Terminizacija: semantiniai dariniai ir vertiniai

Angelė KAULAKIENĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language TERMINOLOGISATION: SEMANTIC DERIVATIONS AND CALQUES Terminologisation is a twofold process: in one case, words from the general language and dialects are terminologised, and in the other, terms from related fields are. This phenomenon is called transterminologisation¹, or more precisely, transemantisation, which can be compared with semantic derivation, whereby one meaning is created on the basis of another meaning of a word. In such a case, “both the source of derivation and its result are formally identical, that is, there is no formal difference between the base word and the derivative. In other words, the result of the derivational act is only a new meaning of the same word”². Such a meaning is a semantic derivative. Each semantic derivative can be discussed as a separate unit, e.g.: the sememe “wave 1”, i.e. a moving mound of water caused by wind, a ship, or something else; a wave; the sememe “wave 2”, i.e. a rhythmically propagating motion in a physical medium; the sememe “wave 3”, i.e. an intensification or increase of some phenomenon; the sememe “wave 4”, i.e. a protrusion on the upper part of an object, etc.³ From a synchronic perspective, the first sememe is the motivating one, while all the others (including the sememe “wave 2”, which has become a term) are motivated. The relationship between such sememes is semantic motivation, determined either by the actual similarity of the things named by the sememes, by associations created by the imagination, or by the logical relationship between the things named⁴. However, it is generally difficult to say which term in our language has undergone transemantisation, especially when foreign-language sememes are named with native lexemes. Semantic calques then arise. The selection of such foreign-language sememes is determined by similarities and differences between the semantic patterns of words in the languages in contact. 1 G a i v e n i s K. Terminizacija ir determinizacija. — Terminologija 4, Vilnius, 1997, 5. 2 J a k a i t i e n ė E. Leksinė semantika, Vilnius, 1988, 92–93. 3Lietuvių kalbos žodynas 1, Vilnius, 1968. 4 J a k a i t i e n ė E. Min. veik., ten pat. 28 The rapid spread of semantic formations and calques in terminology can be explained and justified by several reasons. First, terminology is constantly changing, and new concepts emerge. If there were no semantic derivation and semantic translation, a great many new linguistic units would have to be coined. Such an abundance of neologisms would only make both terminology and communication among specialists more difficult. On the other hand, semantic formations and calques help systematize individual terminological systems. Third, many semantic formations and calques form the basis for new formations of a different kind or for compound terms. Semantic translation is a fairly complex phenomenon. To undertake seriously the organization and normalization of semantic calques, one must first start from the concept and the scope of its own lexical-semantic paradigm when forming a term—a semantic formation—or translating a semantic calque, and not the other way around, as is often done nowadays: starting from the semantics of a term in another language, transferring it to a Lithuanian term, and disregarding the relationship between its motivating and motivated sememes, that is, its semantic motivation. Recently, works by computer science and informatics specialists have often featured the verb inherit and the derivative formed from it, inheritance, which they regard as a term, for example: inheritance—an extension of a class (type) using the properties and operations of previously defined classes (types); inheritance dependency from concept A to concept B is defined as follows; inheritance the ODMG model supports two types—inheritance by specialization and inheritance by behavior. What can be inherited? The “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language”5 gives the following meanings of the verb paveldėti: 1) “to receive as an inheritance”: The son inherited everything J. Jabl. 2) “to receive by nature (usually physical and mental characteristics)”: Hereditary disease NdŽ. 3) “to acquire, appropriate, take possession of”: The Poles inherited what had been Lithuania Sdb. 4) “to pass on, leave, bequeath”: He bequeathed the money to someone else—he assigned it J. Jabl (Grg). As can be seen from the meanings of the verb paveldėti given in the academic “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language,” the meaning used by specialists appears to have been coined, 5 See Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language 18, Vilnius, 1997. 29 by looking at the semantics of the word in the other language, or it may have arisen from an imaginative association, since informatics and computer science literature also uses other transemanticized terms, most often from sociology, for example: generation, family. The ninth- and tenth-grade textbook “Fundamentals of Informatics” even has a section entitled “Generations of Computers”⁶, which states: “computers are divided into generations according to the electronic devices used in them. First generation: 1951–1958. Large vacuum-tube computers requiring powerful cooling systems. Second generation: 1959–1964. Transistor-based computers, already considerably smaller. Third generation: 1965–1970. Integrated circuits came into use. Fourth generation: from 1971 onward. Large-scale and very-large-scale integrated circuits are used in computers; networks emerge, compact discs are used, and multimedia equipment is introduced. At the same time, fifth-generation computers, based on a new architecture, also began to be developed.” As these sentences show, each so-called computer generation covers a certain period, so this figurative, terminologized meaning is partly motivated and can be used. Apparently, the sociological term family was transemanticized in the same way: “a group of people living together and jointly maintaining a household, related by marriage or kinship.”⁷ A study book consisting of seven workbooks, intended for people seeking the European Computer Driving Licence, graphically presents the entire family of Microsoft operating systems.