Sudurtiniai elektrotechnikos terminijos būdvardžiai

Robertas STUNŽINAS Institute of the Lithuanian Language COMPOUND ADJECTIVES IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING TERMINOLOGY In electrical engineering terminology, compound adjectives are one of the principal means of expressing dependent constituents in multiword terms. The Dictionary of Electrical Engineering Terms (compiled by R. J. Mukulys, edited by A. Smilgevičius and S. Žebrauskas, 1999, 871 pp., approximately 11,530 terms) contains two-word terms with compound adjectives that make up about one tenth of all two-word compound terms with agreeing modifiers—345 two-word terms with 138 different adjectives were found in total. In the terminology of this field, as in many other fields of science, the frequent use of compound adjectives is due to several reasons. First of all, the use of compounds is encouraged by the need to name the properties of real objects and phenomena. Compounds offer more possibilities for new meanings and make technical language more convenient, since they help form concise designations of types and avoid a concentration of modifiers. In other words, two-word terms are shorter and more convenient than three-word terms, e.g.: gas-discharge (lamp)1 – gas-discharge (lamp), quarter-wave (symmetry) – quarter of a wave (symmetry), triangular (circuit) – connected in a triangle (circuit). In addition, compound adjectives are often more term-like than derivatives or word combinations, e.g.: high-temperature (soldering) – hard (soldering), low-temperature (soldering) – soft (soldering), retroreflective (reflector) – backward (reflector), real-time (control) – (control) in real time. This article examines several aspects of the analysis of compound adjectives. In view of the origins of their base words, it seeks to identify the predominant types of compounds. Lithuanian compounds are compared with Russian, English, and German terms, and the question is considered of how many adjectives may2 1Here, terms used synonymously in electrical engineering terminology are compared. 2Lithuanian compounds are not compared with French ones because they are entirely dissimilar. French terms are formed from words that coincide with international terms; moreover, properties are very often expressed by prepositional constructions. 52 have arisen as calques or imitations of terms from other languages. The meanings and combinability of compounds are also considered. Only Lithuanian and hybrid compounds are examined; that is, clear borrowings in this field of terminology and adjectives formed by mixed word-formation processes are not discussed. Elektrotechnikos terminijos dūriniai nėra išskirtiniai. Dauguma šiame straipsnyje nagrinėjamų sudurtinių būdvardžių yra bendrieji terminai, vartojami ir kitose mokslo srityse. Iš Lietuvių kalbos terminyno3 elektroninės terminų duomenų bazės matyti, kad 84% čia nagrinėjamų dūrinių galima rasti ir kitų sričių žodynuose. Aiškiai matyti, kad elektrotechnikos terminija yra glaudžiai susijusi su fizikos, politechnikos ir radioelektronikos terminija. Įdomumo dėlei galima paminėti, kad Radioelektronikos terminų žodyne rasta 57%, Rusų–lietuvių politechnikos žodyne – 63%, Fizikos terminų žodyne – 44,9% čia nagrinėjamų dūrinių. Before examining compound adjectives, several terms used in the article should be clarified. In general, linguistic units formed by analogy with words in other languages are called calques. For example, V. Drotvinas defines calques (or loan translations) as instances of indirect borrowing in which it is not the word itself that is borrowed, but its content and form structure, or model. He also includes among calques words translated more freely and creatively (see Drotvinas 1986: 131). V. Urbutis emphasizes that words translated morpheme by morpheme, as well as inexact copies, should also be called calques (see LKE 1999: 700). A. Kaulakienė regards as working calques words formed from native word-formation formatives, based on the source’s motivation and reproducing its meaning. According to their relation to the base word, she divides calques into prefixal, suffixal, inflectional, and compound types; according to their relation to the source, into exact and inexact (in terms of semantics), and adequate… 3 The electronic term database The Lithuanian Term Bank is continuously updated. At the time of writing, the database contained about 223,000 terms from 21 different terminological dictionaries covering various fields (roads, botany, chemistry, electrical engineering, physics, geodesy, geology and physical geography, hydraulic engineering, information, computer science, marine coastal studies, linguistics, mathematics, meteorology, education, psychology, radio electronics, sociology, sports, and textiles). 