Nelietuviški XIX a. galo – XX a. pradžios katalikų katekizmų terminai

Aušra RIMKUTĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language NON-LITHUANIAN TERMS IN CATHOLIC CATECHISMS OF THE LATE NINETEENTH AND EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURIES Although Catholicism was introduced in Lithuania very late— in 1387 in Aukštaitija and only in 1413 in Samogitia—Lithuanian Christian terminology is one of the oldest among Lithuanian terminologies. This is shown by the oldest layer of Lithuanian religious terminology—such old borrowings as bažnyčia, gavėnia, krikštas, kūčios, Kalėdos, Velykos, verba, and others (see Būga 1958: 348; 1961: 776), which entered Lithuanian from the East Slavic languages probably in the tenth to twelfth centuries, before Lithuania’s official baptism. The beginnings of Lithuanian Christian terminology are represented by the oldest manuscript prayers known today, preserved from the early sixteenth century and written in the Diocese of Vilnius—the Lord’s Prayer, the Angelic Salutation, and the Creed (Lebedys, Palionis 1964: 109–135; Zinkevičius 2000: 71–73)—and by the first printed Lithuanian book, the Evangelical Lutheran work by Martynas Mažvydas, Catechismvsa prasty Szadei (1547). This article aims to discuss single-word religious terms of non-Lithuanian origin used in Catholic catechisms of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries1. This period2 was not chosen by chance. It was a period when, as modern standard Lithuanian was taking shape3, greater attention began to be paid to the language of religious writings and of the Church in general4. Much needed to be put in order: 1 Compound terms are not discussed in this article, since most of the words examined occur as their components. 2 The language of the Church in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and even more so religious terminology (and religious vocabulary in general), has so far received relatively little scholarly attention. Only a handful of separate articles and notes address the religious terms of that period, for example, in periodicals of the time—Varpas, Tėvynės sargas, Vilniaus žinios, Draugija, Vadovas. Linguists who have written about religious vocabulary include P. Skardžius, J. Kruopas, V. Urbutis, A. Sabaliauskas, J. Palionis, Z. Zinkevičius, V. Drotvinas, J. Klimavičius, A. Kučinskaitė, and others. 3 According to J. Palionis, the period from the late nineteenth to the early twentieth century marked the final establishment of the Western Aukštaitian Kaunas subdialect. Thus, it was one of the periods in the development of the standard language (Pupkis 2005: 44). 4 Kaip rašo J. Girčienė, jau M. Daukša stengėsi gryninti kalbą (Girčienė 2003: 394). Taigi religijos kalba rūpintasi jau nuo XVI a. galo. 42 prayer books, hymnals, catechisms, books of sermons, and other Church literature that had been contaminated by foreignisms5. At the end of the 19th century, with the rise of the national revival movement, the great cleansing of the Lithuanian language of barbarisms began6. At the end of the first decade of the 20th century (1909), a Prayer Commission was established7, comprising the priests Aleksandras Dambrauskas8, Alfonsas Petrulis, and Juozas Laukaitis, as well as the most prominent linguists of the time, who had “the greatest experience in standardizing the secular standard language”: Kazimieras Būga, Jonas Jablonskis, Juozas Balčikonis, and Jurgis Šlapelis (Zinkevičius 2000: 179). According to Zigmas Zinkevičius, the Commission’s work in Seinai in the summer of 1909 was “essentially the first gathering of Lithuanian linguists” (ibid.), at which the language of the more important prayers and recitations was revised and the most essential religious terminology established. 5 This article follows the traditional understanding of foreignisms, already established in publications on language culture. A foreignism is understood here as a word borrowed from another language that violates the norms of the standard language and has a Lithuanian equivalent. 6 In this article, the term barbarism is treated as a synonym for foreignism (KTŽ 1990; see also LKE 1999). 7 As Z. Zinkevičius writes, discussion of standardizing the prayers began in the press in the early 20th century. “The first person to become seriously concerned with reforming the prayers and making them Lithuanian was the prelate Juozas Laukaitis” (Zinkevičius 2000: 178). He also established the so-called Prayer Commission. In 1909, the Commission spent a couple of months in Seinai discussing matters concerning the standard language, especially the language of the Church. Two versions of the prayers were prepared: “1) the version proposed by the linguists, apparently including Laukaitis himself, characterized by radical revisions and essentially constituting an almost entirely new translation; and 2) a compromise version, closer to the prayers used up to that point, retaining some linguistic irregularities and intended not to alarm the conservatively minded clergy” (Zinkevičius 2000: 179). In 1909, the Vadovas, no. 14, printed the Revised Prayers. In the Vadovas, the Prayer Commission wrote that “having before us the entire history of the prayers and seeing their great lack of uniformity, we found no other solution than to revise everything scientifically, as the spirit of the Lithuanian language requires; at the same time, however, we considered it our duty to ensure that our revised prayers would be understood throughout Lithuania and fully express the thought of the Church. For this reason, in some matters we did not follow the experts’ opinion” (Pataisytieji Poteriai 1909: 107). For more on the Prayer Commission, see Z. Zinkevičius’s study Lithuanian Prayers (Zinkevičius 2000: 179–184). 