sustainability

Article
E ff ectiveness of Ring Roads in Reducing T ra ffi c
Congestion in Cities for Long Run: Big Almaty Ring
Road Case Study
Assel Nugmanova 1 , W ulf-Holger Arndt 2 , Md Aslam Hossain 1 and Jong R yeol Kim 1 , *
1 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nazarbayev University , Nur-Su ltan 010000,
Kazakhstan
2 Centre for T echnology and Society , T echnische Universität Berlin, 10623 Berlin, Germany
* Correspondence: [email protected] ; T el.: + 7-7172-70-91-36
Received: 29 May 2019; Accepted: 22 July 2019; Published: 11 September 2019
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Abstract:
It is common to incr ease road capacity by constructing ring r oads to r educe tra ffi c congestion
in city ar eas, although this is often found to be ine ff ective in the long run. Accor dingly , this study
investigates various tra ffi c congestion management appr oaches and their e ff ectiveness in major
cities, and explores an identical transport pr oblem in Almaty , Kazakhstan: The Big Almaty Ring
Road (BAKAD). Several case examples fr om the existing literature ar e examined in which various
appr oaches were taken for managing tra ffi c congestion pr oblems, and these approaches ar e classified
into thr ee concepts. The first concept comprises heavy engineering measures such as ring r oad
development, new r oad construction, expansion of existing roads, etc. Such measures can initially
r educe tra ffi c congestion, but often become ine ff ective with time due to the generation of induced
tra ffi c. Many cities have taken Push and Pull measur es that ensure mor e e ffi cient use of existing
capacity and have initiated envir onmentally friendly alternative transportation modes such as
decr eased car usage; pr omotion of public transport, biking and walking; minimization of the necessity
of people’s movement by changing urban land use patterns; and so on. These appr oaches have been
found to be e ff ective in pr oviding sustainable transportation solutions and are classified as concept
2. Nevertheless, Push and Pull measur es might not be enough for managing tra ffi c congestion,
and it might be necessary to incr ease the road capacity thr ough heavy engineering measures,
especially if the city experiences heavy transit tra ffi c. This combined appr oach is categorized as
concept 3. Consequently , the BAKAD project is examined under the umbr ella of thr ee concepts,
and r ecommendations are pr ovided based on the findings fr om the experience of di ff erent cities and
interviews with experts fr om Almaty city . Both the r esults and recommendations developed ar e
r elevant for this specific case only , and ar e not necessarily transferable.
Keywords: induced tra ffi c; tra ffi c congestion; car use; travel demand management
1. Introduction
The economic cost and envir onmental impact of tra ffi c jams in large metr opolitan areas ar e
enormous. For example, the Canadian T axpayer Alliance found that the cost of tra ffi c was more than
$1.5 billion annually without considering the economic costs associated with an extensive consumption
of gr eenhouse gases and severe damage to the envir onment due to smog generated by ine ffi ciently
operated vehicles [
1
]. In Moscow , a driver lost 127 h per year in tra ffi c congestion [
2
]. Mor eover ,
in Eur ope, tra ffi c congestion accounted for 20.3% of total green-house gas emissions, where 88.2%
of all GHG emissions were CO
2
. T ra ffi c congestion was also reported as the main sour ce of other
air pollutant emissions, such as NO
x
(58%), NMVOC (18%), CO (30%), SO
x
(21%), PM
2.5
(27%) and
Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 4973; doi:10.3390 / su11184973 www .mdpi.com / journal / sustainability

Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 4973 2 of 26
PM
10
(22%) [
3
,
4
]. Many ways to combat tra ffi c congestion have been applied worldwide, and the
main goal of these practices is to reduce the time spent on the r oads. T ra ffi c engineers see one solution
to the congestion pr oblem as the provision of additional r oad capacity , such as thr ough ring road
development, r oad extension, rail-over-r oad grade separation, fly overs, intersection improvement,
parking lot development, toll road incentives and so on. One of the most widely used mitigation
measur es in reducing congestion is the construction / development of ring r oad systems.
Almaty is the most densely populated city in Kazakhstan, with a large number of cars and
heavy tra ffi c, which tremendously worsen the curr ent ecological situation. T o prevent envir onmental
degradation of the r egion, as well as to relieve the urban r oad network in Almaty by diverting transit
tra ffi c fr om it, the Big Almaty Ring Road (BAKAD) project has been initiated. However , the long-term
e ff ectiveness of ring r oad developments in solving congestion problem is mistakenly exaggerated due
to the exclusion of induced tra ffi c demand phenomena [ 5 ].
In this r esearch, di ff erent appr oaches to reducing tra ffi c congestion and their e ff ectiveness in
the long run ar e investigated for major cities around the world. Accordingly , the objectives of this
study ar e to classify these cities’ tra ffi c congestion reduction plans into di ff er ent concepts and to
compar e them to see if building a ring road (bypass) is e ff ective in solving the pr oblem of tra ffi c jams
in the metr opolitan areas in the long run by means of decr easing thr ough tra ffi c and personal car use.
Consequently , the findings will form the basis for recommendations to addr ess identical transport
pr oblems in Almaty city , Kazakhstan, considering the new bypass r oad—the Big Almaty Ring Road
(BAKAD) pr oject, which is under construction.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Methods Used to Reduce T ra ffi c Congestion
Polegate, Newbury and other cities in the United Kingdom (UK) and the Netherlands have
applied heavy engineering measur es only in solving tra ffi c congestion, without any sustainable urban
transport policy measur es. Heavy engineering measures r efer to building a new ring road, a bypass,
a tunnel or r oad widening. It was found that, in cases with application of heavy engineering measures
only , there was an initial temporary r elief of tra ffi c congestion, until induced tra ffi c filled up the added
transport capacity . The evidence of the induced tra ffi c phenomenon is taken from the r eports of
post-opening pr oject evaluations (POPE, by Highways England) of bypass / ring roads. These POPE
r eports compared the outturn impacts of new ring and bypass r oads with the forecasted values of
tra ffi c flows, and envir onmental and economic impacts. Post-evaluation is conducted one year and
five years after the opening of a new r oad. Figure 1 summarizes the POPE method.
Sustainability 2019 , 11 , x FOR PEER REVI EW 2 of 27
PM
2.5
( 2 7%) and P M
10
( 2 2%) [3 ,4 ]. M a ny w a ys t o combat t r af f i c congest i on have been applie d
worldwide, and the m a in goal o f the s e pract i ces is t o reduce the ti me spent on the roa d s. Tra f f i c
engineer s see one solut i on to the congestion proble m a s the provi s i o n of a ddi ti onal roa d ca pa ci ty,
such as through ring road development, road extens i o n, r a i l-over - road gr ade se parat i on , fl y overs,
i n tersecti on improvement, pa rki n g l o t devel o pment, t o ll road incen t ives and so o n . One of the most
widely use d mitigat i on m easures in re ducin g con g esti on i s the constructi on/devel opment of ri ng
road systems .
Al ma ty is the most densel y pop u la ted ci ty i n Kazakhsta n, wi th a l a rge numb er of ca rs a n d
heavy traffic, wh ich tr emendously worsen th e current e c ologic al sit u ation . To prevent
environmental de gradatio n of the regio n , as well as t o rel i e ve the urba n roa d network i n Alma ty by
di verti n g transi t traf fi c f r om i t , the Big Al m a ty Ring Ro ad (BA K AD) project has been initiated.
However, t h e long-t erm e f fect ivenes s of ring ro ad de velopment s i n solving con g est i on probl e m is
mistak enly ex agge rated due to the exclusion o f induc ed traffic de mand pheno m ena [5].
In t h is res e ar ch, d i f f erent approache s t o red u cin g t r af fic conge s t i on an d t h e i r effect iveness in
the long run are inve stig at ed for m a jor cities aro u nd the world. A ccording l y, t h e objectives of this
study are to cl assif y these ci ties’ tra f f i c congesti on r eduction plans into d i ffer ent concepts and to
compare t h e m t o see if b u i l din g a r i ng r o ad (b ypas s) i s ef fect ive in s o lving t h e pr oblem of t r a f f i c jam s
in t h e met r o p olit an are a s in t h e lon g r u n by me ans of dec rea s in g t h rou g h t r a f f i c and pers onal c a r
use. Consequently, the findings w i ll form the basis for recom m endations t o addre ss id entical
tra n sport probl e ms i n Al m a ty ci ty, Kazakhsta n, consideri n g the new bypa ss road—the Big Alma ty
Ring R o ad (B AKAD) proje c t , which is u n der const r uc t i on.
2. L i t e r a t ure Rev i ew
2 . 1 . Meth od s Used to Red u ce Traffic Cong estion
Poleg a te, Ne wbury and o t her cities in the United K i ngdom (UK) and the Netherlands h a v e
applie d h e av y en ginee r in g me as ures only in so lvi n g t r af fic co ngest i on, w i t h out any s u s t ainab l e
urb a n t r ansp ort p o licy m e as ures . He av y eng i neer ing m e as ures re f e r t o b u i l din g a new ring r o ad, a
bypass , a tun n el or ro ad w i denin g. It w a s fo und th at , i n case s wit h a p p licat i o n of heavy en gine ering
measures on ly, there w a s an in itial tem p orary r e lief of traffic con g estion, un t i l induce d t r a f f i c fi lled
up the a d ded tra n sport capa ci ty. The evi dence of the induc ed traffic phenome n on is taken from the
reports of post-opening project eva l ua tions (POPE, b y Highw a y s England) o f bypass/r i ng r o ads.
These PO PE r e ports compared the outtur n impacts o f new ring an d bypass roads with the forec a ste d
values of traffic flows, and environment a l and ec ono m ic impact s. Post -ev a l u at i o n i s con d uct ed one
year an d f i ve year s aft e r t h e op ening of a new roa d . F i gur e 1 s u m m ari z e s t h e PO PE m e t h od.

Figure 1. Approach to the PO PE of major schemes. Source : [6].

Figure 1. Approach to the POPE of major schemes. Source: [ 6 ].

Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 4973 3 of 26
As an alternative method, instead of heavy engineering measur es, Hasselt, Hague, Utrecht,
Malmö, Seoul, Auckland and other cities applied transportation or travel demand management only ,
with “Push and Pull measur es” for improving tra ffi c congestion. These Push and Pull measures r efer to
sustainable mobility policy with a coher ent set of technological, social and urban design interventions.
The components of these measur es are shown in Figur e 2 .
Sustainability 2019 , 11 , x FOR PEER REVI EW 3 of 27
As an alt e rn at ive m e t h od , in st ead of heavy en gin e ering measur es, Hasse lt, Hag u e, Utrec h t,
Ma lmö, Seo u l, A u ckl a nd and ot her cit i es applie d transport a tion or travel demand man a gement
only, w i t h “ P ush and P u ll m e a s ure s ” for impro v ing t r a f f i c congest i on. These Pu sh and P u l l
meas ures re f e r t o su st a i na ble mobi lit y policy wit h a coherent set of techno logical, social an d urban
design interv entions. The c o mponents of these me asur es are shown in F i gure 2.

Figure 2. Pu sh and Pu ll m e as u r es.
Moreover, Stockholm, Oslo, He ls inki , Mil a n, Got h enburg, an d other cities have used a
combination of both heav y engin eerin g measure s and complem e ntary P u sh and P u ll me asure s to
solve traffic congestion p r oblems. Fo r example, St ockholm’s plan to reduce traffic congestion
consisted of t h e openin g o f the souther n bypass al ong with other compliment a ry mea s ures such a s
congestion c h arge s, impr ovement of p u blic tran sp ort service s , d e velopment of pede strian space s
and ap p l icat i o n of com p ac t sp at i a l p l an ning.
2 . 2 . Ring Roads ag ainst Traffi c Congestion
In the 19 30 s, the fi rs t ri ng roa d s we re bui l t a r o u nd Be rlin, Mun i ch and London. In the p a st, th e
development of r i ng r o ad s was not sp ecifically planne d to d e c re a s e c o ng es tion i n Eu r o pe, s i nce
there were n o traffic j a ms on the ro ad s at th at time [7]. Ring roads wer e inte nded to “rev eal an d
reinfo rce or g a nic spat ia l st ruct ure of c i t i es, and t o m a ke monumen t al art e f a ct s ” [8 ]. Moreover , a f t e r
the Second World W a r, the number of car s starte d to incre a se tr emendously, and th is boo s ted the
construction of ring roads in many developed co unt r ies. Ring ro ads decen tra liz e traf fi c movemen t
from t h e ex ist i ng, h e av ily c o ngest ed, roa d s in t h e cit y cent re by pro v iding a l t e rn at e rout e s fo r t r aff i c
flows. Consequently, ring roads reduc e the congest i on by re liev i ng pressure on inner c i ty are a s.
Moreover, r i n g road s a llow channel lin g of unw a nt ed t r aff i c f l ow so t h at t r ansit c a rgo flows o r ot her
through tra f f i c do not enter the ci ty centre, a n d do not genera te congesti on i n the core a r ea . The other
function of ring ro ads is t o sh ape the structure o f the ci ty, a s i t s urba n sp a t i a l structure starts to
decentralize towards the r i ng road or ex urban are a s, a n d the ci ty expa nds; a t the sa me ti me, a ri ng
road provid e s a phys ica l barr ier for t h e growing c i t y . Nevert hele ss, s u burb ani zat ion o r t u rnin g r u r a l
l o ca ti ons i n to settl ements t h a t ca n be re ached on ly by car incre a ses dependence o n cars in c a se s w i th
limited pub l ic transport o p tions. More over, the dev el opment of ri ng roads, together wi th traf fi c
congesti on growth i n the ci ty ce nt res , h a s bro u ght a b out subst a nt ia l ch ange in t h e di st ribut i on of
int r a-m e t r opolit an acc e ss i b ilit y [ 9 ] . “Th e most a ccess ible po int s b y ca r are no l o nger locat e d in t h e
centre of the city; because acc e ssibilit y is o f te n highest along t h e orbital co rridor s , m u c h of the
sub u rb an dec ent r al iz at ion p r ocess ha s g r avit at ed t o w a rds t h es e ar eas ” [ 9 ] . Som e aut h ors [1 0 ] st at e
t h at const r uc t i on of rin g roads st im u l at es loc a l b u sines s , as r i ng road s no wad a ys serv e b o th
tra n sport functi ons a n d boost business growth , develop ec onomic are a s, and dece n tralize
empl oyment f r om the inner ci ty to exurb a n l o c a tions. Rin g ro ads do n o t just enhance the
acces s ibi lit y of s u burban municip a l i t i e s ; t h ey al so increase prop erty value s and make them more
a ttra c ti ve to investors [1 1] . Hence, ri ng roa d s dece nt r a l i z e act i vit i e s , and at t h e sam e t i m e in creas e

Figure 2. Push and Pull measures.
Mor eover , Stockholm, Oslo, Helsinki, Milan, Gothenburg, and other cities have used a combination
of both heavy engineering measur es and complementary Push and Pull measures to solve tra ffi c
congestion pr oblems. For example, Stockholm’s plan to reduce tra ffi c congestion consisted of the
opening of the southern bypass along with other complimentary measur es such as congestion charges,
impr ovement of public transport services, development of pedestrian spaces and application of
compact spatial planning.
2.2. Ring Roads against T ra ffi c Congestion
In the 1930s, the first ring roads wer e built around Berlin, Munich and London. In the past,
the development of ring r oads was not specifically planned to decrease congestion in Eur ope, since
ther e were no tra ffi c jams on the r oads at that time [
7
]. Ring r oads were intended to “r eveal and
r einforce or ganic spatial structur e of cities, and to make monumental artefacts” [
8
]. Moreover , after
the Second W orld W ar , the number of cars started to increase tr emendously , and this boosted the
construction of ring r oads in many developed countries. Ring roads decentralize tra ffi c movement fr om
the existing, heavily congested, r oads in the city centre by pr oviding alternate routes for tra ffi c flows.
Consequently , ring roads r educe the congestion by r elieving pressur e on inner city areas. Mor eover ,
ring r oads allow channelling of unwanted tra ffi c flow so that transit cargo flows or other thr ough tra ffi c
do not enter the city centr e, and do not generate congestion in the core ar ea. The other function of ring
r oads is to shape the structure of the city , as its urban spatial structur e starts to decentralize towar ds
the ring r oad or exurban areas, and the city expands; at the same time, a ring r oad pr ovides a physical
barrier for the gr owing city . Nevertheless, suburbanization or turning rural locations into settlements
that can be r eached only by car increases dependence on cars in cases with limited public transport
options. Moreover , the development of ring roads, together with tra ffi c congestion gr owth in the city
centr es, has brought about substantial change in the distribution of intra-metr opolitan accessibility [
9
].
“The most accessible points by car ar e no longer located in the centre of the city; because accessibility is
often highest along the orbital corridors, much of the suburban decentralization process has gravitated
towar ds these areas” [
9
]. Some authors [
10
] state that construction of ring r oads stimulates local
business, as ring r oads nowadays serve both transport functions and boost business growth, develop
economic ar eas, and decentralize employment from the inner city to exurban locations. Ring roads do
not just enhance the accessibility of suburban municipalities; they also increase pr operty values and

Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 4973 4 of 26
make them mor e attractive to investors [
11
]. Hence, ring roads decentralize activities, and at the same
time incr ease flows between suburbs, causing progr essive congestion of these roads. This eventually
incr eases demand for new orbitals farther from the city centr e [
11
]. “A meta-analysis of dozens of
studies found that, on average, a 10 percent incr ease in lane miles induces an immediate 4 per cent
incr ease in vehicle miles travelled, which climbs to 10 per cent—the entire new capacity—in a few
years” [
12
]. Thus, it can be said that building more ring r oads will not actually r educe tra ffi c congestion
pr oblems in the long run, but rather will actually induce an increase in new car users and lead to a
sever ely degraded environment due to additional peak-period vehicle travel or “generated tra ffi c”.
2.3. Generated T ra ffi c
The components of generated tra ffi c due to new r oad capacity are of two types: diverted tra ffi c
that shifts with r espect to time, route and destination; and induced tra ffi c, which shifts with r egard
to other modes, longer trips and new vehicle trips [
13
]. Generated tra ffi c refers to the statements
“the mor e you build, the more drivers will come” and “r oads themselves generate tra ffi c”. Thus, any
impr ovement made to a transport structure, whether it is a widening of an existing r oad with added
lanes or the development of a ring r oad, will encourage more people to use that new transport facility .
At first glance, it seems that the new development provides travel time benefits and better tra ffi c
flow [
14
]. Hence, congestion problems might pr esumably have been solved. Nevertheless, the new
r oad facility attracts new drivers and changes home / work locations in the long run, which eventually
generates new tra ffi c [
14
]. Therefor e, ignoring the long-term e ff ects of induced tra ffi c demand har dly
solves congestion pr oblems. For example, one year after opening the North Sea Channel section of
the Amster dam Ring Road, the total number of trips increased by 8%, of which 3% was the r esult of
autonomous gr owth (2% home–work commuters), and 5% was the result of new drivers accumulated
due to impr oved transport infrastructure; this is consider ed to be induced demand. Of this 5% induced
demand: 2% of car kilometres wer e due to a shift in r outes, 1% was due to passengers who had decided
to become drivers, and 2% more tra ffi c was pr oduced by shifts in destination and trip frequency [ 15 ].
Furthermor e, five years after the North Sea Channel opening, the total number of trips r ose to 22%,
of which 15% was autonomous gr owth and 7% was induced demand due to the new road facility [
16
].
It is crucial to have a clear understanding of the behavioural r eactions of drivers to new travel
conditions. The list of typical decisions made by vehicle users befor e they start their journey are:
whether or not to travel (trip generation); the best destination to fulfil the purpose (trip distribution);
the best time to set out on the journey (trip scheduling); the best mode of transport to use (modal
choice); the best route to take (tra ffi c assignment); whether to travel alone or with others (vehicle
occupancy); and how often to repeat the journey within a given period (trip fr equency) [
17
]. In the short
run, the generated tra ffi c mostly consists of trips diverted fr om other routes, times and modes, called
“T riple Convergence” [
18
,
19
]. On the other hand, in the long run, an incr easing portion of the generated
tra ffi c is fr om induced travel. Apparently , r oad capacity expansion leverages automobile-dependent
land use patterns [
20
]. For example, a new highway may encourage companies or households to move
to suburban and exurban places wher e per capita vehicle travel is higher , compared to their pr evious
homes in mor e accessible and multimodal neighbourhoods.
Mor eover , Figure 3 shows that tra ffi c congestion tends to maintain an equilibrium state [
21
].
T ra ffi c volume increases when r oads ar e uncongested; however , later , the tra ffi c volume’s growth rate
declines as r oads become congested, and reaches an equilibrium point (wher e the curve becomes
horizontal). As the new capacity is added, the tra ffi c volumes start to incr ease again until this new
equilibrium is r eached. This additional vehicle travel is known as “generated tra ffi c” when considering
a particular link, and “induced travel” when considering the total vehicle travel [ 13 ].

Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 4973 5 of 26
Sustainability 2019 , 11 , x FOR PEER REVI EW 5 of 27

Figure 3. Road way capacity e ffect on traffic volu m e s. Sou r c e : [21] .
Also , it c a n be adde d that short-run gen erated tr affic is demon strat ed by the movement along
the demand curve: de cre a sed conge s tio n decreases v e hicle driver s’ travel costs; however, the total
vehicle trave l deman d is t h e same. Mor e over, long -r un in duce d t r avel effects are demonstr a ted by
the outward shift as spatial development and transp ort a ti on pa tterns become more a u to- c entri c , i . e.,
extensive c a r usage is n eeded to g e t access to shops, work and other activities. An y road
improvement wit h accur a t e ly c a lc ul at e d t r a f f i c in cr ease va lue st ill wi ll have “ a n add i t i o n al or
induce d 10% of ba se t r af fic in t h e short r u n” and 2 0 % in t h e lon g r u n [ 2 2 ] .
Numero us re search stud ie s an d tran sp ort modellin g have show n that addin g ro ad c a pac i ty
provi des only a short- term sol u t i on to congesti on an d traffic - related environment a l problem s . It can
b e s a id t h at t h e const r uct i on of new r i ng ro ads m u st b e accom p anie d b y P u s h and P u l l m e as ures
t h at change t r avel dem an d and d e cre a se car use s .
3 . M e t h od o l og y
Follow i ng a t h orough liter a ture rev i ew, this st udy e x plored seve ral c a se ex amples in which
v a r i ou s a ppro a c h e s ha d be e n ta k e n i n ma n a g i ng tr affic con g estion problems. These appro a ches
were then cat e gorized into three major concepts . A c o mparative analy s is w a s c o nducted fo r these
case ex ample s under the umbrella o f the three i dentified concepts. Then, the pr oposed c l assific ation
system w a s investig ated for the B A KA D project in Almaty , deve l oping its assessment b a se d on the
int e rview r e s p onses o f 6 0 expert s. The det ai ls o f t h e int e rview s a r e di scu ssed lat e r, in Sect i o n 6.
Subse q uent ly , t h e n e ces s it y of an in-dept h an al ys is of the BAK A D p r oject (the pr oposed r i ng r o ad in
Almat y ), in c o nsider at ion of bot h t e chni cal so lut i on s and environ m ent a ll y fr ie ndly act i ons l e ad ing t o
the decre ase in priv ate vehicle traffic an d the di ssemin a tion of other mo des o f transport, is
acknow ledge d .
4. C a t e g o ri z a tio n of M e th ods i n to Thr e e Conc ep ts
Sever a l c i t i es are comp ared in t e rms o f t r af fic c o ngest i on decre ase, and their traffic cong estio n
reduction m e thods are cat e gorized into three gro u ps , a s shown in Fig u re 4. Sp ecif ica l l y , Pol e gat e
and 5 b y p a ss es ac ross t h e UK, Ha sse lt and Ma lm ö, Stockholm and Oslo citie s ar e conside r ed in
detail. Mo re c a se studies fo r each concep t are presen t e d in Sect ion 4. 4 in t a b u l a r f o rm. Al l t h ese cit i es
ha ve the sa m e objecti v es as Al ma ty ci ty, such a s imp r ovement of the ecolo g ic al st at e o f urb a n and
peri-urban ar eas by r educ i ng the tr affic lo ad on the t r ansport syst em. The r e ason for hav i n g three
concepts i s to see the di ff erent wa ys i n whi c h traf fic congestion can be red u ced : by add i ng n e w road
ca pa ci ty ( c oncept 1 ) , b y usi n g tra n sport dema n d m a nagement with Push and Pull measures to
reduce car traffic wi thout expa nsi o n of roa d ca pa c i ty (concept 2), an d by combin ing concepts 1 and 2
(concept 3 ) .

Figure 3. Roadway capacity e ff ect on tra ffi c volumes. Source: [ 21 ].
Also, it can be added that short-run generated tra ffi c is demonstrated by the movement along
the demand curve: decr eased congestion decreases vehicle drivers’ travel costs; however , the total
vehicle travel demand is the same. Mor eover , long-run induced travel e ff ects ar e demonstrated by
the outwar d shift as spatial development and transportation patterns become more auto-centric, i.e.,
extensive car usage is needed to get access to shops, work and other activities. Any road impr ovement
with accurately calculated tra ffi c incr ease value still will have “an additional or induced 10% of base
tra ffi c in the short run” and 20% in the long run [ 22 ].
Numer ous resear ch studies and transport modelling have shown that adding road capacity
pr ovides only a short-term solution to congestion and tra ffi c-related envir onmental problems. It can be
said that the construction of new ring r oads must be accompanied by Push and Pull measur es that
change travel demand and decr ease car uses.
3. Methodology
Following a thor ough literature r eview , this study explored several case examples in which various
appr oaches had been taken in managing tra ffi c congestion problems. These appr oaches wer e then
categorized into thr ee major concepts. A comparative analysis was conducted for these case examples
under the umbr ella of the three identified concepts. Then, the proposed classification system was
investigated for the BAKAD pr oject in Almaty , developing its assessment based on the interview
r esponses of 60 experts. The details of the interviews are discussed later , in Section 6 . Subsequently ,
the necessity of an in-depth analysis of the BAKAD project (the pr oposed ring r oad in Almaty),
in consideration of both technical solutions and envir onmentally friendly actions leading to the
decr ease in private vehicle tra ffi c and the dissemination of other modes of transport, is acknowledged.
4. Categorization of Methods into Three Concepts
Several cities ar e compared in terms of tra ffi c congestion decr ease, and their tra ffi c congestion
r eduction methods are categorized into thr ee groups, as shown in Figur e 4 . Specifically , Polegate and 5
bypasses acr oss the UK, Hasselt and Malmö, Stockholm and Oslo cities are consider ed in detail. More
case studies for each concept are pr esented in Section 4.4 in tabular form. All these cities have the same
objectives as Almaty city , such as improvement of the ecological state of urban and peri-urban ar eas by
r educing the tra ffi c load on the transport system. The r eason for having three concepts is to see the
di ff er ent ways in which tra ffi c congestion can be reduced: by adding new road capacity (concept 1),
by using transport demand management with Push and Pull measur es to reduce car tra ffi c without
expansion of r oad capacity (concept 2), and by combining concepts 1 and 2 (concept 3).

Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 4973 6 of 26
Sustainability 2019 , 11 , x FOR PEER REVI EW 6 of 27

Figure 4. C l ass i ficat i on of con c epts f or redu c i ng traffic cong estion.
4. 1. C o nce p t 1: Hea v y En gi ne eri ng Meas ure s
Poleg a te Byp a ss and five other by passes in the UK were selected based on the av ailability of
official pre- and post-const ruction monitoring da t a , and ens u r i ng t h at su f f ic ie nt t i me had passe d
si nce constructi on to al l o w f o r post- s cheme la nd use chan ges to have occ u rre d [23]. These bypass
roads h a d th e same object ives as BAK A D doe s : to di vert through tra f f i c from the ci ty a n d reduce
congesti on i n the ci ty.
4. 1. 1. Pole gat e (Un i t e d K i n g dom )
A2 7 Pole gat e Byp a ss w a s opened in 2 0 0 2 an d cont inue s as A 2 2 G o lden Jubi lee W a y at it s
east ern end as shown in Fi gure 5. A 2 7 Po leg a t e Byp a s s aim e d t o p r ov id e rel i e f t o B 2 24 7 and
congest i on in Po leg a t e c i t y cent re, wher eas A 2 2 G o ld en J u bi lee W a y a i med t o r e lieve he avy t r aff i c
from A 2 27 0.

Figure 5. Pol e g a te By pass lo ca tion. Sou r ce: [2 4].
It i s f o und tha t a f ter opening the bypa ss i n 20 02 , there were signs of i n duced traf fi c i n 2 003 , a s a
76% ov er al l i n creas e in t r a f f i c occ u rred on t h e “old ” A2 7 and B 2 2 4 7 ro ut es w i t h in one ye ar . Al so,

Figure 4. Classification of concepts for reducing tra ffi c congestion.
4.1. Concept 1: Heavy Engineering Measures
Polegate Bypass and five other bypasses in the UK wer e selected based on the availability of
o ffi cial pr e- and post-construction monitoring data, and ensuring that su ffi cient time had passed since
construction to allow for post-scheme land use changes to have occurr ed [
23
]. These bypass roads had
the same objectives as BAKAD does: to divert through tra ffi c fr om the city and reduce congestion in
the city .
4.1.1. Polegate (United Kingdom)
A27 Polegate Bypass was opened in 2002 and continues as A22 Golden Jubilee W ay at its eastern
end as shown in Figur e 5 . A27 Polegate Bypass aimed to pr ovide r elief to B2247 and congestion in
Polegate city centr e, whereas A22 Golden Jubilee W ay aimed to r elieve heavy tra ffi c from A2270.
Sustainability 2019 , 11 , x FOR PEER REVI EW 6 of 27

Figure 4. C l ass i ficat i on of con c epts f or redu c i ng traffic cong estion.
4. 1. C o nce p t 1: Hea v y En gi ne eri ng Meas ure s
Poleg a te Byp a ss and five other by passes in the UK were selected based on the av ailability of
official pre- and post-const ruction monitoring da t a , and ens u r i ng t h at su f f ic ie nt t i me had passe d
si nce constructi on to al l o w f o r post- s cheme la nd use chan ges to have occ u rre d [23]. These bypass
roads h a d th e same object ives as BAK A D doe s : to di vert through tra f f i c from the ci ty a n d reduce
congesti on i n the ci ty.
4. 1. 1. Pole gat e (Un i t e d K i n g dom )
A2 7 Pole gat e Byp a ss w a s opened in 2 0 0 2 an d cont inue s as A 2 2 G o lden Jubi lee W a y at it s
east ern end as shown in Fi gure 5. A 2 7 Po leg a t e Byp a s s aim e d t o p r ov id e rel i e f t o B 2 24 7 and
congest i on in Po leg a t e c i t y cent re, wher eas A 2 2 G o ld en J u bi lee W a y a i med t o r e lieve he avy t r aff i c
from A 2 27 0.

