Konstantino Šakenio „Fizikos“ vadovėlio terminija

Angelė KAULAKIENĖ Institute of Lithuanian Language TERMINOLOGY OF KONSTANTINAS ŠAKENIS' PHYSICS HANDBOOK 1. Introductory remarks K. Šakenio Physics textbook for secondary schools was published in 1920. It consisted of three parts, published as separate books: I. Mechanika — Šilima (142 p.); II. II d. Magnet. Elektra (77 p.); III d. Light. Sound. Energy and work (97 p.). Five editions of this three-part physics textbook for high schools were published between 1920 and 1940. Physics textbook K. Šakenis began writing while he was a teacher in Voronezh, where a large group of Lithuanian intellectuals had withdrawn after the outbreak of the First World War. When writing the textbook, K. Šakenis consulted with the linguist J. Jablonskis, mathematicians Z. Žemaitis, P. Mašiotas, M. Šikšnis, who met with J. Jablonskis every week to discuss terms, about the physics terms (Šenavičienė 1982: 87). He wrote the first part of the Physics textbook in Voronezh, and at the beginning of June 1918, after returning to Vilnius and beginning to teach physics at the gymnasium, he hurriedly began writing the second part. As the author of this textbook himself indicates, he finished it before Christmas (Šakenis 1997: 199). The third part was written in 1919 in Veleniškiai (Vabalninko village). Shortly after the first edition of this textbook in 1922, K. Šakenis prepared the second edition, in the preface of which he wrote: "Writing my Physics, I wanted to prepare a textbook for schools in which students could find only the most necessary knowledge. First of all, the circumstances of the war itself forced us, like other nations, to shorten the programme of subjects taught in schools. In addition, the lack of still necessary names and established scientific terms caused many difficulties. I therefore wrote the textbook only to fill the gap that arose when our schools began to develop. This second edition is already significantly supplemented” (Šakenis 1997: 252). ! Here and elsewhere, the texts of quotations and titles of books and their chapters are presented as authentic. Spelling and punctuation are not corrected. 66 At the time, the school was the only school in the state to offer high school degrees. In 1916-1919 I. Končius wrote a textbook of physics for gymnasiums while he was a teacher in Estonia, where he lived from autumn 1915 to 1920, when the Palanga Girls’ Gymnasium moved to the town of Verra, but the textbook was not printed. His 312-page manuscript is preserved in the Vilnius University Manuscripts (Kaulakienė 1994: 18-27). V. Čepinskis' Physics lectures (1923-1926) were not suitable for students of the upper classes of the gymnasium. P. Vileišis’s Popular Handbook of Physics, published in 1899 in Shenandoah (Pennsylvania), reprinted in Vilnius in 1905, and P. Mašioto and J. Dragašiaus textbooks were intended for primary schools. Having taught Russian for many years, K. Šakenis, like I. Končius, used the well-known textbook and illustrations of K. Krajevičius (Fizikas istorija 1988: 169). But, how. J. A. Martišius points out that K. Šakenio Physics is a fairly original work. In 1925, he was awarded a doctorate by the University of Lithuania in Kaunas. In addition, each edition (released in Vilnius, Tilžė, Marijampolė) was supplemented with new topics, historical knowledge, Lithuanian examples (Martišius 1996: 17). All five editions of K. Sakenis’ Physics textbook and their scientific level have been evaluated and discussed by the physicists themselves (Fizikos istorija 1988: 170— 172; Martišius 1994: 4-5). This article analyzes only the terminology of the first edition. The textbook covers the entire course of physics in secondary school. It consists of the following quite detailed chapters: Introduction (I. The physical body. II. The properties of bodies. III. Views and opinions); Mechanics (I. Motion and forces. II. Composition and distribution of forces. III. Equilibrium of objects. IV. Simple machines. V. Fluids. VI. Gases); Heating (I. Heating factors. II. Calorimetry. III. Steam. IV. Meteorological subjects); Magnet; Electricity (I. Electrostatics. II. Electric current. III. Electromagnetism. IV. Air electricity- ); Light (I. Introduction. II. 1998-1999 Mirrors and lenses. III. Spectrum Science. IV. Optical devices); Sound; Energy