8 A. Dambrauskas was a Lithuanian cultural figure, priest, philosopher, philologist, literary critic, and poet who wrote under the pseudonyms Adomas Jakštas, Druskius, and others (LKE 1999; LLE 2001; Keinys 2000: 32). 43 1. Review of sources The sources for this article are four Catholic catechisms published in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries: The Science of Rimas the Catholic (1879), The Short Catechism of Rev. Filochowski (1901), Catholic Catechisms. Most Necessary for Children and Simple Folk, with a Primer and an Altar-Server’s Manual (1903), and the catechism by the priest Kazimieras Paltarokas, Religious Instruction (Sacred History and Catechism) (1916). The sources were not selected at random. The language of religious writings in the eighteenth and, in part, nineteenth centuries underwent a crisis (see Zinkevičius 1990; 1992; Palionis 1995 for more). This was connected with the loss of Lithuanian statehood and its annexation by the Russian Empire. After the 1863 liberation uprising, printing in the Latin alphabet was prohibited. The country underwent colonization and Russification. In the second half of the nineteenth century, as in many countries of Central and Eastern Europe, a national revival movement arose in Lithuania. One of the issues raised by the national movement was the struggle for the rights of the Lithuanian language9. The catechisms mentioned date from the period of the Lithuanian national revival. Before discussing the origins of the religious terms used in the catechisms, it is worth briefly describing the sources. The catechism Mokslas Rimo Kataliku. Naujei perweizėtas, pertaišitas ir antra karta atspaustas was prepared and first published in 1873 by the Samogitian bishop Motiejus Valančius (1801–1875)10. Religious terms were collected from the 1879 edition of the catechism. This source was selected because it is known, 9 It should not be forgotten that the linguistic situation differed between Lithuania Minor and Lithuania Major. In the dioceses of Samogitia and Vilnius in Lithuania Major, the spheres in which Lithuanian was used differed greatly. For example, in the Samogitian region, people prayed in churches using Lithuanian prayer books and recited their prayers in Lithuanian. The Samogitians were affected by Polonization much less than the inhabitants of the Vilnius region (see also Zinkevičius 2002: 333–339, 500–504). 10 According to Z. Zinkevičius, “Valančius gathered around himself educated people who wrote in Lithuanian, encouraged the publication of Lithuanian books, and often printed them at his own expense. In this way, he raised the national consciousness of the people” (Zinkevičius 1990: 157). Valančius’s work as a writer and educator was of great importance in the development of the Lithuanian written language, since he sought to write so that people speaking all dialects could easily understand his writings. A. Dambrauskas-Jakštas notes: “Loving his language, Bishop Motiejus strove to preserve it in all its strength and could not abide the barbarisms used by those who had a poorer command of Lithuanian” (Dambrauskas-Jakštas 1930: 209). In fact, M. Valančius did not avoid such foreignisms as apieravoti, čistata, griešnas, loska, mūka, and others. Thus, the bishop did not make much effort to purify religious language. However, he wrote his literary works in correct language. 44 that this edition had been revised by Aleksandras Vytartas11. He wrote: “I made use of Prof. Kaz. Jaunius’s teaching of the subject at the Kaunas seminary; moreover, I inserted an entirely new section there on impediments to entering into matrimony. The spelling had been corrected by… the poet Maironis, but in transcribing it I did not entirely adhere to his corrections. The supplement on impediments to matrimony was reviewed by… the respected A. Dambrauskas” (LTSRSB 1862: 257). The Short Catechism of Rev. Filochowski. Translated by Vaižgantas. Published for the second time, corrected – this is a counterfeit edition, published in 1901. The page preceding the title page bears an 1863 approval: Permission to print granted. Kaunas. February 8, 1863. Bishop of Samogitia. Vaižgantas (1869–1933) states in the catechism’s preface Lithuanians, do not be deceived!! this little book is a “Catechism,” not a “Primer”!! that the prayers have been harmonized with Valančius’s prayers, that is, with the prayers approved by M. Valančius and printed in the booklet Aktas ir poterej (Vilnius, 1853). He made some changes to the language of the prayers and to certain sentence constructions; in addition, the footnotes supplied