- fr ien dl y elec tr ic car i f it off er s th e sam e
lev el o f con ven i en ce as a ca r wi th a n in ter nal c omb us ti on en g ine.
5. Dis c ussi on an d conc lu si on
Su sta in abl e urb an mob il ity r em ain s at th e be gi nni ng to ente r th e ma rke t
an d e-c ars ha ri ng i s mai nly u se d by m ales . Thi s ph en ome no n fo rms the ba si s
of th is inv es tiga ti on . Alth ou gh urb an w omen o wn few er ca rs an d use th em
les s oft e n th an me n, th er e rem ain s a su bst a nti al po te nti al to shi ft th ei r mo -
bi lit y to wa rds a sus ta in ab le e- ca rsh ar ing .
In gen er al , the res ult s sup po rt th at gen de r dif fer en ces co nti nu e to exis t,
ev en in u rba n a rea s wi th a les s tr ad it ion al u nder st an din g of g end er -spe ci ﬁ c
ro les. Ac ross th e thr ee inves ti gat ed dim ensi ons of in eq uali ty (acc es s to r e-
sources, mode choice and gendered meaning of mobility), the following
gen d er diff er en ces ca n be obse r ved.
First , urban wo men have less access to mobil ity-rela ted res ource s in
ur ba n area s th an me n . Gen der d iff er en ces a re p arti a lly n ot ve ry s tr ong ; nev -
er thel es s, gen d er dif fer en ces ar e sign i ﬁ ca nt, ex ce pt fo r bic yc le ava il ab ili ty.
The l ow sha res a nd the hi gh dif fe ren ce fo r you ng adu lts in d riv ing l ice nc es
might be a parti cular ity of urban in dividu al s: In large r German citie s, the
chea p prov isi on of pub lic t rans port is m uch be tter than in ru ral ar eas.
This si tuatio n bene ﬁ ts an urba n mobility wit hout the necess ity to drive a
car , wh ich cou ld be e ve n mo re su it abl e fo r urba n wo me n th an me n.
Sec on d, th e pe rce pt io n of cars dif fer s sig ni ﬁ c antl y acc or ding to g en der
and paren thood: Alt hough mo st of the male res pondent s work full- time
and their mobility does not change as much as it does for women taking
care of and accompanying childre n possibly in addition to working part-
ti me, a yo un g chil d ch an ges h ow men c ons id er th e nec es sity o f a car. This
res ul t im pl ies a c ru cia l dif fe ren c e in pe rc epti o n of th e pos si bil it ies wi tho ut
a ca r for me n wi th a ch il d, d es pite me n wit h a c hil d in t he ho use ho ld do n ot
tend to perform most of the care work during the day. The preference of
modes is diffe rent fo r urban wo men and me n even mo re when ad diti onal
task s occu r beca use of a ch ild in th e hous ehol d. In su ch case s, bicy cl in g is
mo re imp or ta nt for me n, an d wom en pre fer u sin g car s. Sh orte r di sta nce s re-
la ted to chil d car e su ch a s trip s to day-c ar e or sc ho ol a re mo re su it able for
bicyc le use t han longe r trip s such as work- relate d tri ps. Anot her rea son
cou ld be tha t indi vidua ls wi th res ponsib ilit y for a ch ild s how a high er
awareness of environmental concerns and, therefore, prefer cycling over
using a c ar.
The th ird dime ns ion repre sen ts the im port ance of ge nder ed mean ings
of sustainable mobil ity beyond the access to resources and differen ces in
dail y task s: The at titud es to wards en viro nmen tal pr otec tio n, tech nolo gie s
and inn ovat ions , mobi lity as a serv ice, an d priva cy diff er sign i ﬁ cantl y be-
tw een wo m en a nd me n. Th es e di ffer en ce s ar e eve n gr ea ter th a n the d if fer -
en ces r eg ard in g the a tt itu des towa rd s sp eci ﬁ c mod es o f tr an spo rt. Al th ou gh
women wit h a child hav e a lower income ( Section 3 ), they are willing to
spe nd more mo ney than m en for sus taina ble B EVs. Neve rth eles s, BEVs
are not obser ved to presen t an attr activ e soluti on for most of the women.
A reaso n cou ld be thei r stro ng re jec tion of i nnov at iv e te ch nolo gy . T his re -
su lt pro ves th e imp or tan ce of the se fa ct ors (e nv iro nme nt, te c hno lo gy, in no -
va tio n) f or th e ado pt io n of su sta in abl e ur ba n mobi l ity an d sh ows tha t a ke y
pro blem is wit hin t he ge ndere d mea ning of m obili ty. P olicy me asur es,
ther efor e, mu st focu s on attitu di nal ge nder diff er ence s in mobi lity to su p-
po rt su st ain abi li ty i n urb an tr an spo r t and n ot fo cu s onl y on to pic s re su lti ng
fr om fa mi ly r espo n sibi l itie s. Ch ild sea ts i n ev ery c ars ha ri ng v ehi cl e ca nno t
be th e o nly so lu ti on to this p rob lem .