Figure 5. Pol e g a te By pass lo ca tion. Sou r ce: [2 4].
It i s f o und tha t a f ter opening the bypa ss i n 20 02 , there were signs of i n duced traf fi c i n 2 003 , a s a
76% ov er al l i n creas e in t r a f f i c occ u rred on t h e “old ” A2 7 and B 2 2 4 7 ro ut es w i t h in one ye ar . Al so,

Figure 5. Polegate Bypass location. Source: [ 24 ].
It is found that after opening the bypass in 2002, there wer e signs of induced tra ffi c in 2003, as a
76% overall incr ease in tra ffi c occurred on the “old” A27 and B2247 r outes within one year . Also, there

Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 4973 7 of 26
was a r elatively small 9% tra ffi c volume increase on the B2247 (city centr e) one year after the bypass
opening, implying that it was partially e ff ective in city centr e tra ffi c reduction [ 23 ].
Then, the tra ffi c volume on the A27 and B2247 r ose from 50,600 vehicles per day (befor e opening)
to 66,700 vehicles per day five years after the bypass opening, which amounts to a 32% tra ffi c incr ease
after five years [
25
]. After five years, tra ffi c volume continued to increase on the B2247 (city centr e).
T ra ffi c volume on the A22 Golden Jubilee road continued to incr ease as well; moreover , part of this
tra ffi c incr ease was caused by recent developments at the southern end of the A22 Golden Jubilee
r oad [ 25 ].
It can be observed that ther e is a constant tra ffi c generation and that these values are much higher
than the for ecasted tra ffi c. For example, one year after the bypass opened, the growth of tra ffi c was
27%, and after five years, it was 32%. City roads in Polegate wer e partially unloaded; however , in a
short time, a car r egrowth was observed on the old A27 (now B2247) in the city centr e. Moreover , it is
to be noted that new developments along the r oads contributed to the tra ffi c volume increase.
The net e ff ect, in combination with the new road, is a considerable overall increase in tra ffi c.
This demonstrates a case of r esurgent congestion and it will clearly be a much har der task for the
highway authority to r eallocate road space [
23
]. Finally , this case r epresents Concept 1 and pr oves
the fact that an added r oad capacity without other travel demand management measures will not be
e ff ective in congestion r eduction; alternatively , it will encourage induced tra ffi c growth and lead to
mor e congested roads.
4.1.2. Five Bypass Roads (United Kingdom)
The POPE r eports for five di ff erent schemes (bypasses) acr oss the UK were examined to identify
induced demand patterns without considering r eassigned tra ffi c growth (people changing their r oute)
or backgr ound tra ffi c growth (i.e., that which would have happened with or without the scheme) [
23
].
The five schemes demonstrated a similar pattern, which is attributed to induced tra ffi c. T able 1 provides
a summary of the evidence of induced tra ffi c for the five schemes.
T able 1. Summary of induced tra ffi c for the five schemes. Source: [ 23 ].
Road / Scheme Name Growth in Excess of A verage
T ra ffi c Background Growth
Likelihood of
Induced T ra ffi c
A500 Basford, Hough, Shavington bypass
+ 7.7% in 5 years Y es
A66 Stainburn & Great Clifton bypass + 2.1% or + 13.6% in 7 years Y es
A1 W illowburn–Denwick Improvement + 21.8% in 8 years Y es
A1 Bramham–W etherby + 7.4% in 3 years Y es
A10 W adesmill to Colliers End bypass + 2.3% or + 6.3% in 6 years Y es
4.2. Concept 2: T ravel Demand Management with Push and Pull Measures
The second type of solution for congestion comprises case studies fr om Hasselt and Malmö,
wher e without introducing heavy engineering measur es such as building new ring roads or r oad
impr ovement, congestion is e ff ectively regulated by means of transportation demand management
thr ough Push and Pull measures, car efully balancing the needs of residents, commuters, businesses,
visitors and tourists.
4.2.1. Hasselt (Belgium)
The transport strategy in Hasselt included long-term measures such as a Mobility Plan, a Gr een
Boulevar d, a public transport policy , spatial planning strategies and separate plans for bicycle use,
parking, through tra ffi c, and remodelling of the train station’s for ecourt. In addition, the short-term plan
included anti-parking bollar ds, speed-bumps, elevated intersections, and street narr owing. Moreover ,
ther e were social campaigns such as car -free days or shopping by bus [
26
]. One of the strategies was to
achieve dense land use ar ound public transport junctions or stations; the other strategy was to decrease

Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 4973 8 of 26
the number of empty houses inside the city by intr oducing high taxes. Furthermore, no development
was allowed along the outer ring r oad to avoid car-oriented land use (sprawl) and, consequently ,
induced tra ffi c. The Green Boulevar d used to be an inner ring road that had carried a lar ge amount
of tra ffi c, and was subsequently transformed into a green pedestrian zone that keeps tra ffi c outside
the city centr e. People leave their cars at parking zones and use free and convenient bus services
to r each their final destinations inside Hasselt city . Moreover , car lanes wer e reduced, and the fr ee
spaces wer e transformed into green ar eas or cycling lanes. T rain stations were r emodelled into modern
mobility hubs which facilitated modal shifts. Such train station for ecourts are now accessible for public
transport, bicyclists, wheelchair users and pedestrians. T o attract more people to work and live in the
inner -city and to minimize personal car use, mixed land-use districts around railway stations wer e
built by pr oviding better availability of daily supplies at the neighbourhood-level [
27
]. Another spatial
planning strategy of Hasselt included bringing life back to the centr e by decreasing the number of
empty r esidential units by means of negative taxes, thus preventing urban sprawl, which encourages
extensive car use.
Along with many Push and Pull measur es, Hasselt has become popular due to its innovative
public transport policy , which promoted fr ee-of-char ge bus services from 1997 until 2014. Moreover ,
the quality of the bus stops, with heated, tidy r ooms and convenient wash room facilities, was high,
and ther efore attractive for bus users. Ther e are many bicycle racks and guar ded bicycle sheds
with showers and cloakr ooms across the city to pr omote cycling. Shopping areas ar e car-fr ee zones,
and numer ous bollards in such ar eas make even cyclists and bus passengers become pedestrians. The
new bus system alone was successful in cutting 28,529 trips thr ough Hasselt’s city centre per month [
26
].
Immediately after the intr oduction of the free-of-char ge bus policy in 1997, around 12,000 people per
day started to use buses, compared to the pr evious value of 1000 bus passengers [
28
]. Accor dingly ,
as can be seen in Figur e 6 , free-of-char ge buses in Hasselt transported around 4.6 million travellers
annually in 2006 compar ed to 1.5 million bus users in 1997 [
29
]; 16% of bus users were former car
drivers, 12% wer e former cyclists and 9% were former pedestrians [ 26 ].
Sustainability 2019 , 11 , x FOR PEER REVI EW 8 of 27
had c a rr ied a large amoun t of tr af fi c, and wa s subseq uent l y tra n s f or me d i n to a gr e e n pe de s t r i a n
zone t h at kee p s t r af fic o u t s ide t h e cit y cent re. Peop l e leave t h e i r cars at p a rk in g zones and use f r e e
and convenie nt bus serv ice s t o r e ach t h e i r fin al de st in at ions in sid e Has s elt cit y . Moreover, c a r l a ne s
were r educe d , and the free spaces wer e t r ansformed i n t o green are a s or cycl ing l a nes . Tr ain st at ions
were r e mode lled int o mo dern mobi lit y hub s wh ic h f a ci lit at ed modal sh ift s . S u ch t r ain st at ion
forecou r t s a r e now acce ss i b le for p u blic t r ansport , bi cycli s t s , whe e lcha ir user s and pede st ri a n s. To
a ttra c t more peopl e to work a n d l i v e in the i nne r - c i t y and t o m i nim i ze p e rs onal car u s e, m i xed
land -u se d i st rict s a r ound rai l w a y st at ions were built by prov i d ing bet t e r ava i l a bi lit y o f da il y
suppl ies at t h e ne ighbour h ood-leve l [ 2 7] . Anot her s p at ia l pl anni ng st r a t e gy o f Ha sse lt incl uded
bringin g li fe back t o t h e cent re by decr e as ing t h e number of empty resident i al units by me ans of
nega ti ve ta xes, thus preventi ng urb a n sp rawl, which encour ages e x tensive c a r use.
Along w i t h many P u sh a n d Pu ll me as ures , H a sse lt has become popula r due t o it s innovat i ve
public t r ansp ort policy, wh ich promot ed free -of - ch ar g e bus s e rvice s from 1 9 97 un t il 2 0 1 4 . Mor e over,
the qu ality of the bus stops, with heated, tidy rooms and convenien t wash room fac i lities, was high ,
and therefo r e attractive fo r bus users. T h ere are m a n y bicycle rac k s and g u arde d bicycle she d s with
showers and cloakrooms across the city to promote c y clin g. Shopp i ng areas ar e car-free zone s, and
numerous bo llards in suc h are a s m a ke even cycl ists and bus passenger s beco me pedestrians. The
new bus s y st em alone w a s succes s ful in cutting 28, 529 tri p s through Ha ssel t’s city centre per mont h
[ 2 6 ] . Immedia t el y af ter the i n troduct i on of the free- o f- cha r ge bus pol i c y i n 19 97 , a r ound 1 2 ,000
pe opl e pe r da y s t a r te d to u s e bu s e s , c o mpa r e d to the previo us v a lue o f 1000 bus p a ssenge rs [28].
Accordin gly , as c a n b e se en in F i g u re 6, free -of - cha r ge b u s e s in Has s elt t r ans p ort ed aro u n d 4. 6
mill ion t r avel lers ann u al ly in 20 0 6 comp ared t o 1. 5 m ill ion bus u s e r s in 19 9 7 [2 9 ] ; 1 6 % o f b u s user s
were fo rmer car d r iver s, 12% wer e fo r m er cy clists and 9% were former pedest r ian s [26].

Figure 6. Number of trave ller s transported a nnua lly by bu ses in Has s elt . S o u r ce: [29] .
Hasselt’s c a se cle a rly de monstrates t h at traf fic co ngest i on c a n be ma na ged wi thout heavy
engineer ing solut i ons su ch a s b u i l di ng a byp a s s , r i ng roa d or ot her t r adit iona l t r a n sport
infr ast r uct u re f a ci lit ie s t h at gener a t e in d u ced t r af fic .
It should be added that H a sselt term in ated free of c h arge public transport in 2014. Howev e r,
ticket prices t o day are che a per than tho s e before th e i n troducti on of ti cketl e ss publ i c tra n sp ort. As
describe d ab ove, this me asure was o n ly one o f many i n the stra tegi c p l a n to reduce ca r traf fi c.
Hasselt’s c a se clear l y de monstrates that tr af f i c congesti on can be ma na ged wi thout hea v y
engineer ing solut i ons su ch a s b u i l di ng a byp a s s , r i ng roa d or ot her t r adit iona l t r a n sport
infr ast r uct u re f a ci lit ie s t h at ind u ce t r af fic .
4. 2. 2. Ma lm ö (Swed e n)
In the 19 80 s, the ci ty of Mal m ö was a tradi t i o n a l car-c e ntric c i ty; howe ver, it su bseq u e nt ly
reject ed a l a r g e-sc a l e ro ad p r oject and adop t ed a Su st ain a b l e Urb a n Mob i l i t y Pl an ( S U M P) . Sinc e
then, Malmö city h a s beco me a top bicycle c i ty in E u r o pe, with 30% of its r e sid e nts us ing bic y cles to
reach their w o rkplaces. It has a 500 km cycle p a th network, and th e bike and ride park ing facility at
Ma lmö’s cent ral st at ion, in part icu l a r , i s out s t a nd ing [ 3 0 ] . Thi s b i ke st at ion c a n b e u s ed fo r fre e 24/ 7,

Figure 6. Number of travellers transported annually by buses in Hasselt. Source: [ 29 ].
Hasselt’s case clearly demonstrates that tra ffi c congestion can be managed without heavy
engineering solutions such as building a bypass, ring r oad or other traditional transport infrastructure
facilities that generate induced tra ffi c.
It should be added that Hasselt terminated fr ee of charge public transport in 2014. However , ticket
prices today ar e cheaper than those before the intr oduction of ticketless public transport. As described
above, this measure was only one of many in the strategic plan to r educe car tra ffi c. Hasselt’s case
clearly demonstrates that tra ffi c congestion can be managed without heavy engineering solutions such
as building a bypass, ring r oad or other traditional transport infrastructure facilities that induce tra ffi c.

Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 4973 9 of 26
4.2.2. Malmö (Sweden)
In the 1980s, the city of Malmö was a traditional car -centric city; however , it subsequently rejected
a lar ge-scale road pr oject and adopted a Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan (SUMP). Since then, Malmö
city has become a top bicycle city in Eur ope, with 30% of its r esidents using bicycles to reach their
workplaces. It has a 500 km cycle path network, and the bike and ride parking facility at Malmö’s
central station, in particular , is outstanding [
30
]. This bike station can be used for free 24 / 7, and it has
the capacity to accommodate mor e than 1500 bikes, together with bike racks. Also, ther e are r estrooms,
bike shops, lockers and a waiting lounge with numerous scr eens showing train departur e and arrival
times, and air pumps [
30
]. This bike and ride station is located right under the bus station and connects
with the train platforms to assist multimodality . Mor eover , 24-h safety is guaranteed by station guards.
The main idea is that one can reach the central station using a bicycle and then leave it at the bike and
ride parking station, and then continue the trip either by bus or by train following routes and travel
times on the LED scr eens installed inside the station. The other important element of SUMP in Malmö
city is its Bus Rapid T ransit (BR T) [
30
]. The BR T system repr esents 24-m-long hybrid (biogas-electric)
busses that run on special bus lanes. Major bus stops along the route wer e rebuilt, and a tra ffi c signal
priority system was installed. Therefor e, passenger capacity has been incr eased; while the travel times
and tra ffi c emissions have been decr eased [ 30 ].
Finally , it is important to note that Malmö city’s travel demand management with Push and Pull
measur es was found to be very e ff ective in decreasing private car usage, despite the incr ease in the
city’s population. As can be seen in Figure 7 , the amount of individual car tra ffi c decr eased by 6% in the
period of 2006 to 2011 against a population incr ease of 9% and an increase of workers by 15% [
30
,
31
].
During this time period, a significant shift to other transport modes such as bicycle, bus and train
was observed.
Sustainability 2019 , 11 , x FOR PEER REVI EW 9 of 27
a n d i t ha s the ca p a ci ty to accommoda te more tha n 150 0 bi kes, together wi th bike racks. Al so, there
are restroom s, b i ke shop s , locker s and a w a it ing lo unge with n u merou s scre ens showin g train
dep art u r e an d arr i va l t i m e s, and air p u m p s [3 0 ] . Thi s bike and rid e station is lo cated r i ght under the
bus st at ion a n d connect s wit h t h e t r ai n pl at forms t o a s s i st m u lt i m odal it y. Mo reover, 2 4 -h s a fet y is
gua r ant eed b y st at ion g u ar ds. The ma in ide a is t h at o n e can re ach t h e cent ra l st a t ion u s ing a b i cycl e
and then le av e it at the bik e and r i de parking station, and then contin ue the tri p ei ther by bus or by
train fo llow i ng routes an d travel time s on the LED screens installed inside th e station. Th e other
import ant ele m ent of SU MP in M a lmö cit y is it s Bus Rap i d Tr ans i t (BRT ) [ 3 0 ] . The B R T syst em
represent s 2 4 - m-lon g hybr id (biog a s - el e c t r ic) b u ss es t h at run on sp ecial b u s lane s. Major bus stops
along t h e rou t e were reb u i l t , and a t r af fi c s i gn al p r ior i t y syst em w a s in st al led . T h erefore , p a s s enger
capac i ty h a s been incre a se d; while the travel time s and traffic emission s h a ve b een decre ase d [30].
Fi nal l y, i t i s importa n t to note tha t Ma lmö ci ty’s travel dema n d ma nagement wi th Push a n d
Pul l me as ure s w a s foun d t o be very e ffe ct ive in decre as ing pr ivat e car us age , d e s pit e t h e incr ease in
the ci ty’s popula ti on. As ca n be seen i n Fi gure 7, the amount of in divid u al car traffic d e cre a sed by
6 % i n the peri od of 20 06 to 2 011 agai nst a popula ti o n i n c r e a s e o f 9 % a n d a n i n c r e a s e o f w o r k e r s b y
15% [3 0, 3 1 ]. During t h i s t i me perio d , a sign if icant sh ift t o ot her t r a n sport modes s u ch as bic yc l e, bus
and tr ain was observed.