and work. As can be seen from the structure, the first part is dedicated to mechanics. In addition, it contains additional sections on chemistry and meteorology. The second part of Physics is dedicated to studying magnetic and electric phenomena. This part, by the way, describes, as J. A. Martišius (1996: 17) points out, a relatively new phenomenon of radioactivity at the time. Printing of data on the first telephone and telegraph lines in Lithuania. The third part deals with the themes of light, sound, work and energy. It is clear from the above sections or subsections that some of their names are mononyms, for example: eye (III 59), ammeter (II 40), size (19), electricity (11 12), metals (1 104), molecules (1 4), vision (III 60), spectrum (111 32), spectroscope (111 38), gravity (I 6), voltmeter 67 (11 40), etc. Perhaps the majority of headings of sections or subsections consist of twoor three-word combinations, e.g. comparative weight (1 15); radiant heating (1 114); composite movement (1 21); weight gauges (1 13); Cathode ray properties (11 52); Magnetic electric machine (11 73); beam refraction in a prism (111 25); eye distance measurement (111 64); electrical bleeding on the surface of conductors (11 17); movement of objects under force (1 24); body image in a flat mirror (111 12); air pressure expressed in weight (I 81); expression of force as a product of mass and acceleration (III 83); Vapour density variation with temperature (1 131); images of bodies placed in front of scattering lenses (III 31), etc. There are also chapters whose titles consist of simple sentences, e.g.: centrifugal force reduces the weight of an object (I 30); each work is expressed in lifting work (111 89); the ray passes through a body enclosed by two parallel planes (III 24) and so on. In general, the language of most sections or subsections is clear, simple, understandable, and the terms are accurate and correct. Apparently, this is a considerable merit of J. Jablonski. As I. Šenavičienė points out, J. Jablonskis strictly demanded the creation of terms according to the essence of the object or concept, regardless of the etymology of names in other languages, and at the same time was not a supporter of indiscriminate Lithuanianization and, according to Z. Žemaitis, did miracles. It seemed that when deciding on the term, the famous linguist was guided by some special sense of the spirit of the language, which was only available to him, precisely distinguishing living words from foreign to the Lithuanian language, just as the ears of a good musician distinguish an imprecise chord across the whole spectrum (Šenavičienė 1982: 87). When choosing the right word or term, K. Šakenis was undoubtedly influenced by J. Jablonski’s advice. Here's how the electroscope is interpreted 68 and thermal conductivity: “It is a simple glass bottle, (glass container), whose stopper must be made of a non-conducting material, such as rubber. A metal stick a with a ball b is inserted through the cork into the glass bottle. Two straws mm, or two thin paper leaves are attached to the end of the stick. If we put a glass rod rubbed with amalgamated skin on the sphere b, the thin leaves will immediately bounce off one another and form a certain angle between themselves. For from the rod the electricity enters the leaves as a conductor, and the leaves, electrified by one kind of electricity, try to distance themselves from each other” (II 14—15). “In life we often have to use the low thermal conductivity of gas. As winter approaches, we install second frames in our rooms to keep the room warmer. The heat is retained not so much by the second glass as by the air layer between the two frames. It is often said that the feet freeze more in tight shoes than in spacious ones, because in the spaces there will be more warm air that retains heat. As winter approaches, we try to cover the young trees with straw, because straw and the air inside the straw hardly pass the heat. The same can be said about wool, feathers, and other similar things that contain air inside. If these objects are compressed, so that less air will be left in them, then the thermal conductivity will also increase” (I 114). 