53 and inadequate (from the perspective of word formation), direct and indirect (from the perspective of origin) (see Kaulakienė 1979: 145). The Russian terminologist D. Lotte treats calques very broadly. He distinguishes direct calques from transformational ones. By transformational calques, D. Lotte means not exact equivalents, but terms that have been altered by changing the composition of compounds (omitting or adding a morpheme), or replacing compounds with a prepositional construction or a phrase (see Lotte 1982: 13). St. Keinys defines the term calque relatively strictly: “a word formed mechanically on the model of the expression of a corresponding word in another language” (Keinys 1999: 115). However, the term loan translation, as defined by St. Keinys, is most important for our purposes: “a formation made by following the model of an equivalent in another language” (Keinys 1999: 113). Therefore, following St. Keinys’s definitions and distinguishing formations translated morpheme by morpheme from those merely modeled on another language, we will generally use the term loan translation rather than calque. Hypothetically, we will consider loan translations to be those compounds that are almost identical to Russian and German4 terms. By “almost identical,” we mean three cases. First, when Lithuanian compounds formed by compounding correspond in their base words to compound premodifying adjectives in Russian and German, for example: two-winding, cf. Russian двухобмоточный, two-core, cf. German zweidräger; single-layer, cf. Russian однослойная || German einlagig. Second, when Lithuanian compounds correspond in their base words to part of a German multi-stem term, for example, winding-type (winding), cf. German Gleichspulenwicklung. Third, when Lithuanian compounds correspond in their base words to English compounds, for example: bidirectional, cf. English two-way, narrow-band, cf. English narrow-band, three-core, cf. English three-core. We will consider as calques those compounds that are completely identical to terms in other languages. By “completely identical,” we mean that the compounds are identical both in structure and in their base words. If we view all the compound adjectives examined here as formations, we can see that in electrical engineering terminology var- 4 We will assume this, bearing in mind that Lithuanian terminology in physics, and thus also in electrical engineering, was influenced primarily by Russian and German terminology. 54 12 types of compound adjectives are used. The data presented in Table 15 show that three types of derived compound adjectives and nine types of non-derived compound adjectives are used in this field of science. Derived compound adjectives account for 81.9% of all the distinct compounds examined in the article. Two-word terms containing compounds of these types account for 85.1% of all two-word terms. There are few adjectives of all the other word-formation types. Classification of compounds in electrical engineering terminology Table 1 Word-formation type | Compounds by word-formation type | Two-word terms containing compounds | number |% | number |% | Numeral + Noun | 55 | 39.9 | 131 | 38 | Adjective + Noun | 36 | 26.1 | 112 | 32.4 | Adverb + Noun | 22 | 15.9 | 51 | 14.7 | Participle + Noun | 3 | 2.2 | 4 | 1.2 | Pronoun + Noun | 1 | 0.7 | 6 | 1.7 | Noun + Noun | 1 | 0.7 | 2 | 0.6 | Adverb + Adjective | 2 | 1.5 | 2 | 0.6 | Noun + Adjective | 1 | 0.7 | 1 | 0.3 | Adverb + Verb | 6 | 4.3 | 8 | 2.3 | Numeral + Verb | 5 | 3.6 | 20 | 5.8 | Pronoun + Verb | 4 | 2.9 | 4 | 1.2 | Noun + Verb | 2 | 1.5 | 4 | 1.2 | Total: 12 | 138 | 100% | 345 | 100% It should also be added that some of the compound adjectives examined are considered formations only conditionally. Such compound adjectives have entered electrical engineering terminology as terminologized Lithuanian com- 5 In the table, compound-adjective word-formation types are represented symbolically—the letters denote the components of compound adjectives according to the part of speech to which their base words belong: N – noun, A – adjective, V – verb, Num – numeral, Adv – adverb, Pron – pronoun, Part – participle. The word-formation types in the table are arranged according to productivity: nominal compounds are given first, followed by verbal compounds. The data have been rounded. 55 words of the language. Clearly terminologized words of the general language include compounds with bound stems6 (compounds with verbal second constituents -gubas, -linkas, -lypis, -tisas) and the old [+D-type compound abipusis7. In addition, based on the sources of the academic Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language, the compounds tuščiaviduris, dvipusis should also be regarded as terminologized words of the general language. 1. Compounds with a nominal second constituent Nominal compound adjectives predominate in electrical engineering terminology, accounting for 87.7% of all the compounds examined. In nearly all compounds, the second constituent is a noun. Compounds whose second constituent is an adjective account for just 2.5% of all compound adjectives in this group. In terms of the origins of their constituents, two-thirds (66% of all nominal compounds) of the compounds examined were formed using native-language resources. A substantial proportion (34%) are hybrids, i.e. compounds in which one constituent is a native-language word and the other an international borrowing. Compounds formed from an adjective and a noun are of particular interest from the perspective of this analysis. In the Dictionary of Electrical Engineering Terms, 112 two-word terms