equivalents previously used in the prayers, mostly Slavicisms. Catholicly Catholic. Most necessary for children and simple folk, with a Primer and a Mass server’s manual (1903). On the reverse of the catechism’s title page is a counterfeit approval incorporated into a vignette: Дозволено цензурою. ВИЛНО 1864 г. There is disagreement about the catechism’s author. According to V. Biržiška, it is A. Baranauskas’s (1835–1902) catechism (Biržiška 1929: 852–853). The Bibliography of the Lithuanian SSR states that it is the catechism of P. Legeckas (1844–1934), an author of books, translator, and priest (LTSRSB 1988: 673). Materials were also collected from the priest K. Paltarokas’s12 Religious Instruction (Sacred History and Catechism) (1916). The source consists of three parts: I. Prayers; II. Sacred History; III. Catechism. Religious terms were collected from the first and third parts. The author writes in the Preface: “In religious instruction, the Catechism is closely connected with Sacred History. The account of Sacred History explains the Catechism; the Catechism explains what is not set out in Sacred History. Therefore, in this ‘Religious Instruction’ 11 A. Vytartas (1837–1863?) was a priest who died during the 1863 uprising (Biržiška 1990: 410). 12 K. Paltarokas (1875–1958) – Lietuvos Katalikų Bažnyčios veikėjas, nuo 1926 metų – vyskupas. Parengė ir išleido religijos knygų, tikybos vadovėlių (plačiau žr. LTE 1981). 45 Mokslė“ abu dalykų sudėjau vienoje knygelėje“ (TM 1916: 3). Būtina paminėti, kad šį leidinį labai plačiai ir kritiškai recenzavo kalbininkas J. Jablonskis (Jablonskis 1933: 97–113). Jis 1917 metais Santaroje rašė, kad „Katekizme“, be tikybos mokslo dalykų ir pagrindinių tikybos tiesų, yra nemaža ir šiaipjau dalykų ir dalykėlių“ (Jablonskis 1933: 97). Apie religijos terminus, deja, recenzijoje neužsimenama. The first three catechisms were published during the press ban, when the official language of Lithuania was Russian. In the first decades of the 20th century, there was also a turning point in the language of the Church, namely, barbarisms were abandoned. The catechism by K. Paltarokas, published in 1916, was selected in order to examine how religious terms had changed, and whether, with the onset of intensive efforts to correct the language of religious writings, the foreignisms used in earlier catechisms had been abandoned. A total of 1,158 one-word religious terms and their variants were collected from the catechisms; however, some terms coincide, so the total is 613 distinct religious terms and 125 variants13. The largest number found were native one-word religious terms—439 terms (see Fig. 1). 2. Non-Lithuanian Terms Almost one third of the one-word religious terms used in the catechisms are of non-Lithuanian origin (see Fig. 1). In this article, non-Lithuanian, that is, foreign-origin, religious terms14 are taken to include foreignisms, so-called international words, and old loans that have become fully adapted to the Lithuanian language system and “form part of the core vocabulary of the standard language,” 13 Variants of religious terms are not discussed in this article. 14 The determination of the origins of the terms draws on A. Sabaliauskas’s study Lietuvių kalbos leksika (1990), D. Urbas’s Martyno Mažvydo raštų žodynas (1998), J. Kabelka’s Kristijono Donelaičio raštų leksika (1964), J. Kruopas’s work Žodyninės slav ybės M. Mažvydo raštų kalboje (1947), V. Urbutis’s articles: Nepastebėti Mažvydo slavizmai (1962), Senosios lietuvių kalbos slavizmai (1992), Senųjų slavizmų kilmės įvairovė (1994), as well as K. Būga’s Rinktiniais raštais, Lietuvių kalbos žodynu and dictionaries of international words (1936, 1985, 2001, 2003). K. Alminauskis’s doctoral dissertation Die Germanismen des Litauischen (1931), E. Fraenkel’s Lიტauisches etymologisches Wörterbuch (1955–1962), P. Skardžius’s Die slavischen Lehnwörter im Alt litauischen (1931), and A. Brückner’s Słownik etymologiczny języka polskiego (1974) were also consulted. 46 and only historical research can establish that these are words of foreign origin” (Jakaitienė 1980: 61). As A. Sabaliauskas writes, for old borrowings “we usually have no native replacements or synonyms” (Sabaliauskas 1990: 228). Terms containing foreign-origin components are discussed separately. These are hybrid (or mixed) terms. In total, 141 distinct non-Lithuanian terms and 33 hybrid terms are examined. Fig. 1. Distribution of one-word religious terms by origin (%) 2.1. International Terms A total of 34 international religious terms were found in the catechisms (less than one-tenth of all one-word terms). International words, like old borrowings and foreignisms, are loanwords. As is known, they are usually borrowed through intermediary languages, but sometimes it is difficult to identify the original source, and often the intermediate one (or ones) as well. 47 2.1.1. International Terms of Latin Origin. In the catechisms, international terms with a Latin base15 were found in the greatest number—19 terms: absoliucija TFK 33 (Latin absolutio)16, aktas TFK 43 (Latin actus), ceremonija MRK 330 (Latin caerimonia), dekretas MRK 101 (Latin dēcrētum), desperacija MRK 169, TFK 10, KK 