2. Textbook terminology The terminology of K. Šakenio Physics textbook consists of general terms, physics and other sciences closely related to physics at the time, such as: echo (111 74), eye (111 59), carbon (II 31), axis (II 60), wave (III 74), work (111 91), combustion (1 97), moisture (1 134), dust (1 92), walk (III 5), end (III 11), power (III 91), steam (I 136), sound (III 71), discharge (11 13), force (III 85), tape (III 67), angle (III 72), quarter (III 6-7), hole, hole (111 60), spark (II 76), body (111 35), arc (11 51), field (11 56), table (11 8), lens (III 73— 74), flame (11 56), measure (19), material (111 10-11), mixtures (I 123), air (I 87), base (III 38), shoulder (I 15), pine (III 25), fiber (III 17), plume (III 81), circle (III 75), vision (III 60), arrow (II 40), decomposition (1 33), difference (1 88), plane (1 49), layer 69 (III 69), ray (III 14), current (II 71), beam (III 14), column (I 61), composition (I 32), pound (I 13), lever (I 49), side (II 34), shadow (III 5), heat (I 11), light (III 50), gap (II 52), bang (111 71), image (111 14), bell (II 60), mirror (III 10), spring (II 50), value (III 96), oscillation (111 69), lightning (II 76), ring (II 71), etc. Almost all of them follow the basic elements of the species terms, e.g.: akis: ilga a., trumpa a. (111 62); wave: rebound wave (111 74), sound wave (III 74), air wave (III 81), main wave (111 74), longitudinal waves (111 70), ball waves (111 70), water waves (111 70); humidity: absolute d. (I 135), absolute air d. (I 134), air d. (I 134), decimal d. (I 135), decimal air d. (1 134); end: smailasai g. (111 11), užtrauktasai g. (I 89), užtemimo g. (1119); force: atmospheric force (I 81), repulsive force (111 87), electric force (II 75), permissive force (II 41), active force (III 85), centrifugal force (I 29), tension force (III 76), parallel force (I 38-39), magnetic force (11 3), steel magnet force (11 9), polarization permittive force (11 47), breaking force (1 38), compressive force (1 38), current |. (II 29), component forces (I 36), weight j. (III 86-87), traction j. (II 8-9), friction j. (III 89); angle: reflection angle (III 72), extreme total internal reflection angle (111 24), refractive angle (111 25), refractive mass angle (III 25), deflection angle (11 10); spark: electric (11 26); body: diamagnetic bodies (11 57), electrified k. (11 19), opaque k. (III 3), non-glowing k. (111 13), imaged k. (111 67), paramagnetic bodies (11 57), polished bodies (111 44), transparent k. (111 3), liquid bodies (I 5), sliding k. (III 86-87), twined k. (III 64), bright k. (111 5), luminous k. (III 4), dark k. (IIt 3); lens: double-sided concave I. (111 62), double-sided convex I. (111 62), double-sided convex kronglass lens (III 50), compression lenses (III 29), convex convex I. (III 26), convex convex flintglass lens (111 50), flat convex I. (111 26), flat convex I. (111 26), scattering I. (111 31); measures: quarter m. (I 10), metric m. (19), sixth m. (I 10); material: opaque m. (111 4), transparent m. (111 4); air: uncondensed o. (1 87), ordinary o. (I 89), diluted o. (1 88), concentrated o. (1 87), thick o. (1 90), turbulent o. (III 80); willow: transverse p. (111 25); fibre: permeable p. (111 17), ray p. (111 3); vision: r. both eyes (111 63); number: rotation s. (11 57), string vibrations s. (111 76); decomposition: force s. (I 33), magnet s. (II 8); flying: mobile s. (1 50), simple 70 s. (I 50); current: electric current (11 28), influence current (II 65), direct current (II 30), polarisation current (11 47), polarised current (11 46), sudden current (II 28); column: mercury s. (I 61), liquid s. (I 67), water s. (I 79); lever: second type (I 48), first type (I 49); shadow: full s. (III 5); heating: stealth evaporation (1126), stealth liquefaction (1122), radiant heating (I 114); light: phosphorescent light (III 50), coloured light (III 50); image: inverted v. (III 57), inverted body v. (III 56), deformed v. (III 50), body v. (III 5), enlarged v. (III 56), positive body v. (III 50), apparent v. (111 12), real v. (III 57); mirror: convex v. (III 19), flat v. (III 11), spherical v. (III 13); source: electric v. (II 50), energy v. (III 94), current v. (II 51), light v. (III 6), etc. Such words with main accents are taken both from dialects and from ancient sources —K. The dictionaries of Sirvydas, J. Brodovskis, E. V. Hakas, P. Ruigis, E. Kuršaitis, M. Miežinis, A. Juška and others, as well as from later sources, in which folk language