containing 36 different compounds were found. Compounds formed using native-language resources make up about three-quarters of the adjectives of this type under examination. A comparison with equivalents in other languages shows that more than a third are almost identical to Russian or German terms. Of the Lithuanian compounds, 35.7% are almost identical to Russian adjectives and 32% to German terms, i.e. they may be calques8, e.g.: aukštadažnis, cf. Russian высокочастотный, žemadažnis, cf. Russian низкочастотный, 6 Here we rely on V. Urbutis’s definition given in the Encyclopedia of the Lithuanian Language: “A bound stem is a primary stem that differs from an independent (free) stem in that it does not, by itself, form the stem of a word (or inflected form) and always occurs together with a suffix, prefix, or another stem” (LKE 1999: 571). 7 The compound abipusis, -ė is considered an old adjective, based on the sources of K. Būga’s Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (see Būga 1961: 294). 8 Following A. Kaulakienė’s classification of derivational calques, we would classify such formations as compounds in their relation to the base word, but in their relation to the sou- 56 greitaeigis, cf. Russian быстроходный, lėtaeigis, cf. Russian тихоходный, ilgalankė (лемпа), cf. German Langbogen[lampe], trumpalankė, cf. German Kurzbogen[lampe], įvairiavardis, cf. Russian разноимённый, lygiapetis, cf. German gleicharmiger, lygiarietė (арция), cf. German Gleichspulen[wicklung], plačiajuostis (šakotuvas), cf. Russian широкополосный || German Breit-band[koppler], siaurajuostis (filtras), cf. Russian узкополосный || German Schmalband[filter], stačiakampis (impulsas), cf. Russian прямоугольный || German Rechteck[impuls], tikralaikis (valdymas), cf. German Echtzeit[steuerung], trumpalaikis, cf. Russian кратковременный || German kurzzeitiger. The only formation lygiapetis, cf. Russian равноплечий, is completely identical to the Russian term in its constituents and structure, i.e. it may be a morpheme-by-morpheme calque.⁵ A substantial proportion (28.5%) of Lithuanian compounds are also almost identical to English terms, e.g.: atvirasėrdis, cf. English open-core, ilgalankė, cf. English long-arc, trumpalankė, cf. English short-arc, mažatalpis, cf. English low-capacity, plačiajuostis, cf. English broad-band, siaurajuostis, cf. English narrow-band, tikralaikis, cf. English real-time, trumpalaikis, cf. English short-time. Electrical engineering terminology also uses compounds that are not identical to terms in other languages. The compounds bendravardžiai, didžiaslėgė, mažaslėgė, įvairiaaukštė, plonasluoksnis correspond to terms in other languages in only one constituent, e.g.: bendravardžiai (gnybtai), cf. Russian одноимённые || German gleichnamige, didžiaslėgė (hidroelektrinė), cf. Russian высоконапорная || German Hochdruck[wasserkraftwerk], mažaslėgė, cf. Russian низконапорная || English low-head || German Niederdruck[wasserkraftwerk]; įvairiaaukštė, cf. Russian разноплоскостная, plonasluoksnis (atsparumas), cf. Russian тонкоплё-ночный || English thin-film || German Dünnfilm[widerstand]. The compounds greitasikis (variklis), lėta- also correspond to terms in other languages in only one constituent. …tive—as semantically inexact but derivationally exact calques (see Kaulakienė 1979: 145). It is not useful to classify compounds by source, since we do not know the exact origin of a compound. ⁵ Following A. Kaulakienė’s classification, in relation to its source we would classify this formation as a compound, exact (semantically) and adequate (derivationally) calque. 57 -speed (motor), cf. Russian быстроходный (двигатель), тихоходный (двигатель) || German schnellaufender (Motor), Schnellläufer[motor], langsamlaufender (Motor) || English high-speed (motor), low-speed (motor). Compounds that do not correspond at all to terms in other languages include coaxial, rectilinear, parallel, continuous, hollow – Russian, English, and German terms use derivatives with prefixes and suffixes, or compounds with non-corresponding (i.e., differing in lexical meaning or origin) constituents, e.g.: coaxial (cable), cf. Russian коаксиальный || English coaxial || German Koaxial[kabel], rectilinear (drive), cf. Russian линейный (привод) || English linear || Linear[antrieb], parallel (mode), cf. Russian параллельный || English parallel || German Parallel[betrieb], continuous (mode), cf. Russian продолжительный || English continuous || German Dauer[betrieb], hollow (shaft), cf. Russian полый || English hollow || German Hohl[welle]. About a quarter of the compounds of the type under consideration are hybrid calques10. Nearly three quarters (75%) of Lithuanian hybrid forms are almost identical to Russian terms, 50% to German terms, and only one to an English term, e.g.: high-temperature, cf. Russian высокотемпературный || English high-temperature || German Hochtemperatur[isolation], low-temperature, cf. Russian низкотемпературный || German Schenkelpol[generator], multipolar, cf. Russian разноимённополюсный, equal-energy, cf. Russian равноэнергетический, salient-pole, cf. Russian неявнополюсный, non-salient-pole, cf. Russian явнополюсный. Two compound adjectives that are almost identical only to German compounds should be mentioned separately, e.g.: hard-magnetic (material), cf. German hartmagnetischer (Werkstoff), soft-magnetic (material), cf. German weichmagnetischer (Werkstoff). Russian terms use phrases, e.g.: мазумно-твёрдый (материал), магнитно-мягкий (материал). As modifiers, adjectives are inseparable from nouns, that is, from the head constituents of complex terms. In general, compounds consisting of an adjective and a noun indicate properties that depend on the various relationships of the modified object to the object denoted by the second constituent of the compound. 