48 (Latin desperatio), dispensas MRK 399 (Latin dis-pensus), intencija MRK 297, KK 27 (Latin intentio), kard minor TM 87 (Latin cardinalis), klierikas TM 135 (Latin clericus), komunija MRK 330, TFK 36, TM 126 (Latin communio), komunikantas TFK 37 (TŽŽ 1936), konsekracija MRK 330 (Latin consecratio), monstrancija MRK 323 (Latin monstrantia < monstrare), ostija KK 30, MRK 322, TM 123 (Latin hostia), procesija MRK 323 (Latin processio), relikvija MRK 182 (Latin reliquiae), sakramentas MRK 16, 79, 138, TFK 9, KK 22, TM 72, 85 (Latin sacramentum), sakramenta-lijos TM 137 (Latin sacramentalia), suplikacijos TM 9 (Latin supplicatio). This group of terms (as well as 2.1.2 and 2.1.4) is classified not by the immediate source, as is done for other international terms (see 2.1.1.1, 2.1.1.2, 2.1.2.1, 2.1.2.2, 2.1.2.2), but by the original source, since it is difficult (often even impossible) to determine through which languages international words were transmitted. 2.1.1.1. A Term of Latin Origin Borrowed through Slavic Languages. One religious term borrowed through Slavic languages was found (this term is discussed separately because it is not known through which Slavic language it entered Lithuanian), but its original source is Latin: altorius MRK 176, TM 110 (Polish ołtarz, Belarusian алтар < Latin altāre: Latin altus, compare altāria ‘altar; sacrificial altar’ LoLieŽ 1996, compare VaitkTŽŽ 2003; TŽŽ 2001 has altarija ‘altarist’s house, farm’17. 15In this article, terms are written according to the orthography of the 1916 edition, i.e., that of K. Paltarokas’s catechism, because the orthography of Tikybos mokslo differs very little from modern orthography, and in many cases the inaccuracies can be regarded as typographical errors. Since the main focus is the origin of one-word terms, variants are not discussed separately. 16Abbreviations written alongside the examples indicate which catechism uses the term, while the Arabic numerals indicate the page from which they were taken (usually the first observed occurrence). The number after a comma indicates the page on which a variant of the term under discussion was found. The source abbreviations are explained at the end of the article. 17 TŽŽ altorius kildinamas iš lotynų kalbos. Tik A. Sabaliauskas (1990: 253), P. Skardžius (1998: 86), J. Kruopas (1998: 36), J. Kabelka (1964: 24) ir E. Fraenkelis (1955: 8) nurodo, kad katekizmuose vartojamas žodis į lietuvių kalbą atėjo per slavų (t. y. lenkų ar baltarusių) kalbas. 48 2.1.1.2. Terms of Latin origin borrowed through Polish. In the catechisms Mokslas Rimo Katalikų ir Tikybos mokslas, Latin words borrowed through Polish are also used (2 terms): adventas MRK 79, 333, TM 109 (Polish adwent, Latin adventus LKŽ), suma MRK 403 (Polish suma < Latin summa). 2.1.2. International terms of Greek origin. Only 5 religious terms whose original source is Greek were found: antifona TM 11 (Greek antiphōnos), balzamas MRK 315 (Greek balsamon [TŽŽ 1936 states that balzamas came from Arabic]), diakonas MRK 380, TM 135 (Greek diakonos), patriarchas MRK 19, 46, 79 (Greek patriarchēs), subdiakonas MRK 380 (Latin sub + Greek diakonos). 2.1.2.1. Terms of Greek origin borrowed through Latin. Three single-word terms borrowed through Latin were found (it is difficult to identify the intermediary languages, which are not mentioned in TŽŽ), although their original source is Greek: eretikas MRK 23, 335, KK 22 (Latin haereticus < Greek hairetikos VaitkTŽŽ 2003, whereas TŽŽ 1936, 1985, 2001 eretikas < Greek hairetikos), katalikas MRK 25, 32, TFK 7, TM 89 (Latin catholicus < Greek katholikos), katekizmas MRK 386, TFK 43, KK 7, TM 3 (Latin catechismus < Greek katēchismos VaitkTŽŽ 2003, while the other TŽŽ entries state that it originated in Greek). 2.1.2.2. A term of Greek origin borrowed through Polish. The catechisms also use the term psalmė TM 9, of Greek origin borrowed through Polish (Polish psalm < Greek psalmos Kruopas 1998: 238; cf. TŽŽ, which indicates only Greek origin). 2.1.2.3. Terms of Greek origin borrowed through Slavic languages. Two religious terms borrowed through Slavic languages were found, although their original source is Greek: angelas TM 12, 76 (Old Russian ангелъ < Greek angelos Фасмер 1967)18, evangelija MRK 18, 32, TM 83 (Polish ewangelia < Greek euangelion Urbas 1998: 116; cf. TŽŽ 1936, 1985, 2001; VaitkTŽŽ 2003)19. 18 Angelas, kaip rašoma LKŽ, kurį redagavo J. Balčikonis, yra slavybė (LKŽ I, 1941). Slavybę jį laiko ir P. Skardžius (1998: 87), J. Kruopas (1998: 84), D. Urbas (1998: 19). Žodžio graikiška kilmė nurodyta TŽŽ 1936, 2001; VaitkTŽŽ 2003. Kad žodžio angelas pradinis šaltinis yra graikų kalba, abejonių nekyla, tačiau reikia pažymėti, kad jis gautas per slavų kalbas. 19 In his work Žodyninės slavybės M. Mažvydo raštų kalboje, J. Kruopas states that evangelija is a word of Greek origin (Kruopas 1998: 227). 49 2.1.4. Terms of Hebrew origin. Among the single-word terms under consideration, there is only one word whose original source is Hebrew, namely mana MRK 79 (Greek manna < Hebrew mān). 