Terminas prie termino. II

NOTES, CONSIDERATIONS, PROPOSALS, MISCELLANEOUS A WORD FOR A WORD. II Valiza, suitcase, travel case If anyone should wonder why there is no Russian čemodanas among Jonas Jablonskis’s corrections, they should consider what kinds of language contact and flows of loanwords existed in Lithuania and beyond it more than a century ago. Unfortunately, our lexicography is rather meagre here. LKŽ II₁, 1947 lists čemodanas from Suvalkija—Geistariai and Keturvalakiai—and čemadanas from Panevėžys, while LKŽ II₂, 1969 adds nothing. In the first booklet of advice on Lithuanian written-language vocabulary, Jurgis Šlapelis’s 1907 Svetimų ir nesuprantamų žodžių žodynėlyje, lagaminas is presented as an incomprehensible word and explained… with foreign words that are comprehensible—valizas (Pol.), čemodanas (Russ.) SNŽŽ 1907. We might suppose that even earlier, in Polish-speaking Marijampolė, Jablonskis must have learned the Polish waliza, walizka, walizeczka, especially since this international word of French origin (valise < Italian valigia) was also familiar in Russian at the time, the language Jablonskis studied at the gymnasium. In Vinco Pietario’s story Keidošių Onutė, printed in 1897, valiza is used: V. Piet RR 1973 175, 177 (4x), 178 (3x). In Jonas Basanavičius’s autobiography Mano gyvenimo kronika ir nervų ligos istorija. 1851–1922 m. apie, the following is written about 1906: On October 26 I had to lift a heavy valiza—tachycardia immediately appeared <…> J. Basan MGK 1997 188. Valyza is recorded in Antanas Lelis’s (Lalys’s) LeLieŽ 1919. As late as 1923, Maironis wrote in the satire Kai kam: O scoundrels, you rabble of vagabonds! / Porters of diplomats’ valizas! Mair R I 1987 169)—here valiza means not 1. ‘passenger’s suitcase’, but 2. ‘a diplomatic courier’s suitcase, sealed in a particular manner and exempt from customs inspection’ TŽŽ 1936. TŽŽ 1936 also has lagaminas—‘a lockable travel case for storing belongings’; and čemodanas (Tatar)—‘a small case made of leather or cloth, a travel suitcase’; thus, there is almost no standardization here, although čemodanas is marked as a foreignism—tot. (that is, Tatar). Standardization had begun earlier, however: čemodanas (Russ. čemodan)—lagaminas; valizka (Pol. walizka)—lagaminas KL 1933. It seems that subsequently čemodanas caused the standardizers more trouble: “What can replace čemodaną?—We can best replace this Slavicism with our own lagaminu. This is a word widely used in the Samogitian dialect and means not only passenger luggage,” 137 German Reisegepäck, Russian tiuk, but also a čemodanas” P. S. – GK 1936 7 113. KP 1939, compiled by L. Dambrauskas and edited by A. Šalys and P. Skardžius, corrects both: valizka (Pol.)—lagaminas; čemodanas (Russ. čemodan)—lagaminas. These standardization results were retained in LKRŽ 1948—there is no čemodano here, although, besides lagamino, there is also valiza. Valiza is also listed in DŽ 1954—1. ‘a diplomatic courier’s sealed mail pouch, which is not to be admitted’; but what about sense 2, ‘suitcase, čemodanas’? Lagaminas is listed in DŽ 1954 first as a standard-language word, but seems incomprehensible without čemodano—1. ‘a travel box for storing belongings; čemodanas’; lagamino is also given another meaning—with the label colloq. (in fact equivalent to dial.)—‘all kinds of belongings (clothes, rags, objects); a bundle of such things’: He left with his lagaminas. They loaded all the lagaminas onto one cart. But čemodanas in DŽ 1954 has no normative restrictions whatsoever (neither “see” nor “incorrect”)—‘a box with a handle for carrying belongings on a journey; lagaminas.’ That was all it took—if they don’t prescribe a norm, that makes things easier for us; no need to make an effort! The poet (and Lithuanian philologist!) Justinas Marcinkevičius was fatefully unlucky—in his 1956 poem Dvidešimtas pavasaris, countless students read with delight: By the dormitory door / A čemodanas and Kairys. / Oh, how many čemodanas: / 33. The days are especially pleasant / When at least one acquaintance / Returns after a few days / With a heavy čemodanas 128. These were years of orientation—ideological, cultural, and linguistic—toward the East, so the rhymes, too, were Orientalisms: karavanas (instead of the disappearing word from living speech, vilkstinės, introduced into the standard language by Jablonskis!) and čemodanas (< Russ. чемодан, 18th c. < Turk. < Pers. jamādān): The caravan lumbers along. / A čemodanas walks in front Just. Marc DP.PKJ 1976 129. In general, these were years of condemning purism—as supposedly bourgeois!—and the condemnation came not only from lecturer R. Mironas but also from Antanas Venclova, a corresponding member of the Lithuanian SSR Academy of Sciences. Thus, the poem contains not only čemodanas, but also pickled buns 8, pickled flour 129, kirza boots 64, parties 46, un-ironed trousers 76… And in Vacys Reimeris’s translation of Aleksandras Tvardovskis’s famous poem, he uses čemodanas: Reader, you yourself have more than once / checked the road for me, / finding a corner for my verses / in a well-travelled čemodanas A. Tvard TT 1963 173. And in Bernardo Brazdžionis’s archive was found: A human life’s journey on earth— / Departures, homecomings, / Arms full of suitcases, / Wagons full of adventures…Le ir M 2004 5 8. Things nevertheless continued to improve, at least as regards standardization. DŽ 1972: čemodanas see lagaminas; DŽ 1993: čemodanas, incorrect =lagaminas; while valiza, sense 2, obsolete, ‘suitcase’; KPP 1976 and 1985: čemodanas, nonstandard foreignism—lagaminas; RLKŽ IV 1985: чемодан—1. lagaminas, valiza (2. colloq. obsolete (artillery) projectile), чемоданное настроение 138 — jocular. pre-travel mood. čemodanas has not yet been included in the List of Major Language Errors. According to the data in LKŽ VII 1966, lagaminas is most widely used among the Samogitians in a somewhat different sense—2. sing. “all the clothes, laundry, belongings (usually packed somewhere)”: To[j]e] skrynelė[j]e] visas josios lagaminas (the putting together of things) (A. Juška’s dictionary), i.e. not the little chest, but its contents. It would not be surprising if the meaning “little chest” of lagaminas were somewhat unusual precisely among the Samogitians, although it is known in some parts of Samogitia: Didelis ano (t. y. jo) lagamins, o gera aname (t. y. jame) nieko nė[ra] Šilalė. In this sense, lagaminas is also recorded in LKŽ VII 1966 from the Aukštaitians, but from only one place, Daugailiai. From an etymological perspective, the original meaning of lagaminas should actually be “little chest”—it is connected (E. Fraenkel 1955–1965) with Lithuanian pal‘gti “to lay down, put down”: Te bus jautis iškeptas, ant balto stalelio pal‘gtas ir peilis medkotis įsmeigtas A. Juška, Svotbinė rėda, 1880, p. 18 – LKŽ VII 1966; Old Bulgarian ležati “to lie” and ložiti “to put, lay down” (corresponding to Russian лежать, ложить), German liegen “to lie,” legen “to put,” sich legen “to lie down,” Latin lectus “bed; couch; lair,” Greek lektron “lair.” It should be noted that there is a borrowed homonym, 2xlagaminas (Latin legumina; from Latin legumen “legume, pod-bearing plant”) meaning “a dish (dessert)”: Sukraun kartoms tokį lagaminą iš naliesninkų (t. y. sklindžių): vieną kartą prided uogų, kitą – obuolių ir cukru apibarsto ir kiaušiniu aptepa, kad anie suliptų; šūdyne (t. y. inde) sukloja ant kits kito, – sutaiso tokį lagaminą. Skanus tas lagamins Šakyna (LKŽ VII 1966). The Lithuanian lagaminas that concerns us, recommended for the standard language as early as 1907 (by J. Šlapelis), still needs the help of its users. True, this is now the age of bags and backpacks; perhaps only lagaminėlis is more common. Dates—edible little fingers To swallow one’s tongue, to lick one’s fingers—that’s when something is really delicious. There are all sorts of edible little fingers nowadays—veal and the like. There were some in the past too—perhaps almost forgotten, but recently recalled: Types of raisins. <...