Alth ough t he res ults de mons tr ate that ur ban wo men are m ore co n-
cerned about environmentally-friendly mobility and use fewer cars than
me n, wom en wi th a ch ild pr efer tr a nsp or t by ca r. For men , ther e is an oppo -
si te eff ect r egar d ing su st ai nabl e mo bil ity . Par en th ood br ing s diff er en t con -
st rai nts for wo men tha n for me n th at mu st b e co nsi der e d whe n su ppo rti n g
sust ai nab le urb a n mobi lity . Ne ver thel es s, th ere is th e ad diti ona l gen de red
meaning of mob ility in urba n areas, whi ch especi ally mani fests in the at-
tra c tio n of c ars ha ri ng wi th BE V s for mal es. Furt he r res ea rc h ca n pr ovi de a d-
diti onal detai ls on t his di ffe renc e, and qu ali tati ve int ervie ws wou ld
fa cil it ate th e ac hi ev eme nt o f tha t go al .
Th e phen o men on o f ma le ea rly a do pter s o f e-ca r shar in g is si mi lar to th e
ex te nt foun d in the i nte rna ti ona l con te xt and sho ws si gn i ﬁ can t dif fer en ce s
be twe en wo me n and m en rega r din g fact or s tha t Law (1 999 ) hi gh lig hted i n
th e gen der ed d aily mobi lit y fr am ewor k. Beca use of the r ep res enta ti ven es s
of the sa mple fo r Ger man cit ies, th e resu lts can be app lied to ot her ur ban
areas, especia lly wit hin Euro pe. The limita tio n of this resear ch is the stil l
early stat e of ado ption of ne w mobilit y serv ices w hen th e data was co l-
lect ed . Al so, f utur e res ear ch on gend ered sust aina bl e urba n mo bi lity mu st
id enti f y poss ib le coh or t e ff ect s or a ch an ge in att it ud es over ti me . Anot h er
limit ati on is tha t the da ta se t does no t pro vide in sig hts in to wh o in t he
ho use hol d ta ke s car e of th e ch ild . Es pec ial ly fo r y oun g res pon d ents , th e re-
la tion to th e chi l d in th e ho use h ol d is n ot c lea r; th e ref ore , a ge nd er -ty pi ca l
ca ret ak in g di vis ion c ann ot be ass um ed . Nev erth e less , gi rls mo re of ten ta ke
care of their younger brothers and sisters than boys ( Wikle et al., 2018 ).
Wome n as an im men se po ten tial use r gro up ar e excl ud ed if on ly th e nee d
of sin gl e use rs is ad dre ss ed with e- car sh a rin g ser vic es an d inn ova ti ve tech -
nolog ical af ﬁ ne indivi dual s. Women are will ing to use susta inable mo des
but are not actually using sustainable modes due to child care related to
daily tasks, the rejection of innovative technology of BEVs and the issue
of act ive dr iv ing wh en usi ng car shar in g. The se ﬁ ndi ng s cal l fo r furt he r in-
vestigatio n on how the attitudes towards aspe cts of e-carsharing servi ces
suc h as envir onm ental a warene ss or in nova tive te chno logy m ight be
ch ang ed an d how res pec ti ve me asu res i n ﬂ ue nc e s us tai nab le wo me n' s tr ave l
be hav io ur .
In co nclus ion, the p oten tia l for s ustai nabl e mob ilit y in ur ban a reas
nee ds to be disc ussed in a ge nder- equit able manne r. Th e perc ept ion of
(elect ric) mobility and individua l's behaviour must be understood i ncluding
the ir underlying p sychologic al process es ( Schlag and Sc hade, 2007 ). In th e
curre nt state of the in trodu ction of new mo bilit y forms , it is importan t to
unders tand (p otentia l) users from t he start of the market en try to avoid
I. Ka wga n-Ka ga n Tr ans por ta tio n Rese ar ch Int erdi s cipl in ary Pe rsp ect ive s 8 (202 0) 100 23 6
12

es tabl i she d obs ta c les a nd b arr ie rs th at m ig ht re su lt f rom g en der dif fe ren ces
in att it ud es towa rd s mobi li ty .
CR edi T au tho rs hi p con tr ibut i on sta te me nt
In es Kaw g an- Ka ga n: Co ncep tu a liza ti on , Met hod ol ogy , Soft w are, V al i-
dati on, Forma l anal ysis , Inve sti gati on, Re sour ces, Wr itin g - or igina l draf t,
Vis ua liz at io n, P roj ec t ad min ist rat io n.
Re fer enc e s
Abas ahl, F., Kela re stag hi, K. B., Er magu n, A. , 2018. Gend er gap genera tors for bicy cle mo de
choice in Baltimore college campuses. Travel Behav. Soc. 11, 78 – 85. https://doi.org/
10. 101 6/ j.tb s. 201 8. 01. 00 2 .
Adeel , M., Yeh , A.G.O. , Zha ng, F., 20 17. Ge nder in equalit y in mob ility an d mod e choic e in
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