2.1.5. Concluding remarks. Many of the terms listed may have entered through Polish or other Slavic languages, but these languages are rarely mentioned among the sources in TŽŽ. Slightly more than three-fifths of the single-word religious terms are of Latin origin, while approximately one-third are of Greek origin. A word of Hebrew origin, mana, was also found. As the examples show, all the international terms are still in use today. The use of international single-word religious terms in the catechisms (less than one-tenth of the single-word terms) is apparently related to the fact that Catholic religious vocabulary was developed on the basis of ecclesiastical Latin. 2.2. Old borrowings20 There are various opinions about old borrowings. Some try to avoid using them (J. Skvireckas) and replace them with other words, while others take a more tolerant view of them (J. Jablonskis, K. Būga). The eminent linguist K. Būga rejected such foreign words as abelnas, abrozas, abrūšas, adyna…, but recommended using old borrowings that were necessary in Lithuanian, for example, stiklas, kunigas, and so on. J. Jablonskis “justified in the standard language almost all old borrowings used even before writing emerged. Of the borrowings that entered the language in the Middle Ages, he supported those that had no Lithuanian equivalents in the dialects (for example, borrowed religious vocabulary), <…>” (Pupkis 2005: 252). The catechisms use 36 old borrowings (more than one fifth of the borrowed one-word religious terms). 2.2.1. Old borrowings from Slavic languages. From Slavic languages21 obtained 20 Mokslo straipsnių rinkinyje Skoliniai ir bendrinė lietuvių kalba (2004) Loreta Vaicekauskienė pateikia tokią G. Thomo senųjų skolinių apibrėžtį: „žodžiai, integravęsi fonologiškai ir morfologiškai, užimantys svarbią vietą leksinėje-semantinėje kalbos sistemoje, neturintys atitikmenų, geriau – pasiskolinti ne iš kaimynų kalbų; daugiausia kodifikuojami teigiamai“ (SBK 2004: 11). Apibrėžtis nėra tiksli, nes, kaip žinoma, skoliniai gali turėti atitikmenų, gali būti (ir dažniausiai yra) skolinami iš kaimyninių kalbų ir pan. 21 The article divides borrowings from Slavic languages into Polishisms, Belarusianisms, Russianisms, and Slavisms; the group of Slavisms is distinguished when it is unclear from which Slavic language the word was directly borrowed. 50 One-word religious terms used in 5 catechisms: bažnyčia22 MRK 25, TFK 20, 25, KK 19, TM 7, 88 (Belarusian божница, Polish božnica Sabaliauskas 1990: 253), grabas MRK 75, KK 15 (Belarusian гроб, Polish grób Sabaliauskas 1990: 247; Pupkis 2005: 252)23, kūmai MRK 310 (Russian кум, Polish kum LKŽ VI 1962, cf. Drotvinas 1986: 117; Skardžius 1998: 173, where kūma(s) is a word borrowed from Belarusian), ponas TFK 13 (Polish pan, Belarusian пан Sabaliauskas 1990: 232), žydas MRK 74 (Belarusian жид, Polish żyd LKŽ XX 2002; Skardžius 1998: 306). 2.2.1.1. Terms of Latin origin borrowed through Slavic languages. A small group can be distinguished among the old borrowings whose original source is Latin: alie jus MRK 400 (Polish olej, Belarusian агей < Latin oleum or Old High German olei Sabaliauskas 1990: 244)24, alyva MRK 314 (Belarusian алива, Polish oliwa < Italian oliva or Latin oliva Sabaliauskas 1990: 237), karūna MRK 278, 331 (Belarusian коруна, Polish korona, cf. Russian корона < Latin corōna Фасмер 1986), klebonas MRK 176, TFK 24, KK 24 (Polish kleban, pleban, Belarusian кле́бан < Latin plēbanus: Latin plebs)25, koplyčia MRK 401 (Polish kaplica < Czech < German Kapelle < Medieval Latin cappella: Latin cappa Sabaliauskas 1990: 254; VaitkTŽŽ 2003)26, kryžius MRK 68 (Polish krzyż, Belarusian крыж < Latin crux rectly borrowed. Of course, there are words over which linguists themselves disagree. Their differing opinions are presented in the footnotes. 22 In his article Is the word bažnyčia acceptable?, P. Skardžius wrote that bažnyčia is “a Belarusian borrowing that entered our language together with kaladomis, velýkomis, kūčiomis, krikštu, krikštyti and so on” (Skardžius 1999: 691). According to the linguist, the word bažnyčia is so firmly established that it is difficult to find a Lithuanian substitute for it: “it is not only a temple, sanctuary, or house of prayer <...>, but also a particular community of believers” (ibid.). Interestingly, attempts were made to replace the word bažnyčia; for example, in 1947 Archbishop Metropolitan J. Skvireckas proposed using the Latin word eklezija instead of bažnyčios, or dievi namis, šventovė (Skardžius 1999: 690, 739–741, 889–892). P. Skardžius did not agree with this proposal. 23 Grabas is used in the sense of “a place to bury the dead, a grave” as early as the time of M. Mažvydas (Urbas 1998: 137). In Tikybos mokslė, grabo is replaced by karstas. Thus, one borrowing is replaced by another borrowing whose foreign origin is no longer felt. 24 The word aliejaus is not included in TŽŽ 1936; only oleum (Latin) is listed, meaning “aliejaus.” It is not included in other TŽŽ either. (Thus, aliejaus is not considered an international word, although its origin is Latin.) 25 Klebonas yra tik VaitkTŽŽ 2003. A. Sabaliauskas, V. Vaitkevičiūtė, P. Skardžius nurodo, kad jis gautas per slavų kalbas (Skardžius 1998: 161; Sabaliauskas 1990: 254). 