>. 4. Large, fleshy, elongated raisins (up to 2.50 cm long). These raisins are very sweet and aromatic, but contain 2–3 fairly large seeds. They are dried from grapes popularly called “ladies’ fingers” Sav with TV 2004 29 14. That “folk” were probably Russian (and urban!), though perhaps they did not coin the name themselves either. 139 Perhaps more surprising are the edible daktiliai: Armenians in Yerevan treated us to good Armenian wine, excellent oranges brought from Georgia, and daktiliai from Turkey A. Žmuidz P ir G 1961 351. Perhaps some remember from versification—chorees, iamb, dactyl, amphibrach, anapest—but certainly not everyone knows that daktilis, “a three-syllable foot in which the first syllable is stressed or long,” literally means “finger” in Greek (cf. daktiloskopija “the study of palm and finger patterns,” DŽ 2000). Those daktiliai from Turkey are dates. These are the nutritious, sweet fruits of the evergreen date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), which grows in North and East Africa and Southwest Asia and takes its name from the land of the Phoenicians (Latin Phoenices); for Arabs they are like bread. The Romans’ discriminating taste gave the fruit—single-seeded berries—its name. Incidentally, Pliny the Elder used the Greek-derived name (dáktylos) daktylus for not just one plant but, always on account of the same resemblance to a finger, for the date palm, a species of millet (Panicum) (P. dactylon), and dactylis, -idis—the so-called daktilidas—grapes with finger-shaped berries. Carl von Linnaeus named couch grass Dactylis (in dialects, šunažolę (šunžolė also simply means “weed”), while J. (A.) Pabrėža called Digitaria (cf. Latin digitus, “finger”) by the neologism pirštuotė. From the Romans, the word first passed into the Romance languages—Italian dattero, French dattier; the fruit is datte. In the supper depicted by Chrétien de Troyes (12th c.) at the castle of King Nusidéjėlis, where the procession of the Holy Grail takes place, dates are mentioned among many delicacies. They served them fruit for supper too. And what was there not! Dates, figs and nutmeg, nuts, pomegranates, cloves, Alexandrian ginger, and many other delicacies Troyes Pers 2003 59. Next come English date and German Dattel (the metrical term is Daktylus). All the forms have changed, while the Polish form is daktyl. Hence TŽŽ 1936 daktilis, sense 2, “fruit of the date palm.” A. Žmuidzinavičius still used it two decades later, although LKRŽ 1948 and DŽ 1954 already had datulė (perhaps only in specialist shops). Incidentally, this was the second arrival of datulė in Lithuanian: after it failed to appear in SD 1620 (Dá ktylowe drzewo / palma ir Dá ktylowy owoc / Dactylus—without Lithuanian equivalents), it was recorded as early as 1747 in the German–Lithuanian lexicon of P. Ruigys, a lexicographer from Lithuania Minor: Datteln – Dattulė R 1747. Thus -ulė instead of German -el has been around for a very long time. The German-style stress dátulė, later recommended in some sources, is now a thing of the past. Although TŽŽ 1936 has daktilis, sense 2, “date,” it also has finikas—“fruit of the date palm.” Phoenix – феникс, финик, пальма финиковая, P. dactylifera – финик финиконосный BVŽ 1998. In the translated editions (from Russian) of TŽŽ 1951 and 1969, datulės is, of course, not given, although it appears in the definition of finikas: “dates, fruit of the date palm” (TŽŽ 1951); “edible fruit of the date tree (date palm).” 