words were recorded (e.g.: apskaitymas (1119), apsuka (11 66), ašigalis (II 10), vėtra (II 11), dalelės (I 113), dujos (1 77), greitėjimas (1 20), grūmas (11 76), įšilimas (111 43), įtampa (II 22), įvėlė (11 68), laipsnis (I 12), linkmė (1 51), matavimas (III 64), deviation (11 10), pabūklas (II 59), paviršius (II 17), plate (II 31), device (I 85), adaptation (III 61), spray (191), equator (II 10), equilibrium (I 40), sight (149), gravity (1 18), indicator (I 84), stretch (III 42), sphere (III 90), properties (II 52), diffusion (XI 69), taste (1 99), color (III 35), perpendicular (III 14), glass (II 25), piston (I 86), composition (I 33), spinner (II 59), swamble (1 6), weight (I 38), hexagonal, -ė (I 10-11), pendulum (I 56), traction (II 3), triangle (111 24), hum (III 75), tubes (II 51-52), low-sight (III 56), lamp (III 52), fireplace (III 17), etc.). On the other hand, a considerable part of K. Šakenio terminology is new, already created and used by other authors, e.g.: akiniai (III 62), dengiklis (I 136), įsnis (11 33), grynanglis (I 101), reiškinys (1 3), santykis (II 49), tūris (I 17) and so on (see Lietuvos kalbos žodynas 1-20, 1941-2002), or proposed by J. Jablonskis, e.g.: deguonis (197), skaičius (II 57), vienetas (III 95) (Žemaitis 1966: 196, 199). Some of the words used in the textbook are not included in the academic Lithuanian dictionary at all, e.g.: atstojamoji (1 34), įstrižoji (1 35), įtraukiamybė (III 44), nevadininkas (II 12), nesuleistuvas (II 58— 71 59), semi-shadow (111 5), semiconductor (11 13), semi-triangular (1 101), diffusion (111 44), rectangular (11 34), flaps (11 10), torch (11 32). There are many terms in the Physics textbook and borrowed (mostly of Latin and Greek origin) that are still used today in physics terminology, such as: aberration (111 50), aerostat (1 85), amplitude (111 69), analysis (III 41), anode (11 48), apparatus (11 60), center (1 40), dina (111 84), equivalent (II 45), electricity (11 12), electrolyte (11 44), electromagnet (II 56), element (11 31), energy (III 91), erga (III 91), physics (I 3), phonograph (111 81), gram (I 13), gramophone (111 82), instrument (111 80), calorie (11 49), cathode (11 48), cinematograph (III 67), coefficient (III 90-91), magnet (11 11), magnetism (11 9), magnetization (11 9), mass (11 92), scale (1 12), solenoid (11 63), spectrum (11 6), spectroscope (11 38), telephone (11 68), telegraph (11 58), telescope (111 56), temperate (I 110), tone (III 75), etc. Some of them have a slightly different, today unusual, phonetic or morphological form, e.g.: battery (11 48), aluminium (11 51), harmony (111 75) and harmonic tones (111 80), cesium (III 37), cylinder (I 136), equator (II 10), electrolysis (11 46), electromagnetism (11 56), formula (11 40), gel (111 42), hypothesis (II 11 47), etc. 64), liné (11 76), litium (111 37), mechanica (111 84), radius (11 55), rubidium (111 37), sekunda (1 19), etc. There are some fewer borrowings from French, German or other languages, e.g.: aeroplane (I 85), amalgam (II 12), battery (11 40), dissonance (111 75), isolation (11 13), chamber tone (111 70), capacitor (11 24), machine (111 89), polarization (11 47), resonance (III 74), timbre (111 80). In a textbook of physics, one can find only one other direct loan from Russian or German, for example: kuparvosas: vario kuparvosas (11 44), šeštarnė (I 52), špulė (II 66), špulelė (11 56), torielius (I 70). K. Šakenis, feeling the need to distinguish between genus and species terms, tried to create more species terms. Such related and generic terms can even form certain nests, for example: axis: eye a., main a., main lens a., main mirror a., secondary a., secondary lens a., secondary mirror a.; work: force d., lifting d., machine d., negative d., positive d.; rays: anode s., lower s., lower viewing body s., reflected s., colorless s., chemical s., broken s., outgoing s., cathode s., parallel s., refractive s., penetrating s., falling s., X-ray s., heating s., light s., dark invisible s., uranium and thorium s., upper s., Volta arc s., viewing body s.; resistance: element resistance, external resistance, field resistance, current resistance, internal resistance, etc. However, very often the species elements of compound terms, which are used by adjectives or participants, are named differently: some in the noun form, others