26 The borrowing koplyčia is firmly established, so the attempt to replace it with the word kapela is unsuccessful. Moreover, the system also precludes replacing it; cf. koplystulp is, koplyt kalnis (Klimavičius 1998: 11). 51 Sabaliauskas 1990: 254; Kruopas 1998: 43, pagonis MRK 30, TFK 19, KK 22, TM 107 (lenk. pogan, brus. поганъ < lot. pāgānus: lot. pāgus27, poteriai MRK 203, TFK 7, TM 5 (lenk. pacierz < lot. pater Skardžius 1998: 232; Urbas 1998: 297; Kabelka 1964: 181; Fraenkel 1962: 641)28, vynas MRK 78, KK 30, TFK 36, TM 110 (lenk. wino, brus. віно < lot. vinum Fraenkel 1962: 1255, plg. VaitkTŽŽ 2003)29. Iš viso rasti 9 tokie senieji skoliniai. 2.2.1.2. Terms of Latin origin borrowed through Polish. Rimo’s work on Catholic uses Latin words borrowed through Polish (2 terms): mišiolas MRK 328 (Pol. mszał < Lat. missale TŽŽ 2001; VaitkTŽŽ 2003; Skardžius 1998: 191), mišios MRK 112, TM 7 (Pol. msza < Lat. missa)30. 2.2.1.3. A term of Greek origin borrowed through Slavic languages. The international term found in the catechisms, parapija MRK 118, TFK 9, KK 25, TM 7 (Pol. parafia, Bel. напа фія < Lat. po-rochia < Gr. paroikia Sabaliauskas 1990: 255), is discussed in this section. This word of international origin was borrowed through the neighboring Slavic languages, Polish or Belarusian. 2.2.1.4. A term of Sanskrit origin borrowed through Slavic languages. All four catechisms under examination use the single-word religious term rojus MRK 61, TFK 16, KK 11, TM 79 (Bel. рау́, Pol. raj < Skr. Rayih Sabaliauskas 1990: 256), whose ultimate source is Sanskrit. The term was borrowed through Slavic languages. 2.2.1.5. Terms of Germanic origin borrowed through Slavic languages. Two words of Germanic origin were also borrowed through Slavic languages: karalius TM 78, MRK 67 (Bel. кароль, compare also Russ. король, Pol. Król < Germ., compare with s. 27 Katekizmuose vartojamas terminas pagonis yra tik TŽŽ 1936. O P. Skardžius (1998: 209), A. Sabaliauskas (1990: 255), J. Kruopas (1998: 46), E. Fraenkelis (1955: 524) nurodo jį atėjus per lenkų ar baltarusių kalbą (tačiau pradinis pagonio šaltinis yra lotynų kalba). 28 Poteriai, as Z. Zinkevičius writes, is a word borrowed through the Slavs, derived from the first words of the Latin Lord’s Prayer, Pater noster, “Our Father” (Zinkevičius 2000: 26). 29 The word vynas is not listed in TŽŽ 1936, 1985, or 2001. 30 The word mišios is derived from Latin in TŽŽ 1936, whereas TŽŽ 1985, 2001; VaitkTŽŽ 2003; and LKŽe further specify that it was borrowed through Polish. 52 Germ. High German Karal, Karl)31 and pasninkas TFK 9, TM 7, KK 24, MRK 297 (Bel. nochik < Old High German fasto Sabaliauskas 1990: 255)32. 2.2.2. An old borrowing from Polish. The only term borrowed from Polish is pana MRK 72, TFK 7 (Pol. panna LKŽ IX 1973, compare Pol. panna or Bel. панна Kruopas 1998: 47). 2.2.2.1. Terms of Greek origin borrowed through Polish. Four old borrowings of Greek origin borrowed through Polish were also found: apaštalas MRK 18, TFK 42, KK 23, TM 72 (Pol. apostol < Gr. apostolos, compare Gr. apostolos TŽŽ 1936, 1985, 2001)33, krikščionis MRK 50, 79, TFK 28, TM 86 (Pol. chrześcijanin < Gr. christos, compare Lat. Christiāni LoLieŽ 1996)34, popiežius MRK 111, 116, 118, TFK 28, KK 22, TM 78, 87 (Pol. papież < Lat. pāpa < Gr. pappas35, vyskupas KK 22, 29, TM 86, 121, TFK 38, MRK 30 (Pol. biskup, wiskup < Gr. episkopos)36. 31 J. Kruopas’s article Lexical Borrowings in Mažvydas’s Writings contains a glossary of loanwords, which states that karalius (Bel. король) is a Belarusianism (Kruopas 1998: 42). P. Skardžius (1998: 154), J. Kabelka (1964: 106), D. Urbas (1998: 182), and E. Fraenkel (1955: 219) also regard the word as a Slavicism. It should be noted that K. Alminauskis does not mention karalius in his book Germanisms in the Lithuanian Language. Thus, it may be assumed that the linguist also considers the word karalius a borrowing from Slavic languages (see also Sabaliauskas 1990: 231). 32 K. Alminauskis does not mention pasninkas. Apparently, he does not consider this word a Germanism. Thus, pasninkas should be regarded as a borrowing from Slavic languages. 33 Only VaitkTŽŽ 2003 indicates that the word was borrowed through Polish. E. Fraenkel’s Etymological Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language states that apaštalas derives from Pol. apostol (Fraenkel 1962: 12). The Polish origin of the word is also indicated in LKŽe. 34 According to V. Aliulis, “kri(k)ščionis kri(k)ščionis—from Kristaus, not from Krikšto” NŽA 2005: 305. Linguists differ in identifying the language through which this term was borrowed. For example, E. Fraenkel, P. Skardžius, R. Eckert, and J. Kruopas argue that krikščionis was borrowed through Old Russian, compare Old Russian крьстьjaninъ (Eckert 1971: 39; Kruopas 1998: 41). 