140 The 1936 TŽŽ prescribed no norms, but only explained; the 1951 and 1969 TŽŽ prescribed norms according to Russian. Order was not established in later TŽŽ editions either—in 1985 the fruit was already not only finikas, but also datulė (a terminological defect of synonymy), while in 2001 it was both finikas and datulė—both the tree and the fruit. This also needs to be put in order in normative dictionaries of the standard language. The 1954 DŽ has no finiko, while datulė is defined in botany as “a palm with edible fruits; the fruit of that tree.” The same holds in later editions. In fact, the names of the plant and the fruit differ: the plant is datulinis finikas, the fruit datulė. Incidentally, datulė is also used in zoology: the mollusk Lithophaga lithophaga – jūrinė datulė (Russian морской фундук). Powder and powdered sugar Already in P. Ruigys’s dictionary (1747) there is the Germanism pūderis. From the beginning of K. Donelaitis’s Metai’s very Winter’s Concerns we recall: bearded pinewoods / With their curly tufts appearing everywhere / And, like powdered young gentlemen, standing with their legs apart. With F. Kuršaitis’s dictionary, these Germanisms almost come to an end, while in A. Juška’s dictionary, alongside this meaning, free extensions already emerge—pūderėtis, “to adorn oneself, to deck oneself out,” and “to starch oneself”; in Jurbarkas, pūderis means “someone with puffed-up hair” (LKŽ X 1976). Latvians still have the Germanism pūderis. Lithuanians changed both the source of the borrowing and the form of the loanword. Almost 100 years ago—in 1907—J. Šlapelis’s Dictionary of Foreign and Unfamiliar Words already included a word of French origin, an internationalism that had come via Russian: pudra, “fine starchy powder sprinkled on the skin to make it softer.” A word from another language (including an international word) is usually borrowed not in all its meanings, but only in one that is needed (or in several that are needed). French poudre simply means all kinds of powder: tooth powder and washing powder (even dust—compare Lithuanian dulkės, 1. “loose mineral fertilizer, superphosphate,” Tauragnai; 2. “washing powder,” Suginciai—LKŽ II₂ 1969), as well as explosive powder, that is, gunpowder (Russian порох also means “powder”; compare порошок – powder). Likewise, English powder means powder, dust (and dust), gunpowder, and face powder. It may be added that the international status of pudros is genuine, but not universal; for example, in Italian it is cipria (Latin Cypria—Cypriot woman, i.e. Venus of Cyprus). Borrowed with that one meaning, the international word pudra has a whole word family: to powder, powdering, to apply powder, powder compact, little powder compact (dialectal pudrininkė, “a woman who likes to powder herself,” Grūžiai). 141 There are also borderline, unclear cases. DŽ 1972 also included powdered sugar, “very fine sugar”—presented as… an idiom. The mode of presentation would be rational, since sugar is not powdered; but the standardization itself is irrational, because what is not powdered is not powder either. LKŽ X 1976 does likewise; it also has powdered sugar, powdery snow, powdery feathers. Aluminum powder did not immediately enter the terminology: PolŽ 1984 gives powder, metallurgy—powders: aluminum powder, perlite powder; StatŽ 2002 has aluminum powder (as well as dolomite powder, lime powder, silica powder, mineral powder, plastic powder, abrasive powder), and aluminum powder (as well as cement powder). I have argued that, in terminological usage, the linguistically rational solution is to abandon this non-systematic meaning of the international word powder: if it is not powdered, then it is not powder, but particles. Thus: powdered sugar, aluminum particles, cement particles. MeteorŽ 1975 снежная пудра – снегдулькес, powdery snow. Finishing the details? DŽ 1954 has only finish eating the soup. DŽ 1972, where prefixed verbs are listed separately, gives a broader and more accurate account: he finished felling the forest, the flour has run out, explained as ‘to finish doing something completely (from within)’. But that semantic component ‘from within’ does not seem necessary, and in the case of finishing felling it is not even possible. The example he finished