10 To maintain consistency, we will treat compounds consisting of a native-language word and an international word as hybrid calques. Following A. Kaulakienė, such compounds could be considered semi-calques (see Kaulakienė 1983: 19). 58 The first constituent, an adjective, modifies the concept of the object denoted by the second constituent, forming a single semantic unit with it. In this way, both constituents seem to form the concept of one, more finely differentiated object (LKG 1965: 597). The head constituent of the two-word terms shows that in electrical engineering these adjectives most often denote properties of how devices operate and distinctive features of various objects. Such cases account for 57% of all two-word terms, e.g.: open-core transformer, high-frequency furnace, long-arc lamp, low-speed generator, equal-pitch winding, salient-pole machine, hollow conductor. When the head constituent of a term denotes a particular phenomenon or an abstract concept (31.4% of all terms), adjectives denote temporal, formal, or other properties, e.g.: continuous load, continuous power, equal-energy spectrum, parallel resonance. When the head constituent of a term is a verbal noun, the compound adjective denotes a particular operational or temporal property (such cases account for 11.6% of all terms), e.g.: high-frequency protection, high-frequency heating, high-temperature soldering, continuous load, short-term control, short-term test. The linking11 adjectives of the A+N typehigh-frequency (17 terms), parallel (11 terms), wideband (4 terms), low-frequency (7 terms) also display categorical combinability. These adjectives are used with concepts from different categories, e.g.: high-frequency hardening || furnace || cable || welding || transformer, parallel winding || connection || coil || operation || excitation, wideband filter || radiation || hub. In electrical engineering terminology, compounds formed from a numeral and a noun are the most widely used: 131 two-word terms with 55 different adjectives were found. Although adjectives of the N+N type in this field of science 11 Linking adjectives here are compounds used to denote properties of at least 4 things. Categorical combinability is understood here as a property whereby a compound is used with concepts from different categories (concrete objects and abstract phenomena). 59 is widely used; diversity of components is not characteristic of compounds—the first component is a cardinal numeral vienas (21 terms), du (20 terms), trys (10 terms), keturi (3 terms), or penki (1 term). The second component of the compound adjectives shows that most compounds are coordinate, for example: single-core, three-core, single-circuit, two-circuit, single-wire, two-wire, two-dimensional, three-dimensional, four-dimensional, and so on. It is striking that most compounds of this type are almost identical to Russian and German terms, that is, they may be calques of them, for example: two-winding (transformer), cf. Russian двухобмоточный || German Zwewicklungstransformator, three-winding, cf. Russian трёхобмоточный || German Dreiwicklungstransformator, two-row, cf. Russian двухрядный || German zweizeiliges, single-row, cf. Russian однорядный || German einreihiges, two-core, cf. Russian двухжильный || German zweiadriger, four-core, cf. Russian четырёхжильный, three-core, cf. Russian трёхжильный || German dreiadriger, single-core, cf. Russian одножильный, two-circuit, cf. Russian двухцепная, single-circuit, cf. Russian одноцепная, cf. Russian двухскоростной || German Zweigeschwindigkeits[...],¹² two-story (plinth), cf. Russian двухэтажный || German Zweistift[sockel], two-way, cf. German Zweirichtungs[umschalter], three-way (switch), cf. German Dreiweg[schalter], two-wire (system), cf. Russian двухпроводная (система), single-wire (line), cf. Russian однопроводная (линия) || German Eindraht[leitung], two-dimensional, cf. Russian двумерная, four-dimensional (space), cf. Russian четырёхмерное (пространство), three-dimensional (space), cf. Russian трёхмерное (пространство), two-sided (power supply), cf. Russian двухстороннее (питание) || German zweiseitige (Speisung), single-sided (power supply), cf. Russian одностороннее (питание) || German einseitige (Speisung), double-layer, cf. Russian двухслойная || German zweischichtige, single-layer, cf. Russian однослойная || German einfache, twin-motor (drive), cf. Russian двухдвигательный (привод), triangular, cf. Russian трехугольная || German dreieckige, simultaneous, Russian одно-временое, homogeneous, cf. Russian однородный, unambiguous, cf. Russian