Figure 7. Development of traff i c modes an d p o pu lation 2007 –2013 in Ma lmö. Source: [30] .
4.3. Con cept 3: Combined Hea vy En gi neerin g Measure s an d Tra v el De ma nd Mana gem e nt with Pus h a n d P u ll
Measur es
The t h ird t y p e of so lut i on for de al ing w i t h congest i o n is a combin at ion of heav y engin eerin g
and su st ain a b l e com p lem e nt ary m e a s ures . The ex am p l e of St o c kholm ’ s p l a n t o red u ce t r aff i c
congestion is consider ed, where, togeth er with the So uthern bypass openin g, ot her measures such as
congestion ch arge s and im provement of public tran sport service s , d e velopment o f pede strian spaces
and ap p l icat i o n of com p ac t sp at i a l p l an ning are reco gniz ed as b e i n g ef fect ive f o r confront in g t r a f f i c
congestion an d environme n tal pollut ion .
4.3.1. Stockho l m (Sweden )
I n S t o c k h o l m , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e S o u t h e r n b y p a s s o p e n i n g , o t h e r m e a s u r e s , s u c h a s c o n g e s t i o n
charge s (to l l) and improvement of public transpor t se rvices, develo p ment of ped e strian sp ace s and
applic at ion o f compact spat ia l pl annin g a r e recogn iz e d as e f fe ct ive i n confront ing t r af fic cong e s t i on.
The So uthern bypas s w a s constructed t o un load in ner ci ty traf fi c. Moreov er, c o ngestion ch arge s
(toll) were int r oduced, alon g with impro v ement of pub l i c tra n sport ca pa ci ty to restrai n car traf fi c. In
the 1 970 s, there wa s ra p i d tra f fi c growth throughout the i nner ci t y unti l the 199 0s; a f terwa r ds, a n d
for the next 15 ye ars, the traffic vo lume unexpe ctedly rem a ined the sam e ; then, in 2006, a
ti me- d if ferent i a ted toll around the i n ner ci ty was i n troduced [ 3 2 ] . In a d diti on, there wa s a n
exempt ion fo r a l t e rnat ive- fue l c a rs (pr o pelled by et hanol , bio g a s or h y brid s) t h at st imu l at ed t h e
growth of such ca r ownershi p (f rom 3% i n 2 006 to 1 5 % i n 20 09 ) [ 3 3 ] . At the sa me ti me, the Essi nge

Figure 7. Development of tra ffi c modes and population 2007–2013 in Malmö. Source: [ 30 ].
4.3. Concept 3: Combined Heavy Engineering Measures and T ravel Demand Management with Push and
Pull Measur es
The thir d type of solution for dealing with congestion is a combination of heavy engineering
and sustainable complementary measur es. The example of Stockholm’s plan to r educe tra ffi c
congestion is consider ed, where, together with the Southern bypass opening, other measur es such as
congestion char ges and improvement of public transport services, development of pedestrian spaces
and application of compact spatial planning are r ecognized as being e ff ective for confr onting tra ffi c
congestion and envir onmental pollution.
4.3.1. Stockholm (Sweden)
In Stockholm, together with the Southern bypass opening, other measur es, such as congestion
char ges (toll) and improvement of public transport services, development of pedestrian spaces and
application of compact spatial planning are r ecognized as e ff ective in confr onting tra ffi c congestion.
The Southern bypass was constructed to unload inner city tra ffi c. Moreover , congestion char ges (toll)

Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 4973 10 of 26
wer e introduced, along with impr ovement of public transport capacity to restrain car tra ffi c. In the
1970s, ther e was rapid tra ffi c growth thr oughout the inner city until the 1990s; afterwards, and for the
next 15 years, the tra ffi c volume unexpectedly r emained the same; then, in 2006, a time-di ff erentiated
toll ar ound the inner city was introduced [
32
]. In addition, there was an exemption for alternative-fuel
cars (pr opelled by ethanol, biogas or hybrids) that stimulated the growth of such car ownership (fr om
3% in 2006 to 15% in 2009) [
33
]. At the same time, the Essinge bypass was opened, which was fr ee of
char ge. Figure 8 shows the average daily tra ffi c volume acr oss the inner city (weekdays 6:00–19:00)
since 2000.
Sustainability 2019 , 11 , x FOR PE ER RE VI E W 10 of 27
b y p a ss w a s o p ened, wh ich wa s fre e o f c h arge . Fi gure 8 shows t h e a v erage d a i l y t r af fic v o lum e acros s
the i nner ci ty ( w eekda ys 6 : 0 0–1 9:00) si nce 200 0.

Figure 8. Aver age traffic volu mes in Stockho l m, weekdays 6:00–19:00 . Sou r ce: [32] .
As ca n be seen, f r om the 1 990 s until 20 04 , tra f fic ac ross Stockho l m remained constant d u e to
reduced traffic demand (unchanged road ca paci ty). T h e bl ue col o ur i n di ca tes tha t there were no toll
cha r ges i n thi s ti me peri od, whereas the red col o ur dep i cts the traffic vo lume when there wer e
charge s. Ther e was a slight decrease in traffic con g est i on in 2005 d u e to the opening of the b y pass.
Then, in 2006, there was a sharp decre a se in traffic due to the combined effect of t h e bypass opening,
congesti on cha r gi ng, a n d the extensi o n of publ i c tr ansport servi c es. In la te 200 6 to ea rly 200 7, the
congestion ch arging was r e moved, and traffic vo lu mes st arted t o grow agai n. As a resul t , sta r ti ng
from 2 0 0 7 , congest i on ch ar ging w a s im p o sed ag a i n t o av oid furt h e r t r af fic gro w t h . As can b e seen
f r om the red ba rs, the tra ffi c volume rema i n ed cons t a nt until 201 3. The number of veh i cle k i lometres
decreased by 1 6 % i n the i n ner ci ty; the t r a f f i c volu me dropped b y 5 % outsi d e the i nner ci ty, on the
outlyin g approach ro ads, and on outlyin g streets [ 3 2 ] . Ext e nsion o f public t r ans i t service s w a s al so a
part of t h e p l an in St ockh olm. As a re sult , t h e n u mber of driv ers swit chin g t o publ ic t r ansport
service s inc r e a sed by 5% [ 3 2 ] . Hence, it can be conc l u ded t h at im proved q u a lit y of p u blic t r ans i t
serv ice s , a d d e d ro ad c a p a cit y such as b y p a s s and co ngestion char ging, toge ther wi th promoti n g the
pedestrian m o de, c a n be effective for r e ducin g traffic congestion .
4. 3. 2. O s lo ( N orway )
Oslo city introduced a new urban ro ad tunnel ca l l ed the “ C a s tle tunnel” or “ F estni n gstunnel”
sim u lt aneo us ly wit h a ne w t o ll syst em t h at charged drivers ente ring the city centre of Oslo. This
tra n sf ormed the severel y congested sq ua re i n f r ont of the Ci ty Ha ll i n to a n open spa c e f o r wa l k i n g
and leisure [34]. Traffic volumes dec r eased enormously a t Ci ty Hal l squa re af ter the openi n g of the
Cast le Tunne l ( F est n in gst u nnel) and t h e appl icat ion o f conge s t i on charge s. Th e Oslo t o l l ring has a
cla ssic cor d o n pric ing sch e me, w i t h 1 9 t o ll st at ion s c i rclin g t h e cen t re of Os lo [ 3 4] . In t h e f i rst ye ar of
Oslo t o ll r i ng oper at ion, t h ere w a s a 3 – 5 % t r a f f i c red u ct ion in Os lo [3 4] . The aver age number of c a r
crossi ngs through the Oslo tol l ri ng per day f o r the p e ri od 19 96– 201 4 is shown in Fi gure 9.

Figure 8. A verage tra ffi c volumes in Stockholm, weekdays 6:00–19:00. Sour ce: [ 32 ].
As can be seen, from the 1990s until 2004, tra ffi c across Stockholm r emained constant due to
r educed tra ffi c demand (unchanged road capacity). The blue colour indicates that there wer e no toll
char ges in this time period, whereas the r ed colour depicts the tra ffi c volume when there wer e charges.
Ther e was a slight decrease in tra ffi c congestion in 2005 due to the opening of the bypass. Then, in 2006,
ther e was a sharp decrease in tra ffi c due to the combined e ff ect of the bypass opening, congestion
char ging, and the extension of public transport services. In late 2006 to early 2007, the congestion
char ging was removed, and tra ffi c volumes started to grow again. As a r esult, starting from 2007,
congestion char ging was imposed again to avoid further tra ffi c growth. As can be seen from the r ed
bars, the tra ffi c volume remained constant until 2013. The number of vehicle kilometres decr eased
by 16% in the inner city; the tra ffi c volume dr opped by 5% outside the inner city , on the outlying
appr oach roads, and on outlying str eets [
32
]. Extension of public transit services was also a part of the
plan in Stockholm. As a result, the number of drivers switching to public transport services incr eased
by 5% [
32
]. Hence, it can be concluded that improved quality of public transit services, added r oad
capacity such as bypass and congestion char ging, together with promoting the pedestrian mode, can
be e ff ective for r educing tra ffi c congestion.
4.3.2. Oslo (Norway)
Oslo city intr oduced a new urban road tunnel called the “Castle tunnel” or “Festningstunnel”
simultaneously with a new toll system that charged drivers entering the city centr e of Oslo. This
transformed the sever ely congested square in fr ont of the City Hall into an open space for walking and
leisur e [
34
]. T ra ffi c volumes decreased enormously at City Hall squar e after the opening of the Castle
T unnel (Festningstunnel) and the application of congestion charges. The Oslo toll ring has a classic
cor don pricing scheme, with 19 toll stations circling the centr e of Oslo [
34
]. In the first year of Oslo toll
ring operation, ther e was a 3–5% tra ffi c reduction in Oslo [
34
]. The average number of car crossings
thr ough the Oslo toll ring per day for the period 1996–2014 is shown in Figure 9 .

Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 4973 11 of 26
Sustainability 2019 , 11 , x FOR PE ER RE VI E W 11 of 27

Figure 9. Aver age number of car crossings through th e O s lo toll ring ro ad per day in 1996–2014.
Source: [35] .
A s c a n b e s e e n , a f t e r 2 0 0 7 , t h e n u m b e r o f c a r s t h a t c r o s s e d t h e t o l l b a r r i e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y
decreased, d e spite the population growt h during th is time perio d . P a rt o f the e x plan ation fo r this
could be the c o mbined effe ct of reduc e d far e s fo r publi c tra n sport and the i m proved publ i c transport
fac i l i t i es . The p u b lic t r an s p ort share in creas e d from 21% t o 3 2 % b e t w een 20 05 and 2 0 1 5 , while c a r
ownership d e crea sed fro m 4 5 % t o 34 % [ 3 6]. In ad dit i on, st art i n g f r om 2 0 1 7 , aroun d 7 0 0 p a rk ing
spots for priv ate c a rs in th e city c e ntre were remove d to assist a t r a n si ti on to a ca r- f r ee ci ty of Osl o .
The “Os l o P a ckage ” p l an i s acknow led g ed a s hav i n g b een a succ essf ul and s m art t ool for fund ing
publ i c tra n sp ort.
4.4. Effective n ess of the Thr e e Conce p ts
Ta bl e 2 presents a summary a n al ys i s of the three concepts discus sed ea rl i e r, along wi th a f e w
other supporting case stud ies for e a ch co ncept. As ca n be seen, conc ept 1 is not effective in the long
ru n, si nce a si g n if i c a n t i n crea se i n traf fic volu me is o b served in the c a se study. Where a s, con c ept 2
and 3 were found to be e f fective at red u cing cong estion by mean s o f a decre a se in c a r use and an
incre a se in t h e us e of a l t e r n at iv e m o de s of t r ansp ort .

Figure 9.
A verage number of car cr ossings through the Oslo toll ring r oad per day in 1996–2014.
Source: [ 35 ].
As can be seen, after 2007, the number of cars that crossed the toll barrier significantly decr eased,
despite the population gr owth during this time period. Part of the explanation for this could be the
combined e ff ect of reduced far es for public transport and the impr oved public transport facilities.
The public transport shar e increased fr om 21% to 32% between 2005 and 2015, while car ownership
decr eased from 45% to 34% [
36
]. In addition, starting from 2017, ar ound 700 parking spots for private
cars in the city centr e were r emoved to assist a transition to a car-fr ee city of Oslo. The “Oslo Package”
plan is acknowledged as having been a successful and smart tool for funding public transport.
4.4. E ff ectiveness of the Thr ee Concepts
T able 2 presents a summary analysis of the thr ee concepts discussed earlier , along with a few
other supporting case studies for each concept. As can be seen, concept 1 is not e ff ective in the long
run, since a significant incr ease in tra ffi c volume is observed in the case study . Whereas, concept 2 and
3 wer e found to be e ff ective at reducing congestion by means of a decr ease in car use and an increase
in the use of alternative modes of transport.

Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 4973 12 of 26
T able 2. Results of three concepts and their e ff ectiveness in congestion r eduction.
Concept 1: Heavy Engineering
Measures
Concept 2: T ravel Demand Management
with Push and Pull Measures
Concept 3: Heavy Engineering +
T ravel Demand Management with
Push and Pull Measures
Polegate Bypass: 76% total
increase in tra ffi c with 27%
induced tra ffi c after one year , and
32% induced tra ffi c after five
years.
Hasselt: after 1 year 16% switched from
car to bus, 12% from bicycle to bus, 9%
former pedestrians to bus; By 2006,
free-of-char ge buses in Hasselt
transported around 4.6 million travellers
annually versus 1.5 million bus users
in 1997
Stockholm: Essinge bypass +
congestion charges (tolls), expanded
bus service decreased the number of
vehicle kilometres driven in the inner
city by 16%, vehicle-tra ffi c reduction
of 22% over the charge cor don
A500 Basford, Hough, Shavington
bypass: 7.7% increase in 5 years;
A66 Stainburn & Great Clifton
bypass: 13.6% increase in 7 years;
A1 W illowburn–Denwick
Improvement: 21.8% increase in
8 years;
A1 Bramham–W etherby bypass:
7.4% increase in 3 years.
Malmö: 30% of residents use bicycles to
reach workplaces; individual car tra ffi c
decreased by 6% in the period of 2006 to
2011 against a population increase of 9%
and an increase of workers by 15%.
Oslo: Festningstunnel + congestion
charges in 2005–2015 the public
transport share incr eased from 21% to
32%, while car ownership decreased
from 45% to 34%.
Newbury Bypass: FY A: vastly
exceeded the HA ’s 1995 worst case
estimate that there would be no
more than 10% induced tra ffi c.
Forecasted tra ffi c volume was
exceeded by 46% six years before
the 2010 prediction [ 37 ].
Utrecht: increased bicycle use and car
sharing by almost 50% and reduced
private car use by 14% [ 38 ]. Hague:
decreased car ownership by 12%, the use
of public transport grew fr om 30% to
65% [ 39 ].
Helsinki: ring road + charging
policies reduced peak-period tra ffi c
congestion by 10–30% on the main
roads in the metr opolitan area [ 40 ].
Barnstaple Bypass: 20% induced
tra ffi c in 3 years; M62: 19%
induced tra ffi c in 5 years;
Severn Bypass: 44% induced
tra ffi c in 1 year [ 41 ].
Seoul Cheonggyecheon:
decommissioning of freeway in the city
centre and “impr oved bus services, longer
subway operation time, new bus lines
circling the CBD ar ea, raised parking
rates” removed tra ffi c congestion of
168,000 cars per day [ 42 , 43 ]; resulted in a
15.1% increase in bus ridership and a 3.3%
increase in subway ridership within 2003
and 2008, decreased car use by 45% [ 44 ].
Milan: underground network
extensions + city centre char ge + “new
bus lanes, high bus frequency , increase
in parking restriction and fees,
park-and-ride facilities” [ 45 ]
decreased car tra ffi c by 34% in the city
centre [ 46 ].
North Sea Channel of the
Amsterdam Ring Road: one year
after opening, 8% tra ffi c increase
occurred, of which 5% was
induced tra ffi c. After five years,
total number of trips rose by 22%,
of which 7% was induced tra ffi c.
Jellicoe Street, Auckland: removal of
industrial service road, opening
pedestrian boulevard, car bans ar ea,
integration of LR T and shared-space
approach, contr olled parking increased
cycling volume by 67%, increased bus use
by 57%, decrease in car use by 456% [ 44 ].
Gothenburg: Göteborg congestion
tolled cordon + new bus lanes,
parking space restrictions in the city
centre r educed car tra ffi c across the
cordon by 12% and by 6% in the city
centre [ 47 ].
A316 (London): 84% induced
tra ffi c in 8 years; M11 (London):
38% induced tra ffi c in 9 years;
Leigh Bypass: 20% induced tra ffi c
in 1 year [ 41 ].
Paris: Pompidou Expressway closure +
“a car free zone along the left bank and a
shared space on the right bank with a
narrower r oad for cars, and wider routes
for pedestrians and cyclists” decreased
private car use by 20% in 5 years [ 48 ].
Jakarta: Outer ring road + congestion
charges + Gr eat Jakarta commuter
train extension, mass rapid transit
(MR T), LR T , BRT r educe car tra ffi c by
30% in the city centre [ 49 ].
W estway (London): 50% induced
tra ffi c in 10 years;
Manchester Ring: 23% induced
tra ffi c in 1 year [ 41 ].
V auban, Freibur g: a car-fr ee, parking free,
mixed-use neighbourhood (district of
short distance), direct bus-tram
interchange, not-for -profit Car -Sharing
service reduced car use by 57%, incr eased
bicycle use by 75% [ 48 ].
Hammersby Sjostad, Stockholm: 160
ha brownfield r edevelopment +
Tvärbanan tram line extension, 2 new
bus lines, near congestion toll
boundary , car-sharing, bike-sharing,
bicycle parking per building increased
public transport use by 52% and
walking and cycling by 27%, car use is
only 21% [ 48 ].
Non-e ff ective in long term . E ff ective E ff ective

Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 4973 13 of 26
5. T ra ffi c Congestion in Almaty (Kazakhstan)
The total number of inhabitants in Almaty is 1.81 million people. It lies in the northern foothills of
the T rans-Ili Alatau at an elevation of 700–900 m. The city is located in a piedmont basin, where fogs
and surface inversions ar e often observed, which makes it di ffi cult to disperse impurities in air . This
leads to the accumulation of air pollutants such as exhaust gases fr om automotive vehicles, emissions
fr om heat stations, co-generation plants, and industrial activities. According to the Centr e of Hydro
Meteor ological Monitoring of Almaty , the index of atmospheric air pollution in the city was 9.2 in
2011—one of the highest in the country [
50
]. Almaty city and Almaty rural r egion have the highest
number of cars, accounting for 930,761 vehicles [
51
]. Below , in Figur e 10 , private car ownership for
Almaty city for 2018 is given.
Sustainability 2019 , 11 , x FOR PE ER RE VI E W 13 of 27
5. Tr aff i c Co nges ti on in Alm a ty ( K a z a khs tan )
The t o t a l n u mber of inh a bit a nt s in A l mat y i s 1. 8 1 mill ion peop l e . It l i e s in t h e nort hern fo ot hill s
of the Tra n s- Il i Ala t au a t an el eva t i o n of 700 –90 0 m. The city is lo cated in a pie d mont basin, where
fogs and surface inver s ion s are o f ten observed, wh ic h makes it di f fic ult t o dispe r se impur i t i e s in a i r.
Thi s lea d s to the a ccum u la ti on of ai r p o l l uta n ts such a s exhaust ga ses f r om automoti ve vehi cl es,
emiss i ons fro m heat st at io ns, co -gene r a t ion pl ant s , a n d ind u st r i a l act i vit i e s . Acc o rding t o t h e Cent re
of Hydro Meteorologic al Monitorin g of Alm a ty, th e index of at mospheric air pollut i on in t h e cit y
wa s 9 . 2 i n 2 011 —one of the hi ghest i n the country [ 50] . Al ma ty ci ty and Al m a ty rura l regi on ha v e the
highest n u mber of c a rs, accounti ng for 93 0,761 vehi cl es [51 ] . Bel ow, i n Figure 10 , priva t e ca r
ownership fo r Alm a ty c i ty for 20 1 8 is gi ven.

Figure 10. Number of registe r ed private car s in Alma ty cit y from January 2018 until Ja nuary 2019.
Source: [51] .
In general, m o re than 700 t h ousand unit s of vehi c l es are in oper ation in the city , of which two
t h irds ( 2 50 t h ous a nd) are non-res i dent and t r an sit ve hi c l es [5 2] . The mos t pr ef e r r e d tra n s p or t f o r
moving a r ou nd t h e cit y is a pr ivat e c a r (3 8% o f Al m a ty popula ti on a r e ca r users) , 36 % of Al ma ty
resid e nts u s e bus and trolleybu s , 12% use tax i s e rv ices an d 7% use the metro; only 3% of Almaty
resid e nt s u s e b i cycle , and a n ot her 4% do not use an y t y p e of t r ansp ort , a s shown in F i g u re 1 1 [ 5 3 ] .

Figure 11. Transport m o de ch oice in A l m a ty . Sou r ce: [53].
The route o f the fir st BRT line w i th a le ngth of 8.7 k m was introd uced thro ugh the streets o f
Must afin-Suleimenov-Zh andosov-Tim i ryaz ev to Zhel toksa n Street i n Al m a ty in 201 8. Bel ow, the
BRT line on T i miry azev Street is shown in Fig u re 12.
private car
38%
bus and
trolley b u s
36%
Taxi service
12%
Underground
metro
7%
Bicy cle
3% Pedestrian
4%
T r ansport mode preferences in Almaty

Figure 10.
Number of register ed private cars in Almaty city fr om January 2018 until January 2019.
Source: [ 51 ].
In general, more than 700 thousand units of vehicles ar e in operation in the city , of which two
thir ds (250 thousand) are non-r esident and transit vehicles [
52
]. The most preferr ed transport for
moving ar ound the city is a private car (38% of Almaty population are car users), 36% of Almaty
r esidents use bus and trolleybus, 12% use taxi services and 7% use the metro; only 3% of Almaty
r esidents use bicycle, and another 4% do not use any type of transport, as shown in Figure 11 [ 53 ].
Sustainability 2019 , 11 , x FOR PE ER RE VI E W 13 of 27
5. Tr aff i c Co nges ti on in Alm a ty ( K a z a khs tan )
The t o t a l n u mber of inh a bit a nt s in A l mat y i s 1. 8 1 mill ion peop l e . It l i e s in t h e nort hern fo ot hill s
of the Tra n s- Il i Ala t au a t an el eva t i o n of 700 –90 0 m. The city is lo cated in a pie d mont basin, where
fogs and surface inver s ion s are o f ten observed, wh ic h makes it di f fic ult t o dispe r se impur i t i e s in a i r.
Thi s lea d s to the a ccum u la ti on of ai r p o l l uta n ts such a s exhaust ga ses f r om automoti ve vehi cl es,
emiss i ons fro m heat st at io ns, co -gene r a t ion pl ant s , a n d ind u st r i a l act i vit i e s . Acc o rding t o t h e Cent re
of Hydro Meteorologic al Monitorin g of Alm a ty, th e index of at mospheric air pollut i on in t h e cit y
wa s 9 . 2 i n 2 011 —one of the hi ghest i n the country [ 50] . Al ma ty ci ty and Al m a ty rura l regi on ha v e the
highest n u mber of c a rs, accounti ng for 93 0,761 vehi cl es [51 ] . Bel ow, i n Figure 10 , priva t e ca r
ownership fo r Alm a ty c i ty for 20 1 8 is gi ven.

Figure 10. Number of registe r ed private car s in Alma ty cit y from January 2018 until Ja nuary 2019.
Source: [51] .
In general, m o re than 700 t h ousand unit s of vehi c l es are in oper ation in the city , of which two
t h irds ( 2 50 t h ous a nd) are non-res i dent and t r an sit ve hi c l es [5 2] . The mos t pr ef e r r e d tra n s p or t f o r
moving a r ou nd t h e cit y is a pr ivat e c a r (3 8% o f Al m a ty popula ti on a r e ca r users) , 36 % of Al ma ty
resid e nts u s e bus and trolleybu s , 12% use tax i s e rv ices an d 7% use the metro; only 3% of Almaty
resid e nt s u s e b i cycle , and a n ot her 4% do not use an y t y p e of t r ansp ort , a s shown in F i g u re 1 1 [ 5 3 ] .

Figure 11. Transport m o de ch oice in A l m a ty . Sou r ce: [53].
The route o f the fir st BRT line w i th a le ngth of 8.7 k m was introd uced thro ugh the streets o f
Must afin-Suleimenov-Zh andosov-Tim i ryaz ev to Zhel toksa n Street i n Al m a ty in 201 8. Bel ow, the
BRT line on T i miry azev Street is shown in Fig u re 12.
private car
38%
bus and
trolleybus
36%
Taxi service
12%
Underground
metro
7%
Bicycle
3% Pedestrian
4%
T ransport mode preferences in Almaty

Figure 11. T ransport mode choice in Almaty . Sour ce: [ 53 ].
The r oute of the first BR T line with a length of 8.7 km was introduced thr ough the str eets of
Mustafin-Suleimenov-Zhandosov-T imiryazev to Zheltoksan Str eet in Almaty in 2018. Below , the BR T
line on T imiryazev Str eet is shown in Figure 12 .

Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 4973 14 of 26
Sustainability 2019 , 11 , x FOR PE ER RE VI E W 14 of 27

Figure 12. BRT line in Almaty in 2018 .
Due to the o v erloaded tr ansport syste m in A l maty, the aver age drivin g spee d in the c i ty was
m e as ured at 19 km / h [ 5 4] . The ecolo g ic al sit u at ion i s ag grav at ed b y t h e t e chni cal condit ion of t h e
exist i ng f l eet of ol d p a ssen g er c a rs (m an uf act u r i ng y e ar m o re t h an 10 ye ars a g o) , which accou n t s for
80.8% of re gistered passen g er c a rs. Curre ntly, mor e tha n 11 5 thousand techni c a l l y out d at ed ca rs are
in oper at ion, providing up t o 7 0 % of t h e gross vol u me of em ission s from moto r ve hi c l es [50 ] . A t the
same time, 99% of all r e gistered p a sseng e r c a rs use g a solin e as f u e l . The use o f lo w-q u a lit y f u e l and
lubric ant s co nt ribut e s t o a n incre a se in emiss i ons o f harmf u l subs t a nces int o t h e at mosphere fro m
motori z e d transport i n Alma ty. An i m medi a t e tra n si ti on to hig h er s t a n da r d s of ga s o l i n e q u a l i t y wi ll
decrease exh a ust em ission s prod uced b y c a rs by 25% in A l maty c i ty [55]. Due to the incre a se in the
st and a rd o f l i v ing an d inco me growt h of Alm a t y ’s po pulat i on, t h e mobilit y o f t h e res i dent s an d t h e
level o f c a r ownership w ill incr ea se, which wi ll put t r emendo us st r a in on t h e cit y ’s t r ansport
infr ast r uct u re .
The Bi g Almaty Ring Road (Kazakhsta n )
Considering the huge amo u nt of traffic in Alm a ty ci ty a n d the nega ti ve envi ronmenta l i m p a ct
t h at it ca us es , t h e B i g Al mat y Ring R o ad (BAK AD ) h a s been in it iat e d t o rel i e ve t h e urb a n road
network by di verti n g tra n si t traf fi c f r om the ci ty. Transi t vehi cl es pa ss through Al m a ty a n d f o ll ow
internation a l corridors such as Tash kent–Sh y mk ent– Ta ra z– Bi shk e k – A l ma ty- K hor g os (Ne w Si lk
Roa d ), and Alm a t y –K ar a g and a –N ur- S ult a n (Ast an a) –Pet rop a vl ovsk, We st ern Eu rop e – W est e rn
China, a s sho w n in F i g u re 13 .

Figure 13. Big Almaty Ring Road (B AKAD) map. Sou r ce: [5 6].
It is pl anned t o build 8 jun c t i ons an d 39 overpa sses along the B A K A D, which w o uld be a 4- t o
6-lan e autobahn with a per m itted speed of 120–150 k m /h. The rin g road will b e 66 km long, and is

Figure 12. BR T line in Almaty in 2018.
Due to the overloaded transport system in Almaty , the average driving speed in the city was
measur ed at 19 km / h [
54
]. The ecological situation is aggravated by the technical condition of the
existing fleet of old passenger cars (manufacturing year mor e than 10 years ago), which accounts for
80.8% of r egistered passenger cars. Currently , mor e than 115 thousand technically outdated cars are in
operation, providing up to 70% of the gross volume of emissions fr om motor vehicles [
50
]. At the same
time, 99% of all register ed passenger cars use gasoline as fuel. The use of low-quality fuel and lubricants
contributes to an increase in emissions of harmful substances into the atmospher e fr om motorized
transport in Almaty . An immediate transition to higher standards of gasoline quality will decr ease
exhaust emissions pr oduced by cars by 25% in Almaty city [
55
]. Due to the increase in the standar d of
living and income gr owth of Almaty’s population, the mobility of the residents and the level of car
ownership will incr ease, which will put tremendous strain on the city’s transport infrastructur e.
The Big Almaty Ring Road (Kazakhstan)
Considering the huge amount of tra ffi c in Almaty city and the negative envir onmental impact
that it causes, the Big Almaty Ring Road (BAKAD) has been initiated to relieve the urban r oad
network by diverting transit tra ffi c fr om the city . T ransit vehicles pass through Almaty and
follow international corridors such as T ashkent–Shymkent–T araz–Bishkek–Almaty-Khorgos (New Silk
Road), and Almaty–Karaganda–Nur -Sultan (Astana)–Petropavlovsk, W estern Europe–W estern China,
as shown in Figur e 13 .
Sustainability 2019 , 11 , x FOR PE ER RE VI E W 14 of 27

Figure 12. BRT line in Almaty in 2018 .
Due to the o v erloaded tr ansport syste m in A l maty, the aver age drivin g spee d in the c i ty was
m e as ured at 19 km / h [ 5 4] . The ecolo g ic al sit u at ion i s ag grav at ed b y t h e t e chni cal condit ion of t h e
exist i ng f l eet of ol d p a ssen g er c a rs (m an uf act u r i ng y e ar m o re t h an 10 ye ars a g o) , which accou n t s for
80.8% of re gistered passen g er c a rs. Curre ntly, mor e tha n 11 5 thousand techni c a l l y out d at ed ca rs are
in oper at ion, providing up t o 7 0 % of t h e gross vol u me of em ission s from moto r ve hi c l es [50 ] . A t the
same time, 99% of all r e gistered p a sseng e r c a rs use g a solin e as f u e l . The use o f lo w-q u a lit y f u e l and
lubric ant s co nt ribut e s t o a n incre a se in emiss i ons o f harmf u l subs t a nces int o t h e at mosphere fro m
motori z e d transport i n Alma ty. An i m medi a t e tra n si ti on to hig h er s t a n da r d s of ga s o l i n e q u a l i t y wi ll
decrease exh a ust em ission s prod uced b y c a rs by 25% in A l maty c i ty [55]. Due to the incre a se in the
st and a rd o f l i v ing an d inco me growt h of Alm a t y ’s po pulat i on, t h e mobilit y o f t h e res i dent s an d t h e
level o f c a r ownership w ill incr ea se, which wi ll put t r emendo us st r a in on t h e cit y ’s t r ansport
infr ast r uct u re .
The Bi g Almaty Ring Road (Kazakhsta n )
Considering the huge amo u nt of traffic in Alm a ty ci ty a n d the nega ti ve envi ronmenta l i m p a ct
t h at it ca us es , t h e B i g Al mat y Ring R o ad (BAK AD ) h a s been in it iat e d t o rel i e ve t h e urb a n road
network by di verti n g tra n si t traf fi c f r om the ci ty. Transi t vehi cl es pa ss through Al m a ty a n d f o ll ow
internation a l corridors such as Tash kent–Sh y mk ent– Ta ra z– Bi shk e k – A l ma ty- K hor g os (Ne w Si lk
Roa d ), and Alm a t y –K ar a g and a –N ur- S ult a n (Ast an a) –Pet rop a vl ovsk, We st ern Eu rop e – W est e rn
China, a s sho w n in F i g u re 13 .

Figure 13. Big Almaty Ring Road (B AKAD) map. Sou r ce: [5 6].
It is pl anned t o build 8 jun c t i ons an d 39 overpa sses along the B A K A D, which w o uld be a 4- t o
6-lan e autobahn with a per m itted speed of 120–150 k m /h. The rin g road will b e 66 km long, and is

Figure 13. Big Almaty Ring Road (BAKAD) map. Source: [ 56 ].

Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 4973 15 of 26
It is planned to build 8 junctions and 39 overpasses along the BAKAD, which would be a 4- to
6-lane autobahn with a permitted speed of 120–150 km / h. The ring road will be 66 km long, and is
planned to be located at a distance of 20–25 km fr om the centre of Almaty , along its suburban zone
thr ough the territory of the Karasai (27.5 km long), Ili (19.26 km long) and T algar (19.24 km long)
districts of the Almaty r egion [
56
]. It is expected that BAKAD will ensure impr ovement of transit
capacity and competitiveness of trans-Kazakhstan transit r outes.
The annual incr ease in the intensity of tra ffi c on external roads in the suburban ar ea of Almaty ,
depending on the direction of the r oad, is 3% to 8.5% [
56
]. The transport model of Almaty city
was developed by means of PTV V ision VISUM, and the for ecasted results of incr easing annual
average daily tra ffi c intensity along BAKAD (v / day) ar e shown in Figure 14 . It can be seen that the
highest tra ffi c volume will occur in 2033 and 2038 on Northern semi-ring–Zhansugur ov streets and on
Zhansugur ov–Lavreneva str eets as they are leading to the “W estern Europe–W estern China” trade
corridor and the International Centr e for Cross-Bor der Cooperation “Khorgos”.
Sustainability 2019 , 11 , x FOR PE ER RE VI E W 15 of 27
p l anned t o b e loc a t e d at a dist anc e o f 2 0 – 2 5 km from t h e cent re o f Alm a t y , alon g it s s u b u rb a n zone
through the terri tory of the Ka ra sa i (27 . 5 km l o ng) , I l i ( 1 9 . 2 6 km l o ng) an d Ta l g ar (1 9. 2 4 k m long)
di stri cts of the Al m a ty regi on [56 ] . It is expect ed that BAKAD will ensure improvement of t r ansit
capac i ty and competitiveness o f tr ans-K a zakh stan tr ansit ro utes.
The ann u a l in creas e in t h e i n t e nsit y o f t r af fic on ext e r n al ro ads in t h e s u b u rb an are a o f Alm a t y ,
dependi n g on the di recti o n of the road, i s 3 % to 8.5% [ 5 6 ] . The tra n sport model of Al m a ty ci ty was
developed b y means of PT V Vis ion VIS U M, and t h e forec a st ed r e s u lt s o f incre a sing ann u a l a v erage
dai l y t r a f f i c i n t e nsit y alon g B A KAD (v / d ay ) are sho w n in F i gu re 14 . It c a n b e s een t h at t h e highes t
tra f fi c vol u m e wi ll occur i n 203 3 a n d 2 038 on Northern semi-r ing–Zhan su g u rov streets and on
Zhansugurov – L a vreneva streets as they are le ad in g t o the “Western Europe– W estern Chi n a ” tra d e
corridor and the Internatio nal Centre fo r Cross-Border Cooperation “Khorgo s ”.

Figure 14. F o recasted resu lt s o f annu al avera g e daily tr aff i c intensity along BAK A D in 203 3 (v/day).
It is c l aim e d t h at “t he BA KAD op er at i o n wi ll le ad to a decrea se i n traf fi c ja m s to the Al m a ty
centre and an incre a sing in the aver age speed of moto r tra n sport i n the ci ty; a s a resul t , there wi l l be
a decre a s e in avera g e f u el consumpt io n, which wi ll lead t o a ge nera l reduct i o n in greenh o use g a s
emi s si ons” [57 ] . A ppa rently , i t s eems th at the phenomenon of in d u ced dem a nd is ne glected in this
st at em ent . It i s a known f a ct t h at new r o ads gen e rat e ext r a t r af fic (t he f i g u re a b ov e dem o ns t r at es a
vehicle growt h on BAK A D ) . Moreover, rural c a r-ba se d developme n t might be st imulated. F i g u re 15
depicts th at BAKAD will pass thro ug h farmland s (represented by pink colo ur) an d settlements
aroun d it (r epresented b y green colo ur). In addit i on, T a ble 3 descr i bes t h e list of h o usin g
developments loca ted a l ong the proposed BAKAD bypa ss road.
Therefore , th e new c a p a city will encourage ex tra trips whi c h woul d not otherwi s e be m a de.
Also , t h e car number gro w t h will le ad t o congest i o n incre a se, w h ich wi ll c a u s e an incre a s e in t h e
amount o f v e hicle emissions. Th us, en vironmental state might n o t be improv ed in the lon g run .
Moreov er, G E F/ UNDP cl a i m e d t h at “i f Alm a t y fo llo ws existi ng tra n sporta tion pol i c ies when most of
the i n vestments a r e ma de towa rds the devel o pmen t of new ro ad networks and person al car use
st imul at ion , by 20 2 3 , c a rb on dioxid e e m iss i ons fro m the tra n sport sector i n Al ma ty a r e expected t o
grow by 75% ” [58] .
The act u al b e nefit s , a s wel l as t h e adv e r s e ef fect of in duced t r af fic can b e a sse ss ed now for t h e
BAKAD as t h e project is st ill under con s t ruct i on. Thu s , in ord e r t o ant i cip a t e wh et her BAKA D will

Figure 14. Forecasted results of annual average daily tra ffi c intensity along BAKAD in 2033 (v / day).
It is claimed that “the BAKAD operation will lead to a decrease in tra ffi c jams to the Almaty
centr e and an increasing in the average speed of motor transport in the city; as a r esult, ther e will be
a decr ease in average fuel consumption, which will lead to a general r eduction in greenhouse gas
emissions” [
57
]. Apparently , it seems that the phenomenon of induced demand is neglected in this
statement. It is a known fact that new roads generate extra tra ffi c (the figur e above demonstrates a
vehicle gr owth on BAKAD). Moreover , rural car -based development might be stimulated. Figur e 15
depicts that BAKAD will pass thr ough farmlands (repr esented by pink colour) and settlements ar ound
it (r epresented by gr een colour). In addition, T able 3 describes the list of housing developments located
along the pr oposed BAKAD bypass road.

Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 4973 16 of 26
Sustainability 2019 , 11 , x FOR PE ER RE VI E W 16 of 27
mi ti ga te traf fi c congesti on i n Al ma ty and i m prove i t s cur r ent ec ologic a l sit u a t ion in t h e lo ng r u n ,
expert interv iews w e re co nducted and matched w i t h the c l assifie d concepts (d iscussed e a r l ier) for
the BAKAD.

Figure 15. Big Almaty Ring Road (B AKAD) scheme.
Table 3. List of existing settle m ents along the BAK A D rout e.
Vi lla ge Na m e St at ion Point Di st a n ce from t h e Route , m
Asse l v i ll ag e SP 0 + 0 0 – S P 1 + 50 20 m on t h e l e ft
Hous ing are a SP 1 3 + 00 –S P 2 0 From b o t h si des
Ra im b e k v i l l a g e SP 1 9 + 00 –S P 3 3 + 00 Right 4 0 0 m
Ra imbek- 2 vi ll age ПК 5 2 + 00– SP 55+ 00 R i ght 28 0 m
La stochka v i ll a g e SP 75 + 0 0 – S P 11 7 + 00 On the l e f t 550 –69 0 m
Aksengi r vi lla ge SP 20 9 + 00– SP 210 + 0 0 Lef t 2 0 m
Aksengi r vi lla ge SP 21 3 + –SP 2 1 5 + 00 On the a x i s of the road
Issa evo vi lla ge SP 22 5 + 00– SP 227 + 0 0 Lef t 5 0 m
Tui m ebayev vi l l a g e SP 37 4 + 00– SP 379 + 0 0 On the a x i s of the road
Yntyma k vil l a g e SP 42 0 + 00– SP 426 + 0 0 R i ght 60 0 m
Pokrovka vil l a g e SP 45 4 + 00– SP 468 + 0 0 Through settlement
Kyz y l t u v i ll age SP 52 8 + 00– SP 530 + 0 0 On the ri ght 2 0 m
Ta l d ybula k v i l l a g e SP 64 9 + 00– SP 653 + 0 0 R i ght 14 0 m
Kyz y l k a i ra t v i l l a g e SP 65 3 + 00– SP 658 + 0 0 To the l e f t 200 m
6. B i g Alm a t y Rin g Ro ad (BA K AD ) an aly s is
6. 1. Ex per t O p i n i o n on B A K A D
To gather ex pert opinion on BAKAD and over all congestion management in Alm a ty c i ty,
int e rviews w e re con d uct e d f a ce -t o-f a c e and ov er the phone with 60 respon dents. Amon g the
respondents, two persons were invo lved in B A KAD project, and t h e rest had e x pertise in highway
and traffic e n gineer ing, busine ss an d financ e, an d members of the envir o nmental pr otection
community. Furthermore , the m a jority of r e sponden t s were re sid e nts of A l mat y who were familiar
wi th the Alma ty tra n sport system a n d the l o ca l envi ronment. The i n terv i e w wa s conducted i n a
structured fo rmat w i th a fixed n u mber of pre - set questions so that comprehensive opin ion co uld b e
gathered for each factor . T h e responses are summ arized as follows.
Q1: Wh at will be the results of the B A KAD pr oject i n terms of congesti on, envi ronmental
impact ( a ir q u a lit y ) , and n e w developm ent s alon g t h e BAKAD? Wil l it s o lve c o ngest i on in t h e lon g
run in A l mat y ?
The major i t y of re sponden t s as sumed t h at an in it ia l r e lie f in t r a f f i c c o ngest i on wo uld occur due
to the operation of BAKAD; however, it would ha v e a temporary effect on ly . A ddit i on al m e as ures
such as furt her constr uction o f m e t r o l i nes , im p l y i ng an ann u al const r uct i on of 2 – 3 st at ions ,
commiss ioni ng of monor a il line s , and a n incre a se in t r olle ybus l i ne s might so lve t r aff i c con g es t i on in

Figure 15. Big Almaty Ring Road (BAKAD) scheme.
T able 3. List of existing settlements along the BAKAD route.
V illage Name Station Point Distance from the Route, m
Assel village SP 0 + 00–SP 1 + 50 20 m on the left
Housing area SP 13 + 00–SP 20 From both sides
Raimbek village SP 19 + 00–SP 33 + 00 Right 400 m
Raimbek-2 village Π K 52 + 00–SP 55 + 00 Right 280 m
Lastochka village SP 75 + 00–SP 117 + 00 On the left 550–690 m
Aksengir village SP 209 + 00–SP 210 + 00 Left 20 m
Aksengir village SP 213 + –SP 215 + 00 On the axis of the road
Issaevo village SP 225 + 00–SP 227 + 00 Left 50 m
T uimebayev village SP 374 + 00–SP 379 + 00 On the axis of the road
Yntymak village SP 420 + 00–SP 426 + 00 Right 600 m
Pokrovka village SP 454 + 00–SP 468 + 00 Through settlement
Kyzyltu village SP 528 + 00–SP 530 + 00 On the right 20 m
T aldybulak village SP 649 + 00–SP 653 + 00 Right 140 m
Kyzylkairat village SP 653 + 00–SP 658 + 00 T o the left 200 m
Ther efore, the new capacity will encourage extra trips which would not otherwise be made.
Also, the car number growth will lead to congestion incr ease, which will cause an incr ease in the
amount of vehicle emissions. Thus, environmental state might not be impr oved in the long run.
Mor eover , GEF / UNDP claimed that “if Almaty follows existing transportation policies when most
of the investments are made towar ds the development of new road networks and personal car use
stimulation, by 2023, carbon dioxide emissions from the transport sector in Almaty ar e expected to
gr ow by 75%” [ 58 ].
The actual benefits, as well as the adverse e ff ect of induced tra ffi c can be assessed now for the
BAKAD as the pr oject is still under construction. Thus, in order to anticipate whether BAKAD will
mitigate tra ffi c congestion in Almaty and impr ove its current ecological situation in the long r un,
expert interviews wer e conducted and matched with the classified concepts (discussed earlier) for
the BAKAD.
6. Big Almaty Ring Road (BAKAD) analysis
6.1. Expert Opinion on BAKAD
T o gather expert opinion on BAKAD and overall congestion management in Almaty city , interviews
wer e conducted face-to-face and over the phone with 60 respondents. Among the respondents, two
persons wer e involved in BAKAD project, and the rest had expertise in highway and tra ffi c engineering,
business and finance, and members of the environmental pr otection community . Furthermore, the
majority of r espondents were r esidents of Almaty who were familiar with the Almaty transport system
and the local envir onment. The interview was conducted in a structured format with a fixed number

Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 4973 17 of 26
of pr e-set questions so that comprehensive opinion could be gather ed for each factor . The responses
ar e summarized as follows.
Q1: What will be the results of the BAKAD pr oject in terms of congestion, envir onmental
impact (air quality), and new developments along the BAKAD? W ill it solve congestion in
the long run in Almaty?
The majority of r espondents assumed that an initial relief in tra ffi c congestion would occur due to
the operation of BAKAD; however , it would have a temporary e ff ect only . Additional measures such
as further construction of metr o lines, implying an annual construction of 2–3 stations, commissioning
of monorail lines, and an increase in tr olleybus lines might solve tra ffi c congestion in the long run.
In addition, the switching of all public transport of Almaty to gas, and an upgrade of all of the HPPs in
the city by switching them to gas would minimize the harmful impact on the envir onment.
Curr ently a large number of drivers fr om the periphery (exurban areas outside Almaty), for example
fr om Kamenka, Akzhar , Kaskelen, T algar and other villages in Almaty regional ar eas, converge on the
Almaty city centr e every morning and evening, thus creating tra ffi c jams on the r oad. Almost 200,000
people come to Almaty city daily fr om nearby exurban regions, and only a negligible number use public
transport. Urban sprawl is also induced by the 50% discounts on taxes and insurance for residents
fr om nearby exurban areas of Almaty , which motivates people to live outside the city boundaries,
wher e private cars are the only mode of transport to the city centr e. Therefor e, BAKAD will designate
new bor ders for the city of Almaty , meaning that the territorial borders of the agglomeration cor e will
be in active gr owth. Therefor e, the previously or ganized green belts (gr een lands) around the city will
gradually be destr oyed in favour of low-rise buildings, as shown in Figure 16 , and the dependence on
personal transport will also gr ow . The other problem is that new housing developments, which would
mostly be private houses, use coal for heating purposes. Furthermore, new business and industrial
developments ar e expected along BAKAD, which will also stimulate private car ownership. All these
facts will influence the development of induced tra ffi c on BAKAD and in Almaty city in the long run
and will cause irr eparable harm to the environment, imposing damage to the air quality of Almaty .
Sustainability 2019 , 11 , x FOR PE ER RE VI E W 17 of 27
t h e long r u n. In ad dit i on , t h e sw it ching of al l publ ic tra n sport of Alma ty to ga s, and a n upgra d e of a l l
of the HPPs i n the ci ty b y swi t chi n g them to ga s woul d m i nimi z e the ha rmf u l i m pa ct on the
environment.
Currently a large n u mber of d r iver s fr om the per i p h ery (ex u rban areas outside Alm a ty), for
exam p l e fro m Kam e nk a, Akzh ar , Ka s k elen, Ta lg ar and ot her v ill ag es in A l m a t y reg i ona l ar ea s,
converge on the Al m a ty ci ty centre every morni n g and evenin g, thus c r eat i ng traffic jams o n the
roa d . Al most 20 0,000 peopl e come to Al ma ty ci ty daily from n e arby exurb a n regions, an d only a
negli g ib le n u mber u s e p u blic t ran sport . Urban spr a wl i s al so ind u c e d by t h e 5 0 % di scount s on t a xes
and ins u ranc e for res i dent s from nea r by exurb a n ar eas of Alm a t y , which mot i vat e s peop le t o live
outside the c i ty bound a rie s , where pr iv ate car s are the onl y mode of tra n sport to the ci ty centre.
Therefore , B A KAD will d e sign ate new borders for t h e ci ty of Alma ty, mea n ing tha t the terri toria l
borders of th e agg l omer at ion core will be in ac ti ve growth. Theref ore, the previ o usl y orga niz e d
green be lt s (g reen land s) a r ound t h e cit y wil l g r ad u a l l y be dest roye d in f a vour o f low - ri se b u i l d ings ,
as shown in F i gur e 1 6 , an d t h e dep e nden ce on p e rs on al transport w i ll also grow. The other pro b lem
is t h at new housin g d e ve lopment s , w h ich wo uld most ly be pr ivat e ho use s , use co al for heat in g
purposes. F u rthermore, n e w business and indust rial developm ents ar e expe cted along B A KAD,
which wi ll a l so st im ul at e privat e c a r o w nership. A l l t h ese f a ct s wil l in fl uence t h e develop m ent of
induce d traffic on BAK A D and in A l mat y city in th e long ru n a n d wi ll ca u s e irrepa ra bl e ha rm to the
envi ronment, i m posi ng dama ge to the ai r q u a l i t y of Al ma ty.