35 Žodis popiežius TŽŽ 1985, 2001 nepateiktas. Galbūt jis laikomas lenkybe, kaip ir Etimologiniame lietuvių kalbos žodyne, plg. lenk. papież (Fraenkel 1962: 638). Tačiau TŽŽ 1936, VaitkTŽŽ 2003 ir J. Kruopo darbe popiežius kildinamas iš graikų kalbos, nors nurodoma, kad gautas iš lenkų. LKŽe – lenk. papież < vok. tarm. < lot. 36 The word vyskupas is not listed in TŽŽ 1936; instead, episkopus in partibus infidelium (Lat.) is given—“a bishop without a diocese, <…>”; episkopatas (Gr.) is also included—“the episcopate, the body of bishops” (ibid.). Apparently, vyskupas is not considered an international word. In other TŽŽ editions, vyskupas is treated as a word of Greek origin, compare Gr. episkopos TŽŽ 1985, 2001; VaitkTŽŽ 2003. In P. Skardžius’s view, vyskupas was borrowed through Polish. The linguist does not indicate the word’s Greek origin (Skardžius 1998: 296). E. Fraenkel writes that vyskupas derives from the Polish dialectal form wiskup (Fraenkel 1962: 45). A. Brückner writes that the Polish word biskup derives 53 2.2.2.2. Terms of Latin origin borrowed through Polish. K. Paltarokas’s Tikybos moksle uses two terms of Latin origin: rožančius37 TM 140 (Pol. różaniec < Lat. rosarium VaitkTŽŽ 2003, cf. Skardžius 1999: 692), škaplierius TM 141 (Pol. szkaplerz < Lat. scapularium Skardžius 1999: 692), borrowed through Polish. 2.2.2.3. A term of Hebrew origin borrowed through Polish. The term šėtonas is used in three catechisms, MRK 58, TFK 15, TM 77 (Pol. szatan < Lat. satanas < Heb. LoLžiež 1996, cf. LKŽ XVI 1986); its ultimate source is Hebrew. 2.2.3. Old loans borrowed from Belarusian. Five old loans from Belarusian are noteworthy: gadynė MRK 19 (Bel. годына, година, cf. Bel. год, Rus. год Sabaliauskas 1990: 253; Fraenkel 1955: 73; Skardžius 1999: 235; Kabelka 1964: 78)38, gavėnia MRK 238, 333, m explains it as follows: biskup < Czech < German Bischof (biscop) < Latin episcopus < Greek episkopos (Brückner 1974: 27). 37There is no doubt that rožančius and škaplierius, cf. Pol. szkaplerz (Fraenkel 1962: 997), are Polish loanwords. According to P. Skardžius, “the former is borrowed from Polish różaniec (i.e. różany wianek ‘rose wreath’, German Rosenkranz), translated from Latin rosarium ‘rose garden’), and szkaplerz, adapted from Latin scapularium ‘that which hangs over the shoulders (scapulae)’, cf. French scapulaire, German Skapulier” (Skardžius 1999: 692). As is known, since probably around 1919, Antanas Lelis (Lalys) in his Polish-Lithuanian Dictionary has recommended using rožynas (różaniec – rožynas, *ražančius) instead of rožančius. “In 1940, J. Laukaitis proposed the neologism rožinys (and Rožancava, i.e. Rožančinė – Rožinė). This form is also supported today (GK 4, 1996, 8–9)” (Klimavičius 2002: 109). In addition, rožinis was later proposed in LRKŽ 1957, but P. Skardžius had already written that “rožinis is an unsuccessful formation as a replacement for the Polish rožančius; J. Šlapelis’s rožynas, used in his Polish-Lithuanian dictionary, is much better, as its meaning corresponds exactly to Latin rosarium, cf. French rosaire” (Skardžius 1999: 692, 827–828). The linguist admits that no better solution has yet been devised for škaplierius. TŽŽ 1936 contains the word škaplieriai, which is derived from Czech. The word rožančius is not found in TŽŽ 1936. In the Dictionary of Religious Studies, the terms are derived from Latin, but it is noted that they were borrowed through Polish (RŽ 1991; cf. also Fraenkel 1962: 710). The long-standing traditions of using the terms rožančius and škaplieriai apparently account for their continued use today. Only in DŽ, published in 1993, is rožinis included as ‘rožančius’, but rožančius is given as the main variant. Although rožančius is no longer mentioned in DŽ, published in 2003, the proposed rožinis is rarely used by people, since it is customary to pray the rosary. (Thus, in this article, rožančius and škaplieriai are discussed among the old loans, because rožančius, škaplieriai like the church.) 38 In DŽ, gadynė is marked as archaic; see laikotarpis, laikas, epocha (‘period, time, epoch’), while LKŽe states that the word is no longer used in contemporary language. Gadynę was already used by M. Mažvydas (not only with the meaning ‘hour’, but also ‘time’, as can be seen from the examples provided by D. Urbas (Urbas 1998: 118)). 54 TM 109 (Bel. žovenie Skardžius 1999: 133; Būga 1958: 431), karstas TM 91 (Bel. kopcma Sabaliauskas 1990: 246)39, knyga MRK 20 (Bel. khiea Sabaliauskas 1990: 247), Velykos MRK 239, TFK 24, KK 25, TM 7 (Bel. вялиki (день) Sabaliauskas 1990: 256; Būga 1958: 348). 2.2.4. An old loanword of Latin origin borrowed through Old Russian. The term krikštas, borrowed from Old Russian, deserves separate mention: MRK 120, TFK 9, TM 8, 120 (Old Rus. крьстъ < Lat. chrīstus Sabaliauskas 1990: 254; Fraenkel 1962: 298). The Latin origin of the word is evident. 2.2.5. An old loanword borrowed from German. Another Germanism is kunigas KK 22, 29, TFK 32, TM 10, MRK 112 (Old High German kunig – ‘prince, king’ Sabaliauskas 1990: 260, 270; Urbas 1998: 202; Būga 1958: 546, cf. Middle High German kunig, kunic Alminauskis 1931: 75, now German König40. 2.2.6. General observations. The examples show that the largest number of old loans came from Slavic (5 terms) and Belarusian (5 terms) languages. The fewest old loans came from Polish (1 term) and Russian (1 term). Only one Germanism is used in all the catechisms under discussion. As many as a quarter of the old loans discussed are used in all the catechisms. Some old loans are avoided in the standard language. Slightly more than half of the old loans under discussion originate from Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit (21 terms). Z. Zinkevičius notes that “words such as bažnyčia, gavėnia, krikštas, Kūčios, the names of Christian feasts—Kalėdos, Velykos, <…>—undoubtedly borrowed from the Eastern Slavs long before Lithuania’s official Christianization, probably around the 10th–12th centuries,” constitute the oldest layer of Lithuanian religious terminology (Zinkevičius 2000: 12). 