однозначная, single-column, cf. Russian одностолбцевая || German einspaltige, 12 Here the headword adjective from the Dictionary of Electrical Engineering Terms is given. It should be assumed that the Lithuanian compound is almost identical to the German term. 60 single-name, cf. Russian одноимённый, single-armature, cf. Russian однojakornyi || German Einanker[umformer], single-stage, cf. German einstufiger, single-point, cf. German Einpunkt[erdung], single-turn, cf. Russian одновитковая || German Einleiterstrom[wandle]r. Almost three quarters (75%) of Lithuanian compounds are nearly identical to Russian terms, and more than half (55%) to German terms. Only one fifth (20%) of Lithuanian terms are nearly identical to English terms, for example: two-way, cf. English two-way13, three-core, cf. English three-core, two-speed, cf. English two-speed, two-wire, cf. English two-wire, double-layer, cf. English two-layer. This dissimilarity between Lithuanian and English terms should be explained by the typological differences between their compounds: most English compounds are formed from an adjective and a noun, for example: two-winding, cf. English double-wound, three-winding, cf. English triple-wound, two-row, cf. English double-row, two-core, cf. English double-wired, two-circuit, cf. English double-circuit. Compounds that are dissimilar to terms in other languages include biaxial, divertis, five-core, three-branch, three-legged. In other languages, these terms use compounds with different components or word combinations, for example: biaxial, cf. Russian биаксиальный || English biaxial || German Biaxial[kabel], divertis, cf. Russian двухстволочный || English double-rate || German Grundgebühren[tarif], five-legged, cf. Russian пятистерЖневой || English five-legged || German Fünfschenkel[transformator], three-legged, cf. Russian трёхстерЖневой || English three-leg || German Dreischenkel[transformator], tri-branch (мова), cf. Russian тройниковая ответвительная (муфта) || English trifurcating (joint) || German Dreifachverzweigungs[muffe]. About one third of compounds formed from a numeral and a noun are hybrid compounds. Most hybrid compounds of the N+N type are almost identical to terms in other languages: as many as 93.3% are nearly identical to Russian terms and 86.7% to German terms. A smaller proportion of Lithuanian hybrids (53.3%) are nearly identical to English terms, for example: two-phase, cf. Russian двухфазный || English two-phase || German zweiphasen, three-phase, cf. Russian трёх- 13 The English word way has many meanings, and therefore serves as a component in several terms, for example: two-sided, cf. two-way; bidirectional, cf. two-way. In both cases, we believe the Lithuanian compounds are identical to the English terms. 61 phase || English three-phase || German Dreiphasen[netz], single-phase, cf. Russian однофазный || English one-phase || German Einphasen[stromkreis], two-channel, cf. Russian двухканальный || English two-channel || German Zweikanal[stärker], single-channel, cf. Russian одноканальный || German Einkanal[analysator], two-coordinate, cf. Russian двухкоординатный, two-pole, cf. Russian двухполюсный || English two-pole || German zweipolige, four-pole, cf. Russian четырёхполюсный || English four-pole || German vierpoliger, three-pole, cf. Russian трёхполюсный || German dreipoliger, single-pole, cf. Russian однополюсный || English one-pole || German einpoliger, two-stroke (circuit), cf. Russian двухтактная || German Zweitakt[schaltung], single-stroke (stage), cf. Russian однотактный (каскад) || German Eintakt[stufe], two-tariff (meter), cf. Russian двухтарифный || German Zweitarif[zähler], three-tariff, cf. German Dreitarif[zähler], single-loop, cf. Russian одноконтурный. The second component of compound adjectives of this type denotes a distinguishing part of the object being described, while the first component indicates the number of the object expressed by the second component (LKG 1965: 598). Considering the head element of the compound terms, it is apparent that N+N-type adjectives most often denote certain operating characteristics of devices or distinctive details of objects. Such cases account for 49.6% of all two-word terms containing adjectives of this type, for example: two-winding transformer, biaxial cable, two-core wire, two-channel amplifier, two-way switch. Compounds of this type often (in 43.1% of all two-word terms) denote other characteristics of electrical phenomena and objects, for example: two-circuit line, two-wire system, two-pole system, two-stroke circuit, triangular circuit, three-pole contact. When the head element of a term is a deverbal abstract noun (9.1% of all two-word terms), compound adjectives are used to denote an operating characteristic, for example: two-phase grounding, two-wire connection, two-pole contact, two-sided power supply, single-phase grounding, single-pole contact. Among N+N-type compounds, categorical combinability is characteristic only of hybrids. In other words, the compounds two-phase (7 terms), two-pole (9 terms), three-phase (14 terms), single-phase (10 terms), single-pole (8 terms) are used to denote characteristics of both concrete and abstract things, for example: two-phase circuit || machine || system || grounding || motor, two-pole winding || machine || system || generator || switch || contact, three-phase power || voltage || machine || system || genera- 62 Russian || network || motor, single-phase, - || circuit || machine || generator || grounding. In electrical engineering terminology, compounds formed from an adverb and a noun are common—51 two-word terms with 22 different adjectives were found. In all compounds of the Adv+N type, the first constituent is the adverb daug (‘many’). About two thirds of the compounds of the type under consideration are adjectives formed using native-language resources. The vast majority (93.8%) of Lithuanian compounds are almost identical to Russian terms, while a considerable proportion (62.5%) are almost identical to German terms. Thus, compounds may be calques of Russian or German terms, such as daugiaapvijis, cf. Russian многообмоточный, daugiažvilsis, cf. Russian многожильный || German mehrdrähtige, daugiagrandis, cf. Russian многозвенный || German mehrgliedriges, daugiagreitis, cf. Russian многоскоростной, daugialaidė, cf. Russian многопроводная, daugiamatė (erdvė), cf. Russian многомерное (пространство), daugiametis, cf. Russian многолопастный || German Mehrflügel[lüfter]¹⁴, daugianaris, cf. Russian многозвенная || German mehrgliedrige, daugiareikšmė (funkcija), cf. Russian многозначная (функция) || German mehrwertige (Funktion), daugirabis, cf. Russian многопредельная, daugiasluoksnė, cf. Russian многослойная || German Mehrschicht[wicklung], daugiastovis, cf. Russian многотоковый || German Mehrstrom[generator], daugiavariklė (pavara), cf. Russian многодвигательный (привод), daugiavielis, cf. Russian многопроволочный || German mehrdrähtiger. The only compound whose structure and base words are completely identical to a Russian term is daugiapetis; that is, it may be a morpheme-by-morpheme calque, cf. Russian многоплечий. This term is also almost identical to the German term, cf. German mehrarmige. The adjective daugiapakopis is almost identical not to the Russian, but to the German term, cf. German Mehrstufen[starker] || Russian многокаскадный. The morpheme-by-morpheme calque of the Russian term, daugiakaskadinis, is not an acceptable term. The dissimilarity between Lithuanian and English terms is striking. The first constituents of English compounds are based on words that coincide with interna- 14 In physics terminology, the term Flügel means ‘blade’, so it is assumed here that the base words of the Lithuanian compound daugiametis are identical to those of the German compound term Mehrflügel[lüfter]. 63 national words, e.g.: multiple-winding, multisection, multispeed, multidimensional, multiblade, multilink, multiple-arm, multivalued, multirange, multiple-current, multimotor. About one third of compounds of the type under consideration are hybrid calques. The hybrids daugiafazis, daugiakanalis, daugiapolis are almost identical to Russian and German terms, e.g.: daugiafazis, cf. Russian многофазный || German mehrphasige, daugiakanalis, cf. Russian многоканальный || German Vielkanalen[analysator], daugiapolis, cf. Russian многополюсный || German mehrpoliger. Both constituents of the English terms coincide with international words, e.g.: English polyphase, English multichannel, multipolar. The compounds daugiakontūris ir daugiakomodulis are almost identical only to Russian terms, e.g.: daugiakontūris, cf. Russian многоконтурный || English multimeshed || German vermaschtes, daugiakomodulis, cf. Russian многомодульный || English multicell || German Mehrheiten[schalter]. Compounds formed from an adverb and a noun most often denote operating characteristics of devices and distinctive details of objects. Such cases account for 68.6% of all terms containing Adv+N compounds, e.g.: multiwinding motor, multicore cable, multispeed motor, multichannel analyzer, multiple-wire core, multistage amplifier, multipole generator. Less common are cases (25.5% of all terms) in which compound adjectives denote characteristics of abstract entities, e.g.: multiphase circuit, multiphase current, multiconductor line, multichannel system. A small proportion of two-word terms (5.9%) consists of terms whose dependent components denote characteristics of processes, e.g.: multipulse coding, multistage amplification. The compound adjectives daugiafazis, -ė (11 terms), daugiakanalis, -ė (4 terms), and daugiasluoksnis, -ė (7 terms) also exhibit categorical combinability; that is, they are used to denote characteristics of both concrete and abstract entities, e.g.: multiphase generator || circuit || system || current || motor, multichannel analyzer || device || communication || system, multilayer winding || insulation || assembly || coil || glass. Summarizing the examination of compound types and comparing compounds formed using native-language resources with terms in other languages reveals certain patterns. The data presented in Table 2 show the similarity of Lithuanian compounds to terms in other languages. More than 64 Two thirds (68.2%) of the compound types are identical to Russian-language terms. The vast majority of identical compounds may be calques of Russian-language terms, and only