Figure 16. Green lands around Almaty in 201 9.
Q2: Do you know if any deve lopmen ts (ho u s i ng, business and other) are p l anned in the
BAKAD Proj ect? Will the s e developme n ts aro u nd th e BAKAD pr oject stimulat e employmen t ?
A major i ty o f respond e nts claimed that it w a s planned to l o cate bus st a t i o ns, recrea ti ona l
centres, re sid e ntial an d in dustrial zon e s, and petrol st at ions from privat e own e rs in t h e a r e a of t h e
tra n sport i n tercha nges a t t h e entra n ces to BAKAD. Also, to ensure t h e oper ation of the toll h i g h way,
a DE U (ro a d ma int e nance f a ci lit y ) com p lex w i t h an IPTS (Intellig e nt Transpor t Payment Sy stem)
cont rol cent re wi ll be const r uct e d . At ra di al exit s ( A lm at y-B i shk e k, A l mat y -Sh a ma lg an ,
Almaty -Talg a r and three o t her highw a y s ), as in Fi gure 13 , constructi on of large shopping c e ntres
(hyperm a rket s), log i st ic s t e rmina l s , ind u st ri al zo nes ( f a c tori es) , and producti on a n d di stri b u ti on
cent res m a y b e init i a t e d. Al so, at a short dist anc e from t h e BAKAD Ring Ro ad , n e w res i dent i a l ar ea s ,
s o cia l a n d bus i ness i n fras tru c tu re (a s resi dentia l comp l e xes, bu s i ness centres , bu si nes s pa rk s) wi ll be
located . Som e compan ies will move their br anche s fr om the ci ty centre to the ri ng road a r ea due to
convenient p a rk ing an d b e t t e r t r anspor t acce ss ibil it y. Moreover, hotel s , ga s st at ions, veh i cle repair
and ma int e nance serv ices for t r ansit ve hicle s on int e rnat ion a l corr idor (A lm at y-Ust - K a meno gorsk )
a n d the transconti nental corri dor (Western Eu rope– W estern China) w i ll be developed. The
respondents agree d that new job opportunities wo uld be cre a te d due to BA KAD deve lo pment.
However, i f industrial a n d busi ness si tes were to be more concentra t ed i n si de the Al m a ty ci t y , then

Figure 16. Green lands around Almaty in 2019.
Q2: Do you know if any developments (housing, business and other) are planned in the
BAKAD Pr oject? W ill these developments around the BAKAD pr oject stimulate employment?
A majority of r espondents claimed that it was planned to locate bus stations, recr eational centres,
r esidential and industrial zones, and petrol stations fr om private owners in the area of the transport
inter changes at the entrances to BAKAD. Also, to ensure the operation of the toll highway , a DEU (r oad
maintenance facility) complex with an IPTS (Intelligent T ransport Payment System) control centr e will

Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 4973 18 of 26
be constructed. At radial exits (Almaty-Bishkek, Almaty-Shamalgan, Almaty-T algar and thr ee other
highways), as in Figur e 13 , construction of large shopping centr es (hypermarkets), logistics terminals,
industrial zones (factories), and production and distribution centr es may be initiated. Also, at a
short distance fr om the BAKAD Ring Road, new residential ar eas, social and business infrastructur e
(as r esidential complexes, business centres, business parks) will be located. Some companies will move
their branches fr om the city centre to the ring r oad area due to convenient parking and better transport
accessibility . Moreover , hotels, gas stations, vehicle repair and maintenance services for transit vehicles
on international corridor (Almaty-Ust-Kamenogorsk) and the transcontinental corridor (W estern
Eur ope–W estern China) will be developed. The r espondents agreed that new job opportunities would
be cr eated due to BAKAD development. However , if industrial and business sites were to be mor e
concentrated inside the Almaty city , then there would be a risk that these HGVs would enter the city to
access industrial and business sites such as warehouses, etc., as happened, for example, in the case
of the Newbury bypass, where the old r oad still experienced high levels of HGVs because of new
industrial and business sites accessed via the old road (thr ough the city centre). The other risk is that
some drivers might want to skip paying fees for BAKAD and again use the old r oads through the city
centr e, thus resulting in ther e being no decrease in tra ffi c volume inside the city .
Q3: In your opinion, will the BAKAD ring r oad cause changes in the behaviour patterns of
Almaty inhabitants in the long run? W ill there be a new gr owth of car owners?
All r espondents talked about induced tra ffi c demand and believed that there would be r ecurring
tra ffi c congestion on BAKAD and in the city centr e. In the short run, this will consist of generated tra ffi c:
drivers divert their trips fr om other routes, times, and destinations. In the long term, the growing
number of vehicles will be a r esult of induced tra ffi c. For example, the post-opening project evaluation
of Polegate in the United Kingdom pr oves the existence of induced tra ffi c growth as described in the
section on concept 1. Therefor e, considering BAKAD in the framework of the 1st concept findings,
it can be assumed that induced tra ffi c will occur after the opening of the BAKAD r oad.. The parallel
r outes M36, P19 and outbound roads such as T algar , Kuljinsky , Iliysky , Almaty–Bishkek might have
lower tra ffi c volumes immediately after opening the BAKAD bypass.
Accor ding to the responses, BAKAD will make remote ar eas of Almaty attractive for drivers,
and thus they will switch fr om other alternate routes, times and modes due to the high speed that is
possible on it. Moreover , BAKAD will stretch the city and incr ease its car dependency by expanding
r esidential areas significantly , as mentioned earlier in r esponse of the first question. In connection with
the de-urbanization of the city , there will be many new places that can only be r eached by private cars.
Q4: Please provide a few methods to destimulate car ownership in Almaty
Accor ding to the responses, it is possible to destimulate car use by:
• building park-and-ride ar eas (P + R) at the entrances to the city and at metro;
•
incr easing the number of suburban bus routes to Kaskelen, Uzyn Agash, T algar , Esik, Kapshagai
fr om Almaty city and settlements adjacent to the city;
• launching commuter trains to Uzyn Agash, Kapshagay , T algar;
• incr easing the cost of parking in the city centre and making the city centr e a paid area;
• or ganising transport services for students and sta ff at educational institutions;
• intr oducing fines for cars that do not meet Euro 5 fuel standar ds;
• developing a convenient bicycle infrastructur e in Almaty;
• pr oviding excellent, low-cost and frequent public transport inside the city and on the outskirts;
• ensuring a safe licensed taxi service and pr oviding safety in general in the city .
Despite such r esponses related to building P + R ar eas, it must be taken into account that such
ar eas, after long-term analyses do not actually decrease car ownership, as a car is still needed to r each
the P + R station [ 59 ]. Thus, a positive impact of P + R areas is questionable.

Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 4973 19 of 26
All these methods ar e similar approaches, successfully applied in di ff er ent cities such as Hasselt
and Stockholm, as described earlier . However , further detailed study is necessary to examine the
suitability of each method for Almaty city , taking into consideration its current transportation system,
socio-economic cultur es, land use pattern, people’s behaviour , etc. Furthermor e, one respondent
suggested following the example of Jakarta’s tra ffi c regulation in Almaty , since the city is heavily car
dependent. According to the r egulation, each car must have three or mor e passengers in the central
business district of the city during peak hours, otherwise drivers are fined. The respondent claimed
that tra ffi c jam in Jakarta incr eased significantly after the cancellation of this policy in 2016, and average
speeds dr opped from 28 km / hr to 19 km / hr and fr om 21 km / hr to 11 km / hr during the morning and
evening peak periods, r espectively .
Q5: Do you think that the charging system on BAKAD bypass will attract drivers to use it?
Accor ding to the responses, it is expected that the cost of travel of 1 km might be equal to 1 KZT
for private cars, 5 to 15 KZT for buses depending on passenger capacity , and 5 to 20 KZT for trucks
depending on their carrying capacity . Thus, charges on BAKAD ring r oad will be a ff ordable for
potential drivers. However , when considering Oslo city’s mobility plan, with its high tari ff s on the
Oslo toll ring, it was found that tra ffi c congestion inside the city and personal car ownership on the
local r oads were e ff ectively decr eased, whereas the shar e of public transport increased (drivers wanted
to save money). This means that if the BAKAD tolling system has low tari ff s, then this measur e will not
be e ff ective in achieving the expected results. However , if toll tari ff s become una ff ordable for drivers,
then ther e is a risk that they may not use the tolled BAKAD road and continue to use old r outes, and
keep entering the city . The next solution to that might be the inclusion of another toll charge on entry
into the city centr e. This would encourage drivers (not transit vehicle drivers) to switch to public
transport, provided that public transport conditions ar e impr oved with competitive fares. For example,
in Stockholm, as a r esult of the tolled cordon ar ound its city centr e, the number of drivers switching to
public transport services incr eased by 5%, causing a vehicle tra ffi c reduction of 22% in the inner city .
One r espondent added that due to the active transit flow from and to China, the BAKAD pr oject
will bring huge pr ofits to the Kazakhstani state budget in the future, as soon as the r epayment period
for the Concessionair es ends.
Q6: Do you think that the BAKAD pr oject must be a part of an integrated plan to solve
congestion pr oblems in Almaty (with other intercity measur es such as improvement of public
transport, cycling conditions, decr easing car use, road pricing)?
All r espondents agreed that BAKAD must be a part of a combined plan with other inter city
measur es. The city’s urban structur e must minimize the need for people to move over long distances,
and thus to use private cars. It is necessary to increase the density of the city and to avoid an urban
sprawl. One of the respondents pr ovided a detailed plan:
1.
Contr ol taxis with proper taxi licenses and designated taxi points. Curr ently , there ar e huge
numbers of gypsy taxis who stop her e and there for passengers and occupy the external lanes,
leading to ine ff ective use of r oad capacity .
2.
Develop a pr oper transport facility for school-going students. Everyone knows how the tra ffi c
flow slows down fr om 1 September , when classes start for schools. Following the example of the
USA, wher e a couple of buses collect children at special ar eas at certain time periods, instead of 30
private cars with par ents and students occupying the road space and cr eating tra ffi c congestion,
ther e will be 1 bus on the road.
3.
Impr ove the public transport facilities, develop an undergr ound metro in the city centr e, since
ther e is not enough open space.
4.
Develop trains fr om the suburbs (T algar , Kapchagay , Kaskelen). Although this is expensive,
it would e ff ectively r eplace the huge tra ffi c flow coming from the suburbs to the city centr e. A taxi
driver can make 2–3 trips every day in the morning fr om T algar to Almaty . One train would
r eplace no less than 100 cars.

Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 4973 20 of 26
However , further detailed study is necessary before implementing the afor ementioned plans,
as mentioned earlier . Many r espondents placed an emphasis on improved and friendlier public
transport, especially bus services with polite crew (drivers and conductors) so that mor e passengers
ar e attracted to using public transport, special priority places for pregnant women and older people
inside the bus, the need for buses to be convenient for users with disabilities, and a culture of or ganised
boar ding of buses must be developed (like in many developed countries, where those who come to the
bus station first enter the bus first).
Q7: What would personally motivate you to ride a bike to work?
A majority of r espondents stated that the main obstacles to riding a bike to work were: harsh
climate conditions in winter , that the city was built on a slope, the illogical and fragmented (incomplete)
cycling infrastructur e, the lack of safety on roads for cyclists, and ther e being no priority for cyclists,
no barriers for the cycling paths on the r oad space, no parking facilities for bikes near commer cial
centr es, no shower cabins o ff ered by employers after driving a bike, and no bike pr omotion programs
(e.g., subsidies for purchasing a bicycle, or a rewar ds per kilometr e with a GPS sensor installed in
bicycles). Therefor e, bikes might not be an e ff ective measure to manage congestion in Almaty .
Q8: What do you think of the second BR T corridor that will pass along densely populated
str eets such as Zheltoksan, T ole bi and the Eastern bypass r oad to the new bus station on the
Kuldzhinsky highway in 2021?
A majority of r espondents (51%) from Figur e 17 criticized the construction of the 2nd BR T corridor
by describing their negative experience of the 1st BR T line on T imiryazev Street, which is still congested.
Some of the r espondents asked to stop concentrating on the city centre only , and to think of public
transport options in the outskirts of Almaty and rural ar eas around Almaty; furthermor e, they stated
“why not incr ease the number of new routes of the under ground metr o? Its capacity is greater than
that of the buses”. Only 20% supported construction of the new BR T line, saying that “Almaty is not
for cars, it is for people, our childr en must grow in a safe city with no car accidents, and thus, public
transport (LR T , BR T) is a good solution”. Obviously , due to poor experiences of the 1st BR T line on
T imiryazev Str eet, Almaty citizens are sceptical about r educing tra ffi c congestion by launching the new
BR T line.
Sustainability 2019 , 11 , x FOR PE ER RE VI E W 20 of 27
Q7 : Wha t woul d persona lly moti va te you to ride a b i ke to work?
A majority of respondent s stated th at the main ob stacles to r i din g a bik e to wo rk wer e : har s h
clim at e cond it ions in win t er, t h at t h e cit y wa s bui l t on a s l op e, t h e il log i c a l and fra g ment ed
(incomplet e ) cyclin g inf r a s t r uct u re , t h e l a ck of sa fet y on ro ads f o r cyc l i s t s , a n d t h ere bei n g n o
priorit y for c y cli s t s , no bar r iers for t h e c y clin g pat h s on t h e road s p ace, no par k ing fac i l i t i es f o r bike s
near commercial centres, no shower cabins offer ed by employers after dr ivin g a bike , and no bik e
promot ion programs (e. g ., subs idie s for purcha sing a bicycle , or a r e ward s per ki lomet r e wit h a GPS
sensor installed in bicyc l es). Th erefo r e, bike s might not be a n ef f e ct i v e mea s ure to ma nage
congesti on i n Al m a ty.
Q8: Wh at do you thin k o f the second BRT co rrid o r that w i ll p a ss along den sely populate d
streets such as Zheltok s an, Tole bi an d the Ea ster n bypass ro ad to the new bus station on the
Kuld zhin sky highwa y in 2 0 2 1 ?
A m a jority o f r e spondent s (51% ) from F i gu re 1 7 cri t i c iz ed the constructi on of the 2 n d BRT
corridor by d e scrib i ng their neg a tive ex perience of t h e 1st BRT line on Tim i ry azev Street, which is
still con g este d. Some of the re spondents ask ed to st op concentra t ing on the ci ty centre only, a n d t o
think of pub lic transport options in the outski rts of A l maty and rur a l are a s aro u nd A l maty;
furthermore, they stated “why not increase the numb er of new routes of the und e rgroun d metro? Its
ca pa ci ty i s grea ter tha n tha t of the buses”. On l y 2 0 % supported constructi on of the new BR T l i n e,
say i ng t h at “ A lmat y is not for car s , it is for people, o u r c h i l d r e n m u s t g r o w i n a s a f e c i t y w i t h n o c a r
a cci dents, a n d thus, publi c tra n sport ( L R T , BR T ) is a good solution”. Obviously, due to poor
experience s o f the 1st B R T line on Tim i ryazev Str eet, Al m a ty ci tizens are sceptica l a b out reduci ng
tra f fi c congesti on by launchi n g the new BR T l i n e.

Figure 17. Percentage of public attitude towa rds the constru c tion of the 2n d BRT line in A l maty.
Q9: From the beginn ing o f April 2019, r e construc tion work w i th a prior i ty fo r pedestrians o n
the sections of Baise i tova Street, Zhibe k Zholy and Dostyk Aven ue will start (Figure 18). What is
your op inion ?

Figure 18. Zhib ek Zholy Street ’s visual ization model .

Figure 17. Percentage of public attitude towards the constr uction of the 2nd BR T line in Almaty .
Q9: From the beginning of April 2019, r econstruction work with a priority for pedestrians
on the sections of Baiseitova Str eet, Zhibek Zholy and Dostyk A venue will start (Figur e 18 ).
What is your opinion?
A majority of r espondents (63%) as shown in Figure 19 wer e positive towards turning thr ee
city centr e streets into pedestrian priority str eets. However , some respondents wished to stop doing
r econstruction work only in the city centre ar ea, as some districts in the outskirts of Almaty do not
have pr oper roads and r oadway lighting.

Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 4973 21 of 26
Sustainability 2019 , 11 , x FOR PE ER RE VI E W 20 of 27
Q7 : Wha t woul d persona lly moti va te you to ride a b i ke to work?
A majority of respondent s stated th at the main ob stacles to r i din g a bik e to wo rk wer e : har s h
clim at e cond it ions in win t er, t h at t h e cit y wa s bui l t on a s l op e, t h e il log i c a l and fra g ment ed
(incomplet e ) cyclin g inf r a s t r uct u re , t h e l a ck of sa fet y on ro ads f o r cyc l i s t s , a n d t h ere bei n g n o
priorit y for c y cli s t s , no bar r iers for t h e c y clin g pat h s on t h e road s p ace, no par k ing fac i l i t i es f o r bike s
near commercial centres, no shower cabins offer ed by employers after dr ivin g a bike , and no bik e
promot ion programs (e. g ., subs idie s for purcha sing a bicycle , or a r e ward s per ki lomet r e wit h a GPS
sensor installed in bicyc l es). Th erefo r e, bike s might not be a n ef f e ct i v e mea s ure to ma nage
congesti on i n Al m a ty.
Q8: Wh at do you thin k o f the second BRT co rrid o r that w i ll p a ss along den sely populate d
streets such as Zheltok s an, Tole bi an d the Ea ster n bypass ro ad to the new bus station on the
Kuld zhin sky highwa y in 2 0 2 1 ?
A m a jority o f r e spondent s (51% ) from F i gu re 1 7 cri t i c iz ed the constructi on of the 2 n d BRT
corridor by d e scrib i ng their neg a tive ex perience of t h e 1st BRT line on Tim i ry azev Street, which is
still con g este d. Some of the re spondents ask ed to st op concentra t ing on the ci ty centre only, a n d t o
think of pub lic transport options in the outski rts of A l maty and rur a l are a s aro u nd A l maty;
furthermore, they stated “why not increase the numb er of new routes of the und e rgroun d metro? Its
ca pa ci ty i s grea ter tha n tha t of the buses”. On l y 2 0 % supported constructi on of the new BR T l i n e,
say i ng t h at “ A lmat y is not for car s , it is for people, o u r c h i l d r e n m u s t g r o w i n a s a f e c i t y w i t h n o c a r
a cci dents, a n d thus, publi c tra n sport ( L R T , BR T ) is a good solution”. Obviously, due to poor
experience s o f the 1st B R T line on Tim i ryazev Str eet, Al m a ty ci tizens are sceptica l a b out reduci ng
tra f fi c congesti on by launchi n g the new BR T l i n e.

Figure 17. Percentage of public attitude towa rds the constru c tion of the 2n d BRT line in A l maty.
Q9: From the beginn ing o f April 2019, r e construc tion work w i th a prior i ty fo r pedestrians o n
the sections of Baise i tova Street, Zhibe k Zholy and Dostyk Aven ue will start (Figure 18). What is
your op inion ?

Figure 18. Zhib ek Zholy Street ’s visual ization model .

Figure 18. Zhibek Zholy Street’s visualization model.
Sustainability 2019 , 11 , x FOR PE ER RE VI E W 21 of 27
A majority of respondents (63%) as s h own i n Fi gu r e 19 were posi ti ve towa rds turni n g three
city centre streets into ped e strian pr iorit y stre et s. Ho wever, some respondents wished to stop doin g
reconstructi on work onl y in the ci ty c en t re are a , as so me distr i cts in the outsk i rt s of Alm a ty d o not
have proper roa d s and ro a d way or p r o p er li ght i ng .

Figure 19. Percentage of public attitude towa rd s rec onstru c t i on of three str eets.
6. 2. Re comme nda t ions for Al maty
In t h e fe a s ibi l i t y st udy, it was a s s u med t h at co n s truc tion of addit i onal outer bypasses aro u nd
BAKAD wou l d red u ce t h e t r af fic int e nsit y on it , p a rti c ula r ly by removi ng t h e tra n si t fl ow tha t
fol l ows t h e i n t e rnat iona l t r ansport corr idor “We s t e r n Europe –We s t e rn Chin a” . It can be see n from
the master p l an o f A l maty ’s suburb an are a develop ment (F ig ure 2 0 ) t h at t h er e wi ll be mo re r i ng
roa d s constructed a r ound Al ma ty. BAKAD wil l be t h e nucle u s of developmen t , and w i ll ge nerate
new tri p s between the ci ty centre a n d suburba n a r ea s (where the new ring ro ad wi ll be bu il t) . Du e to
these g r owin g tr avel d i stances in the n o n-controll ed sp atially extended Alm a t y d i stricts, a great
number of pr ivat e vehic l es will c a use u n sust ain a ble “deve l opment of t h e urba n t r ansport s y st em”
[5 9] .

Figure 20. Mas t er plan of Alm a ty ’s su bu rban area deve lopm en t. Sou r ce : [60 ] .
Instead of b u ildin g num e rous byp a sses aro u nd Al ma ty, a pproa ch to the i n duced traf fic
problem mu s t be ret h ough t . As wa s fou n d in t h e UK cas e, con g est i on red u ct ion by ext end in g t h e
road net w ork alone (conce pt 1) is not ef fect ive in t h e lon g run. A long-t erm so l u t i on for re d u cing
congest i on r e qu ires m a k i n g roa d sp ace for pub lic tr ansport, ped e strians and cyclists. Ther efore,
p e o p l e w i l l s w i t c h t o m o r e s u s t a i n a b l e , s p a c e - e f f i c i e n t m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t : w a l k i n g , c y c l i n g , b u s e s ,
trams and tr ains. These ar e elements of the 2nd and 3r d concepts o f congestion re duction studied in
this re search, which h a ve been proved to be effe ctiv e. For in stanc e , H a sselt an d Stockho l m, which
were conside r ed in detail, and th e other cities in T a ble 1 d e mons tr ated so und r e sults in decr e asing
t r aff i c conges t i on (c ar us e) . The mo da l shift from dri v ing r e q u ir es invest ment i n order t o im prove

Figure 19. Percentage of public attitude towards r econstruction of thr ee streets.
6.2. Recommendations for Almaty
In the feasibility study , it was assumed that construction of additional outer bypasses around
BAKAD would r educe the tra ffi c intensity on it, particularly by removing the transit flow that follows
the international transport corridor “W estern Europe–W estern China”. It can be seen fr om the master
plan of Almaty’s suburban ar ea development (Figure 20 ) that ther e will be more ring r oads constructed
ar ound Almaty . BAKAD will be the nucleus of development, and will generate new trips between the
city centr e and suburban areas (wher e the new ring road will be built). Due to these growing travel
distances in the non-contr olled spatially extended Almaty districts, a great number of private vehicles
will cause unsustainable “development of the urban transport system” [ 59 ].
Sustainability 2019 , 11 , x FOR PE ER RE VI E W 21 of 27
A majority of respondents (63%) as s h own i n Fi gu r e 19 were posi ti ve towa rds turni n g three
city centre streets into ped e strian pr iorit y stre et s. Ho wever, some respondents wished to stop doin g
reconstructi on work onl y in the ci ty c en t re are a , as so me distr i cts in the outsk i rt s of Alm a ty d o not
have proper roa d s and ro a d way or p r o p er li ght i ng .

Figure 19. Percentage of public attitude towa rd s rec onstru c t i on of three str eets.
6. 2. Re comme nda t ions for Al maty
In t h e fe a s ibi l i t y st udy, it was a s s u med t h at co n s truc tion of addit i onal outer bypasses aro u nd
BAKAD wou l d red u ce t h e t r af fic int e nsit y on it , p a rti c ula r ly by removi ng t h e tra n si t fl ow tha t
fol l ows t h e i n t e rnat iona l t r ansport corr idor “We s t e r n Europe –We s t e rn Chin a” . It can be see n from
the master p l an o f A l maty ’s suburb an are a develop ment (F ig ure 2 0 ) t h at t h er e wi ll be mo re r i ng
roa d s constructed a r ound Al ma ty. BAKAD wil l be t h e nucle u s of developmen t , and w i ll ge nerate
new tri p s between the ci ty centre a n d suburba n a r ea s (where the new ring ro ad wi ll be bu il t) . Du e to
these g r owin g tr avel d i stances in the n o n-controll ed sp atially extended Alm a t y d i stricts, a great
number of pr ivat e vehic l es will c a use u n sust ain a ble “deve l opment of t h e urba n t r ansport s y st em”
[5 9] .

Figure 20. Mas t er plan of Alm a ty ’s su bu rban area deve lopm en t. Sou r ce : [60 ] .
Instead of b u ildin g num e rous byp a sses aro u nd Al ma ty, a pproa ch to the i n duced traf fic
problem mu s t be ret h ough t . As wa s fou n d in t h e UK cas e, con g est i on red u ct ion by ext end in g t h e
road net w ork alone (conce pt 1) is not ef fect ive in t h e lon g run. A long-t erm so l u t i on for re d u cing
congest i on r e qu ires m a k i n g roa d sp ace for pub lic tr ansport, ped e strians and cyclists. Ther efore,
p e o p l e w i l l s w i t c h t o m o r e s u s t a i n a b l e , s p a c e - e f f i c i e n t m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t : w a l k i n g , c y c l i n g , b u s e s ,
trams and tr ains. These ar e elements of the 2nd and 3r d concepts o f congestion re duction studied in
this re search, which h a ve been proved to be effe ctiv e. For in stanc e , H a sselt an d Stockho l m, which
were conside r ed in detail, and th e other cities in T a ble 1 d e mons tr ated so und r e sults in decr e asing
t r aff i c conges t i on (c ar us e) . The mo da l shift from dri v ing r e q u ir es invest ment i n order t o im prove

Figure 20. Master plan of Almaty’s suburban area development. Source: [ 60 ].

Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 4973 22 of 26
Instead of building numer ous bypasses around Almaty , appr oach to the induced tra ffi c problem
must be r ethought. As was found in the UK case, congestion r eduction by extending the road network
alone (concept 1) is not e ff ective in the long run. A long-term solution for reducing congestion r equires
making r oad space for public transport, pedestrians and cyclists. Therefor e, people will switch to more
sustainable, space-e ffi cient modes of transport: walking, cycling, buses, trams and trains. These are
elements of the 2nd and 3rd concepts of congestion r eduction studied in this resear ch, which have
been pr oved to be e ff ective. For instance, Hasselt and Stockholm, which were consider ed in detail,
and the other cities in T able 1 demonstrated sound results in decr easing tra ffi c congestion (car use).
The modal shift fr om driving requir es investment in order to impr ove sustainable transport modes,
while at the same time the capacity , access and convenience of urban road networks for motor vehicles
must be minimized.
Thus, the following r ecommendations can be made for Almaty city’s mobility approach:
• Apply a mixed land use appr oach to reduce travel distances in Almaty .
•
Develop a centralized spatial planning system that integrates both transport infrastructur e and
land-use development.
•
Intr oduce a congestion charge (toll) for driving a car in the city centr e, and then the revenues fr om
tolls can be further invested in public transport facilities in Almaty .
•
Ideally , it should be aimed to make the city centr e a car-fr ee zone; thus, an excellent public
transport alternative must be ensur ed. For example, in Hasselt city , vehicle drivers are obliged to
leave their cars outside the city centr e and further reach their destinations by di ff er ent modes.
•
Start operation of LR T or restor e operation of tram infrastructur e that was developed during the
Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic period, and increase the r outes of the existing undergr ound metr o.
•
Incr ease the number of buses and the frequency of their operation, and ensur e that drivers and
conductors ar e trained, polite and helpful to passengers with disabilities in getting into the bus.
•
Add BR T lines on other streets in Almaty and pr ohibit gypsy taxi services on streets with BR T lines.
•
Reduce the number of parking lots in the city centr e and convert them into pedestrian zones.
Impose a r easonable charge for parking, with short-term parking only , thereby discouraging
car usage.
•
Make cycling lanes safe for cyclists and give priority to cyclists on roads (as several cases
demonstrate that buses or private cars take up road space dedicated for cyclists), pr ovide bike
parking facilities near commer cial, business centres (develop bike pr omoting programs).
•
Develop train services and incr ease bus frequencies fr om the suburbs (T algar , Kapchagay and
Kaskelen) to Almaty to r emove the huge tra ffi c flow coming daily from suburbs to the city centr e
for work and study .
•
An expedited transition to gas of all heat power plants, public transport and r esidential sector in
Almaty and Almaty’s r egional area to minimize air pollution. Remove unfit and old cars fr om
r oads to minimize air pollution.
•
Or ganize various promotional and social campaigns such as car -free days, days with free-of-char ge
bus service, etc.
• All stakeholders, including Almaty r esidents, must be involved in the planning process.
•
Develop a shar ed mobility taxi service to move more people with fewer vehicles; app-based
ride-hailing services such as Y andex, Uber , EcoT axi.kz will need to apply such option for trips in
Almaty and Almaty’s r egional area.
Finally , it must be admitted that transport infrastructure is a cr ucial aspect for the economy of
Kazakhstan. Considering Kazakhstan as a transit corridor country , and the importance of the strategic
location of Almaty , it must develop an adaptive and robust transport infrastructur e. Heavy engineering
measur e such as the BAKAD project is necessary to divert transit vehicles and unload inner city tra ffi c.
At the same time, sustainable solutions such as attractive public transport, walkability , compact spatial

Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 4973 23 of 26
planning, and r estricted car usage in the city centre, as Push and Pull measur es must be implemented
to manage the tra ffi c congestion in the long run.
7. Conclusions
In this study , various approaches for mitigating tra ffi c congestion in the long run wer e investigated
in several cities and wer e classified into three concepts. The first concept comprises heavy engineering
measur es such as ring roads, bypass r oads or roadway expansions, which pr ovide short-lived relief to
tra ffi c congestion. This approach cannot solve the congestion pr oblem alone, due to induced tra ffi c
demand, which might worsen the situation for tra ffi c and the envir onment in the long run, as added
r oad capacity leads to car-dependent development, which further r esults in gr owth of tra ffi c volumes;
ther efore, a new urban roadway capacity is needed. Hence, alternative strategies that make more
e ffi cient use of existing capacity and pr omotion of alternative modes of transport must be applied
in or der to reduce congestion. These are known as travel demand management with Push and Pull
measur es and were categorized as concept 2 in this study . The third concept is a combination of heavy
engineering measur es and travel demand management with Push and Pull measures; this appr oach is
suitable for cities that need to divert thr ough tra ffi c. The heavy engineering measures ar e necessary to
incr ease the capacity of existing road(s) and other complementary measur es provide mor e sustainable
solutions to the tra ffi c congestion in the long run.
For the tra ffi c congestion pr oblem case in Almaty , it is strongly r ecommended that the
implementation of the BAKAD pr oject will be accompanied by extensive Push and Pull measures.
It is anticipated that BAKAD alone will not be su ffi cient to solve the long-term tra ffi c congestion
pr oblem in Almaty . It must be ensured that living and working places ar e concentrated in the city
and ar e close to public transport facilities such as existing and new rail stations, which ar e built to
corr esponding density and urban structur e that makes walking and cycling the most preferr ed mode of
transport. Moreover , su ffi cient funding for high-quality LR T is needed to stimulate rail + bus and rail
+ pedestrian / cycle travel modes for working and living activities. Also, the removal of private vehicle
tra ffi c fr om the roads by application of travel demand management with Push and Pull measur es such
as char ges for driving in a particular road, char ged parking areas for employees and attractive public
transport facilities at the same r oads is needed. Finally , a major r econsideration of the regulations by
which new r oad projects ar e appraised must be carried out.
In a nutshell, specific recommendations include r easonable charging systems on BAKAD and
in the city centr e, improved public transport facilities in the city centr e and from suburban ar eas,
discouraging car dependency , control of taxi services including gypsy taxis, pr omotional and social
campaigns such as car -free days, etc. These recommendations ar e supported by a detailed investigation
of the congestion management appr oaches in many cities around the world and expert interviews
r elated to the BAKAD project and the overall transportation system in Almaty city . However , detailed
study must be conducted befor e implementing any Push and Pull measures. Moreover , appr opriate
pr ograms to be developed for evaluating post-implementation impacts of BAKAD project and any
other complementary measur e taken to reduce tra ffi c congestion in Almaty . Based on the data, the
e ff ectiveness of the added infrastructur e capacity can be assessed, along with other measur es, so that
corr ective actions can be taken, hence improving the tra ffi c congestion. Finally , it should be noted that
the r esults generated in this case study are helpful for this specific case, and the r ecommendations
pr ovided by the authors are not necessarily transferable.
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization, W .-H.A., J.R.K., M.A.H., A.N.; methodology , A.N., M.A.H.,
J.R.K.; investigation, A.N., M.A.H.; resour ces, J.R.K., W .-H.A.; data curation, A.N., J.R.K., M.A.H., W .-H.A.;
writing—original draft pr eparation, A.N., M.A.H.; writing—review and editing, A.N., W .-H.A., J.R.K.; supervision,
J.R.K., W .-H.A.
Funding:
This resear ch was supported by the Nazarbayev University Researc h Fund under Grants #SOE2017003
and Sustainable Urban Mobility Resear ch in Central Asia (SUMRICA) project. The authors are grateful for these
sources of support. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expr essed in this material are
those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Nazarbayev University .

Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 4973 24 of 26
Acknowledgments:
The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance and contributions of the r espondents
who participated in the interviews and provided valuable feedback for this r esear ch.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Why institutions use Plag.ai for originality review, entry 55

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