⁸ Would it be logical to suppose that if generation, family are used, then inheritance or heredity could be used as well? The latter term is also listed in the “Dictionary of Mathematical Terms” (Vilnius, 1994). Certainly, inheritance could be associated with generation or family. The original meaning of the verb paveldėti is precisely “to receive from the previous generation, to retain its characteristics”; compare also heritage, “an inherited and safeguarded legacy of material and spiritual culture,” and veldynys, “that which is inherited or has been inherited.” 6 Dagienė V. Informatikos pradmenys, Vilnius, 1999, 109. 7 Dictionary of Social Security Terms, Vilnius, 1999. 8 Basic Concepts in Information Technology, Vilnius, 2000, 56. 9 See Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language 5, Vilnius, 1959. 30 (property, inheritance, word, etc.). The academic “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language” and the 3rd edition of the “Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian” (V., 1993) show that the meaning of generation used by specialists emerged recently. The polysemous word family has 8 meanings10, of which the 8th is defined as specialized: “a group of objects or phenomena of the same kind”: The family of lasers is growing extraordinarily fast trš. Family of curves Fžž 337. Family of clouds trš. Similarly, the 4th meaning of the word семейство is described in the dictionary of contemporary standard Russian: 4. in the classification systems of certain sciences (physics, geology, etc.), “a group of related objects, phenomena, etc.”: радиоактивное семейство11. In the 3rd edition of the “Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian” (V., 1993), the 3rd meaning of the word family is: biology, “a taxonomic unit comprising related genera.” In one of the more recent Lithuanian–English–Russian–German dictionaries of informatics terms12, three specific terms are listed under the generic term generation—data generation, English data generation, Russian поколение данных, German Datengeneration; information generation, English generation of information, Russian поколение информации, German Informationsgeneration and computer generation, English computer generation, Russian поколение вычислительных машин, German Rechnergeneration, while the family entry contains as many as nine specific terms: family of characteristics, English family of characteristics, Russian семейство характеристик, German Kennlinienfeld, Kennlinienschar; family of integrated circuits, English integrated circuit family, Russian серия интегральных схем, German Familie von integrierten Schaltungen; computer family, English computer family, Russian семейство вычислительных машин, ряд вычислительных машин, German Rechnerfamilie; family of curves, English family of curves, set of curves, Russian семейство кривых, German Kurvenschar; family of logic elements, English logic family, Russian семейство логических схем [элементов], серия логических элементов, German Familie von logischen Elementen; software product family, English software product family, software pro- 10 See Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language 14, Vilnius, 1986. 11 See Dictionary of Contemporary Standard Russian 13, Moscow–Leningrad, 1962. 12 Žr. Informatika, Vilnius, 1997. 31 duct set, Russian семейство программных изделий, German Software-Produktfamilie; family of solutions, English family of solutions, Russian семейство решений, German Lösungsschar; family of compatible computers, English compatible (computer) family, Russian семейство совместимых вычислительных машин, German kompatible [verträgliche] Rechnerfamilie; task family, English task family, Russian семейство задач, German Aufgabenfamilie. Three of the aforementioned specific terms under the family entry are also included in the “Dictionary of Mathematical Terms” (V., 1994)—namely, family of characteristics; family of curves; family of solutions. Similar terms can also be found in Latvian computer science dictionaries13, cf. generation of computers, Russian поколение ЭВМ, Latvian datoru paaudze; computer family, Russian семейство ЭВМ, Latvian datoru saime. These facts would suggest that the members of this terminological microsystem—generation, family, inheritance, heredity—can be regarded as international semantic calques. In translating them, one starts from the semantics of a word in another language and transfers it to a Lithuanian word. On the other hand, do such facts not indicate a general tendency across languages (although often not entirely acceptable in Lithuanian) to trans-mantize terms from other scientific fields? Compare also the sociological terms ageing, “becoming unusable, obsolete, inadequate” (when referring to a cathode, metal, steel, etc.), cf. Russian старение, English ageing, aging, German Alterung; fatigue, “wear, weakening” (of a dielectric, photoelectric component, mechanical part, metal, thermal component, etc.), cf. Russian усталость, English fatigue, German Ermüdung, which are used with the aforementioned meanings in the technical terminology of various languages. Apparently, this tendency should also be taken into account and generation, family, inheritance, heredity, as computer science terms, should be included in a dictionary of standard Lithuanian. 13 Anglų–krievu–latviešu skaidrojošā vārdnīca. A/s SWH Informātivās sistēmas, 1995. 32 TERMINOLOGISATION: SEMANTIC FORMATIONS AND CALQUES Summary Terminologisation is a two-fold process: in some cases standard language words and dialect words are being terminologised and in other cases this happens to terms of adjacent fields. The name is usually transferred when on the basis of one meaning of the word another meaning is created. Such meaning is a semantic formation. However, it is quite difficult to establish which term is terminologised or tranterminologised, especially when foreign sememes are named with native lexemes. In such cases semantic calques appear. For example, members of micro system of computer terms – karta (generation), šeima (family) – can be considered as international semantic calques as well as tranterminologised terms of sociology. Angelė KAULAKIENĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language, Antakalnio g. 6, 2055 Vilnius. Email: [email protected] Received 2001 06 25 33