two are morpheme-by-morpheme translations. A considerable proportion of Lithuanian terms (49.8%) is almost identical to German-language terms, i.e. may be calques of them. A relatively small proportion of the compound types (16.2%) is almost identical to English terms. Table 2 Identity of Lithuanian compounds with Russian, German, and English terms Word-formation type Identical to Russian equivalents (%) Identical to German equivalents (%) Identical to English equivalents (%) S + D 75 55 20 B + D 35,7 32 28,5 P + D 93,8 62,5 – In electrical engineering terminology, compounds formed from a participle and a noun, a pronoun and a noun, an adverb and an adjective, a noun and an adjective, or two nouns are rarely used—in total, 15 two-word terms with 8 different adjectives were found. Compounds of non-productive types are not at all characterized by categorical combinability, i.e. they are usually used only with concepts belonging to a particular category. Among compounds of non-productive types, compounds formed from a participle and a noun stand out. The distinguishing feature of all compounds of the Dlv+D type is that they are not identical to Russian-language terms. The compound suktagyslis (kabelis), formed using the resources of Lithuanian itself, is not identical to terms in other languages, cf. Russian (кабель) со скрученными жилами || English twisted-conductor (cable) || German verseiltes (Kabel). The hybrid Dlv+D compound lenktapolis is almost identical to the English and German compounds, e.g.: lenktapolis, cf. English claw-pole || German Klauenpol[generator], while the compound skeltapolis corresponds only to the English term, cf. English split-pole. Russian terms use prepositional constructions or non-identical compounds, e.g.: lenktapolis, cf. Russian клёвообразный, когтеобразный; skeltapolis, cf. Russian (машина) с расщепленными полюсами. Word formation using a pronoun and a noun is not characteristic of electrical engineering terminology. The only pronoun+noun type compound found in the Dictionary of Electrical Engineering Terms is a common-language word that has become a term, e.g.: mutual || induction || influence || correlation || resistance, mutual inductance || conductance. 65 Only two adverb + adjective compounds were found in the Dictionary of Electrical Engineering Terms. The compounds puslaidė (aplinka) and pusskaidris (kūnas) have bases that differ from those of the terms in other languages; cf. Russian полупроводящая (среда) || German halbleitendes (Medium); Russian просвечивающее (тело) || English translucent (body) || German durchscheinender (Körper). In electrical engineering terminology, D+A and N+N type compound adjectives are rare. The compound formed from a noun and an adjective bangolaidė (linija) is almost identical only to the Russian term, i.e. it may be a calque of it; cf. Russian волноводная (линия). The compound formed from two nouns ketvirtbangis (transformatorius) is almost identical to the Russian and German terms, i.e. it may be a calque of them; cf. Russian четвертьволновый (трансформатор) || German Viertelwellen[transformator]. 2. Compounds with a verbal second constituent In electrical engineering terminology, dependent term constituents are expressed by verbal compound adjectives less frequently than by nominal ones: altogether, 36 two-word terms containing 17 different adjectives were found. Notably, a considerable proportion (about one third) of the verbal compounds consists of common-language words that have become terms, for example: daugialypis, dvigubas, dvilypis, dvilinkas, trilypis, vientisas. Among verbal compounds, categorical combinability is characteristic only of compounds formed from a pronoun and a verb. In electrical engineering terminology, most terminological neologisms are formed from an adverb and a verb. The compound adjectives greitaveikis and lėtaveikis are almost identical to the Russian terms, i.e. they may be calques of them; cf. Russian быстродействующий, медленнодействующий. It should be noted that the compounds greitaveikis and lėtaveikis may have two types of derivational motivation, meaning that they can be regarded as either Adv+V or Adj+N compounds. Assuming that these terms were formed by modeling them on Russian terms, we classify them as Adv+V compounds (cf. also savimokė, cf. Russian самообучающаяся || German selbstlernendes, savirašis, cf. Russian самопишущий || German selbstschreibendes, savitepis, cf. Russian самосмазывающийся || German selbstschmierendes). The compounds kreivašvietis, plačiašvietis, siaurašvietis have bases that differ from those of the terms in other languages; cf. kreivašvietis (šviestuvas), cf. 66 Russian кососвет || German Schräg[strahler], plačiašvietis (šviestuvas), cf. Russian широкоуголучатель || German Breit[strahler], siaurašvietis (šviestuvas), cf. Russian (светильник) глубокого светораспределения, глубокоуглучатель || English narrow-angle (luminaire) || German Tief[strahler]. The compound noun is a common-language word that has become a term. In compounds of this type, the second constituent denotes the action that distinguishes the designated object, while the first constituent of such adjectives indicates the manner or feature