in 72 the ordinary form. Such varying species elements of compound terms can be considered as variants, for example: wave: bounced b. (III 73) and bounced b. (111 74); force: unrelenting j. (1 24) and unrelenting j. (III 83); sudden j. (I 25) and sudden j. (I 25); body: liquid k. (1 4-5), but solid k. and hard k. (I 4), vibrating k. (III 10) and vibrating k. (III 16); rays: colorless white s. (111 50) and colorless white s. (111 41), yellow s. (III 41) and yellow s. (III 41), falling ray (III 24) and falling ray (111 11), coloured s. (III 65) and coloured s. (III 41), light s. (III 16) and light s. (III 45), warm s. (111 44) and warm s. (III 47); shadow: full shade (III 5) and full shade (III 4). In the textbook of physics, it is possible to detect a variety of different types of species elements, for example: energy: chemical e. (111 93) and chemical e. (111 93), heat e. (III 94) and thermal e. (III 96); angle: falling angle (111 21), falling angle (111 14), falling angle (111 72) and falling (falling) angle (III 10), reaching or reaching angle (111 63); index: absolute refractive index (III 22) and absolute refractive index (III 22); rays: braided threads and twisted threads (111 3); thickener: flat (11 26), flat (II 24) and flat (II 24); mirror: concave v. (II 52), concave v. (III 59) and concave v. (111 13). Therefore, the terminology of the Physics textbook is characterized by variability. Another feature of it is its synonymy. This can be seen in the following synonyms. First, when one of the synonyms is given in brackets or joined by a conjunction or, for example: reverse, negative, or negative image (111 49), but the reverse image (so-called negative) (111 49); Nitrogen or gesso (I 100) and nitrogen (gesso) (I 77); electric power or potential (II 22), but electric power (potential) (II 21); a galvanometer, or 73 current meter (II 34), but galvanometers (current meters) (11 34); the tilt or tilt angle (11 10) of the magnet, but not the tilt (tilt) angle (11 10); simple microscope or glass magnifier (III 52), but simple microscope (glass magnifier) (111 52); binoculars or binoculars (111 56-57), but binoculars (111 56); imaginary or imaginary image (111 12), but imaginary (imaginary) image (111 30); Lenses (III 26), but lenses or lenses (III 26). Secondly, when one of the synonyms, given in parentheses or connected by a hyphen, or, elsewhere in the textbook is not already repeated, e.g.: influence or secondary current (II 65), but influence current (II 66); the quantity or mass of the substance (111 84), but the mass (III 84); positive or positive (true) image (111 49), but positive body image (III 49); a double-sided convex lens (111 26) but a double-sided convex lens (111 45); wraps (11 73), but wraps (II 66); inclusibility (absorbability) (III 44), but inclusibility (III 44); quaternary (square) (III 6), but quaternary (111 6—7); field (external) resistance (II 37), but external resistance (II 37); source (source) (II 49), but electric source (II 50); total (full) internal reflection (111 23), but total internal reflection (111 24). From the aforementioned cases of synonymy presentation another feature emerges — the inequivalence of the Lithuanian and international term, e.g.: ruožtai (linės) (11 52), bet linės (rūžai) (111 41) and įvija linė (groovelis) (III 81); radius (1 29) and beam (111 6). Synonyms and variantsSkum issues related to the variation of the term nomination show that the terminology of physics at that time was still being created and was characterized by all the characteristics of the creative terminology stage (Kaulakienė 1997: 56-62). Although most of the mentioned terms, especially those that are derived from prepositions and endings, can be divided into certain categories of action: actions, characteristics, the result of the action, actors and possessors of the verb property, possessors of the noun property, tools, machines, devices or otherwise various means (most often they are punched). In K. Šakenio Physics textbook you can find names of actions, properties, phenomena, tools, e.g.: counting (III 9), acceleration (III 83-84), warming up (111 43), motion (1 18), solidification (1 120), change (I 131), fall (1 26), decrease (I 20), deviation (II 10), distance (1 39), adaptation (111 61), liquidation (I 120), computation (1 39), etc. 74