felling the forest was dropped from DŽ 1993—the examples are better tailored to the definition, but do they correspond to actual usage? In LKŽ1 1941, išbaigti is illustrated not only by ‘inward’ examples: A finished work—A. Juška’s dictionary. Then the bird finished carrying them to shore and released them unharmed—J. Murka’s tales. Nowadays those customs are already going out of fashion—Grūžiai. I finished weaving the linen cloth—J. Šlapelis; finishing: It would be a beautiful creature, but its finish is poor—Geistarai. Assigning an ‘inward’ meaning to the verb išbaigti is excessive—the verb įbaigti does not have an ‘inward’ meaning at all: We still haven’t finished sowing the rye—Dusetos (LKŽ1, 1941). The potatoes haven’t finished being ridged—Kupiškis (LKŽ2, 1968). In general, baigti with almost all prefixes simply denotes completion of an event: I finished harrowing the field; now I’ll go to breakfast—Čriškiai. They too have already finished sowing—Skirsnemunė. I finished pulling the flax—Panevėžys. Yesterday I finished hauling the last rye—Panevėžys. Move the embers aside so the fire can finish burning—Surviliškis. Since you’ve drilled this far, finish drilling all the way through—Kupiškis. He has spent all his money (wealth)—F. Kuršaitis’s dictionary. It has already begun to get dark—Krinčinas. Write a letter telling me how your affairs turned out—Keturvalakiai. 142 Ved inys išbaiga – „išbaigimas, galas“ DŽ 1954, „pabaiga, galas“ DŽ 1972 ir 1993 yra labai retas, LKŽ IV 1957 paliudytas tik iš A. Baranausko Biblijos vertimo: Sergėjimas gi zokonų yra išbaiga nesugedimo Išm 6, 19 (1998 ŠR Išm 6, 18 – laikymasis įstatų – nemarumo pagrindas). DŽ išbaigos „liekanos“ yra iš RLŽ 1932 (docmalb – liekanos, išbaigos). In the era of bilingualism, the finishing worker in parts manufacturing was simply called by the Russian term finisher—dovochik (Russian доводчик). The technical term доводка is rendered in PolŽ 1984 as finishing operation. This two-word term also appears in TechEnc I 2000. However, finishing is widespread in colloquial speech. Neither KPP 1976 and 1985 nor TT 1992 makes any correction to finishing. Of course, in dialects to finish simply means “to complete,” whereas here it means “to finish off.” The one-word term finishing is certainly more convenient and systematic—alongside it there is also a finisher, whereas it is hard to imagine that a finishing operator would be suitable for the finishing operation. KPP 1985 has only finished—in some cases, better complete, perfect, final: The film studio’s portfolio still contains few completed (— finished, finally written, prepared) screenplays. This usage was certainly tiresome and formulaic—it needed to be stopped. However, finished, completeness (recorded in LKŽ IV 1957, already from the prewar period) is Lithuanian, and even “perfect” can be overused (a perfect vacation and the like). Scale, map scale, maštabas German Maßstab (literally, “indicator of size”) and from it Russian масштаб—these mean both “the ratio of the length of a line on a map or drawing to the actual length of the place or object drawn” (scale DŽ 1954), and “a relative measure of any magnitude,” “scope, extent” (scale 2., 3. DŽ 1954). The linguist Jonas Jablonskis and mathematician Zigmas Žemaitis did likewise—they designated “scale” with the word mastas: A map is made to scale J. Jablonskis (LKŽ VII 1966); mastas – масштаб and масштаб – mastas G and TTR 1920. But DŽ 1954 gives mastas 1. see mastelis (and DŽ 1972), although mastelis was already in LKRŽ 1948 and even earlier (as we shall soon see). The basis for the change is more than questionable: mastelis is just a small-scale mastas… And no other language has this sort of clever-clever ‘mastelis’. As if that were not enough, TŽŽ 1936 also introduces the loanword maštabas (German)—1. ‘scale, a small measure conventionally adopted in place of another, larger measure, <…>’; 2. ‘a relative measure of any size’. Yet quite recently—KL 1933—this had been corrected: mašt abas (Russian масშტაბ < German Masstab) – mastas: on a broad scale – broad 143 scale. KP 1939 corrects: maštabas (...) – scale: <...