of the action expressed by the second constituent (LKG 1965: 603). The head constituent shows that Adv+V compounds most often designate operating characteristics of devices, for example: greitaveikė relė, greitaveikis saugiklis, kreivašvietis šviestuvas, lėtaveikis pertraukiklis, plačiašvietis šviestuvas. Compounding from a numeral and a verb is not characteristic of electrical engineering terminology. All the identified Num+V compounds (20 terms containing 5 different adjectives were found) are common-language words that have become terms, for example: dvigubasis (guolis), dvily nė (koreliacija), dvilinkoji (apvija), trilypė (koreliacija), vientisasis (rotorius). Categorical combinability is characteristic only of the compounds dvigubas and vientisas, for example: dvigubasis guolis || kontaktas || sluoksnis || atspindys || tiltelis || tankis, vientisasasis, -oji polius || rotorius || aplinka || gysla. The pronoun + verb compounds savimokė, savirašis ir savitepis are almost identical to the Russian and German terms, i.e. they may be calques of them; for example: savimokė (sistema), cf. Russian самообучающаяся || German selbstlernendes, savirašis, cf. Russian самопишущий || German selbstschreibendes, savitepis, cf. Russian самосмазывающийся || German selbstschmierendes. The compound saviausė (mašina) differs from the Russian, English, and German terms. Terms in other languages are formed from prepositional constructions, phrases, or compounds with different constituents; cf. Russian (машина) с наружным самоохлаждением || English frame surface cooled (machine) || German oberflächengekühlte (Maschine), (Maschine) mit Oberflächenkühlung, (Maschine) mit Außenbelüftung. The head constituent of these complex terms indicates that compounds of this type denote operating characteristics of devices, for example: savirašis potenciometras, savirašis prietaisas, savirašis vatmetras, savirašis voltmetras. Compounds formed from a noun and a verb are rare in electrical engineering terminology. The compound šviesogrąžis (atšvaitas) is almost identical only to the Russian term, i.e. it may be a calque of it; cf. Russian световозвращающее (отра- 67 (lamp). The adjective dujošvytė (lamp) is unlike the terms in other languages, cf. Russian газоразрядная (лампа) || English gas-discharge (lamp) || German Gasentladungs[lampe]. Conclusions 1. In electrical engineering terminology, nominal compounds predominate among compound adjectives. Most nominal compound adjectives are compounds of the N+A, A+A, and P+A types. Verbal compounds make up a small proportion of compound adjectives. 2. Not all compound adjectives used in electrical engineering terminology should be regarded as derivatives. Compounds of the I+A and N+V types used in this field are terminologized words of the general language. 3. A considerable proportion of compounds formed using the resources of the native language may be calques of Russian and German terms. 56.6% of compounds formed using the resources of the native language are nearly identical to Russian compounds, and 42.4% to German compounds. 15% of Lithuanian terms are nearly identical to English terms. Only two Lithuanian compounds are completely identical to Russian terms, i.e., they may be morpheme-by-morpheme translations of them. 4. In electrical engineering terminology, compound adjectives are most often used to denote the properties of concrete objects. Less often, compounds denote the properties of abstract concepts and actions. Categorical valency is characteristic mainly of hybrids of derivational types. 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In respect of word formation it is clear that nominal compound adjectives prevail and 85% of them are composite words of a numeral and a noun, an adjective and a noun or an adverb and a noun. Verbal composite words are rather rare. In respect of underlying words about two thirds of term elements are composite words made using means of the Lithuanian language, another third are hybrids. In this article, terms in which only the underlying words correspond with other language terms, are named featuring terms. A majority of the analysed words are possibly featuring Russian or German terms. 56.6% of Lithuanian composite words are identical to Russian terms and 42.4% – to German terms. Comparatively a small part of composite words in their underlying words are identical to English terms. Only two composite words could be treated as linguistic calques from the Russian. Linguistic calques here are those composite words, which are identical to other language words in their formation as well as their underlying words. Not all compound adjectives could be treated as formations. Composite words of a pronoun and a noun and of a numeral and a noun are common words, which were terminologized. In the terminology of electrical engineering compound adjectives most frequently signify characteristics of concrete things, less frequently – features of abstract things or actions. Categorical combinability is more characteristic to the hybrids of productive types. Robertas STUNŽINAS Institute of the Lithuanian Language 5 P. Vileišio St., LT-10308, Vilnius Email: [email protected] Received 2004-10-15 69