>; (map) scale. Maštabas also appears in two later translated editions, TŽŽ 1951 and 1969, and... DŽ 1954 – 1. “scale,” 2. “relative size of something” (and DŽ 1972). Perhaps that is why KPP 1976 and 1985 tried to restrain it only tentatively: maštabas, foreign – better: mastas, scope, size: The scope of activities (– scale, aspirations). Large-scale (– of great scale, large) compositions. RLKŽ II 1983 масштаб – only 1. scale, 2. figuratively, scope, but масштабный – although 1. scalable, yet 2. figuratively, ambitious [large-scale], масштабно – on a broad scale [with broad scope], масштабно, масштабность – broad scope, (large) ambitions, large-scale character: the scope [scale] of plans. It can safely be said that large-scale, on a large scale, large-scale character then poured from the lips and pens of some literary and art critics and ideological workers, but it should be added that although this was jargon usage, people were afraid to challenge it more forcefully. Not a trace of it remains now. DŽ 1993 maštabas nonstandard. = 1. scale, 2. scope 1 (i.e. “ambition, extent, size”). Now for 10 years, again and again, by now even for the tenth time, I have been reading: The Kingdom of God is not a political concept, and therefore it is not a political scale by which political practice could be directly shaped or political formations criticized J. Ratz Esch 1996 60. Purgatory’s time can undoubtedly be a long time by human measure J. Le Goff VV 2003 120. That history must be remembered in order to grasp the true cost of statehood and independence, their true scale <...> MoksliL 2004 18 13. The events in Kyiv differ from Lithuania’s singing revolution in scale, accumulated energy, and the threat hanging in the air Vd 2004 49 33. <...> – it is a fantastic utopia with elements of detective fiction, and the requirements of originality and intrigue applied to it are of a different scale than those applied to realistic works Vd 2005 5 55. There is no doubt that the year 2004, even when measured on a broad, perhaps even the broadest, historical scale, will enter the tables of the synthesis and chronology of Lithuania’s future history Vd 2005 10 4. <...> and when measured on the scale of history, the politics of parties called traditional lacked an inner historical novelty and had no dimension of a national strategy reflecting the positions of the political nation as a whole Vd 2005 25 62. But in their view, the sole measure by which the Church should be judged is expediency, <...> NŽA 2005 6 265. Life here unfolds as if on a different scale Vd 2005 27 80. <...> with their eyes shut, they do not apply the scales of the standard language to speech L ir M 2005 26 4. The same welfare state, <...>, only, of course, on a considerably more modest scale Vd 2005 37 4. Evaluating the consequences of this action on the scale of classical political theory <...> Vd 2005 46 62. My own 144 work must be assessed in a broader context, against the scale of trends in the country, Europe, and perhaps the world MokslL 2005 18 5. This deposit, whose territorial extent is astonishing in its dimensions – 75 X 45 km <...>, will be brought into operation in three years Vd 2005 51 23. A human timescale, the scale of history or events, the scale of requirements or expediency, grasping scale – here it has always been scope! And why create according to a scale, even a political one, measure dimensions on a scale, measure, assess and compare on a scale (rather than by a measure?!), even a large one, and take place on a scale – has all sense of what is being written been lost? Conclusions 1. More than 100 years ago, the international word valiza, of French origin and transmitted through Polish, had already entered Lithuanian. Not long afterward, it began to be displaced by the Tatar-derived Russianism čemodanas. But by then (1907) the Lithuanian word lagaminas. Valiza was also coming into use. It gradually disappeared without difficulty, čemodanas received strong support from Russian-Lithuanian bilingualism during the Soviet era, but the already codified and well-established lagaminas (especially lagaminėlis). 2. K. Sirvydas’s old dictionary (c. 1620) already included Latin Dactylus (the tree and its fruit), but without a Lithuanian equivalent. P. Ruigys’s dictionary (1747) has the German-derived form Dattulé, while the 1936 Dictionary of International Words gives daktilis, 2. “the fruit of the date palm” (that is, “date”)—from the same root as the prosodic term daktilis (Greek daktylos, “finger”). “Ladies’ fingers” is sometimes the name given to certain grapes. 3. P. Ruigys’s dictionary (1747) already contains the Germanism pūderis, while J. Šlapelis’s Glossary of Foreign and Unfamiliar Words (1907) has pudra. French poudre means powders of all kinds (including washing powder), even dust (English powder< also means gunpowder; Russian порох). Pudra has a whole family of forms – to powder, powdering, to powder, powder box, small powder puff. But sugar or aluminum powder, cement powder (it is not used for applying makeup!), powdered sugar do not fit this family, so the terms powder, powdered are recommended here. 4. The finishing of parts could also be called finishing, or final processing, but a final processor is not possible. However, a careful look at the semantics of the verb to finish shows that there is no obstacle to the term finishing, or to finisher. The brevity of the term is also important. 5. The linguist Jonas Jablonskis and the mathematician Zigmas Žemaitis designated “scale” with the word mastas. However, the 1936 Dictionary of International Words also includes maštabas (German) – 1. “scale, <...>,” 2. “a relative measure of any quantity.” Maštabas was already corrected in 1939 in the Language Adviser, yet it still appeared in 1954 and even in 1972. 145 In the Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian, the forms maštabiškas, maštabiškai, maštabiškumas also flourished throughout the Soviet era (it was frightening to touch them too forcefully, since ideological workers used them extensively). Now not a trace of maštabo remains. But mastelis has gone wild—it is used instead of masto and even mato. Of all the factors determining language norms—system, tradition, bilingualism, and fashion—in these cases the system had the weakest influence, and bilingualism and fashion the strongest. In the last case (mastelis instead of masto), tradition is violated, but the basis for that violation is truly peculiar—it is difficult to make a sensible distinction between mastą and mastelį; only now things have turned out the other way round: mastelis (which should not be used at all) instead of masto. If the reverse were to happen—mast as in both cases—then rejecting the non-systematic and illogical mastelio would be justified. We would only need to agree. LITERATURE AND SOURCES J. Basan MGK 1997: Basanavičius J. Mano gyvenimo kronika ir nervų ligos istorija. 1851–1922 m., Vilnius. BVŽ 1998: Botanikos vardų žodynas. Sudarė R. Jankevičienė, Vilnius. DŽ 1954: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, Vilnius. DŽ 1972: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, Vilnius. DŽ 1993: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, Vilnius. DŽ 2000: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, Vilnius. E. Fraenkel 1955–1965: Litauisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, Göttingen. G ir TTR 1920: Žemaitis Z. 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A. Žmuidz P ir G 1961: Žmuidzinavičius A. Paletė ir gyvenimas, Vilnius. Jonas KLIMAVIČIUS Institute of the Lithuanian Language 5 P. Vileišio St., LT-10308 Vilnius Email: [email protected] Received 2005-11-02 147