2.3. Foreignisms Svetimybės – tai „nenorminiai skoliniai“ (LKE 1999). D i d y s i s ben-drinės lietuvių kalbos apsivalymas nuo svetimybių prasidėjo su tautiniu 39 Karstas randamas M. Daukšos postilėje (Sabaliauskas 1990: 247). 40 The word kunigas ‘is a word of German origin, common to all Baltic languages. <…> As a Germanism, kunigas is a relatively recent loanword. Of course, it is older than many loanwords denoting Christian concepts, which entered the language in the 15th–16th centuries’ (Drotvinas 1993: 24). 55 revival (Aušra). Most nonstandard words came from neighboring Slavic languages. In all, the article discusses 71 foreignisms. 2.3.1. Polishisms. At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, catechisms contained the most Polishisms (24 terms): abrazas MRK 79 (Pol. obrazek – picture TM 95)41, almužna MRK 40, TFK 11, 43, KK 29 (Pol. jałmuzna, cf. Būga 1961: 414 Pol. *almužna, Czech almužna – alms TM 90), atklanės MRK 95, KK 15 (Pol. otchłań42, blužnierstva KK 19 (Pol. blužnierstwo – slander TM 105), brostva MRK 425 (Pol. bractwo – brotherhood TM 141), cnata MRK 51, TFK 11, KK 40 (Pol. cnota – virtue TM 12, dora TM 135), čerai MRK 174, KK 18 (Pol. czar), čyščius MRK 63, TFK 17, KK 16, 37 (Pol. czyścic – purgatory TM 89), čystata MRK 191, KK 49 (Pol. czystota – purity TM 102, chastity TM 117), dušia MRK 29, TFK 8, KK 11 (Pol. dusza – spirit TM 12, soul TM 11), gramnyčė MRK 403, 422 (Pol. gromnica), iškada MRK 57, TFK 21 (Pol. szkoda), lokamstva MRK 260, TFK 10 (Pol. łakomstwo – greed TM 106, gluttony TM 112), loska MRK 18 (Pol. łaska – grace TM 10), pakūta MRK 43, TFK 9, 18, KK 28 (Pol. pokuta – penance TM 10), pekla MRK 42, 144, TFK 8, 13, KK 7 (Pol. piekło – hell TM 6), skarba MRK 279 (Pol. skarb – riches TM 9), spasabos MRK 123 (Pol. sposób), spaviednė TFK 9, 26, KK 25, 28 (Pol. spowiedź – confession TM 130, statement TM 108), spaviednyčia TFK 32, KK 35 (Pol. spowiednica – confessional TM 132), spaviednykas MRK 176, 340, TFK 38, KK 24, 31 (Pol. spowiednik – confessor TM 132), svietkas MRK 186 (Pol. świadek – witness TM 75), šliūbas MRK 237, TFK 9, KK 25, 39 (Pol. ślub), tajemnyčia MRK 50 (Pol. tajemnica). Three Polishisms with the suffix -onė should be discussed separately: apieravonė MRK 333 (Pol. ofierowanie, cf. Pol. ofierować – offering TM 123), dirmavonė KK 27, TFK 9, MRK 108 (Pol. bierzmowanie, cf. bierzmować < Czech birzmovati < German firmön, firmen < German firmare, confirmare Brückner 1974: 26 – sacrament of confirmation TM 120), žegnonė MRK 35 (Pol. 41 The article provides Lithuanian equivalents of foreignisms used in K. Paltarokas’s catechism. Some equivalents were not found because the catechisms differ in scope. 42 LKŽe atklanės – “a place where the souls of unbaptized infants or virtuous non-Christians go” (M. Valančius). 56 žegnanie – blessing oneself TM 5)43. Linguists disagree as to whether these are hybrid terms or terms bearing a suffix shared with Slavic languages. (The article follows the latter view.) In addition, Polishisms (7 terms) were found that originated in Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. 2.3.1.1. Polishisms of Greek origin. In total, 2 terms borrowed via Polish were found whose original source is Greek: aniolas MRK 56, TFK 15, KK 10 (Pol. aniol < Lat. < angelus < Gr. angelos – angel TM 5)44, arkan'iolas MRK 40, KK 10 (Pol. archaniol < Lat. archangelus < Gr. archangelos – archangel TM 11). 2.3.1.2. Polishisms of Latin origin. In Rimo Katalikų mokslas, 4 terms borrowed via Polish are used: apiera MRK 72 (Pol. ofiera < Czech ofiera < German opfar, Opfer < Lat. offertorium, offero Brückner 1974: 375, cf. Fraenkel 1962: 13 – offering TM 123), oplotka MRK 377 (Pol. opłatek < Czech obláté < Lat. oblata Brückner 1974: 380), majestotas MRK 258 (Pol. majestat < Lat. majestas, gen. majestatis TŽŽ 1936)45, stacija MRK 95 (Pol. stacija < Lat. statio). Their original source is Latin. 2.3.1.3. Polishisms of Hebrew origin. Only one foreignism borrowed via Polish and of Hebrew origin was found: mesijošius MRK 70 (Pol. messjasz, cf. eccles. Lat. messias, Gr. Messias < Heb. māšīaḥ VaitkTŽŽ 2003). It should be noted that Polishisms appeared in religious books in Lithuania as a result of the influence of local Polish, also known as polszczyzna litewska (Zinkevičius 2000: 142). Polish was not initially regarded as an enemy language, especially since it was the language of religion, introduced with Catholicism. During the national revival, as already mentioned, attitudes toward Polish changed. The material presented shows that Polishisms are not used in priest K. Paltarokas’s catechism. 43 The word žegnonė is not attested in DŽ or DŽₛ, but the verb žegnoti(s) and the derivative žegnojimas(is) are recommended for use. Apparently, žegnonę may be considered an inadmissible foreignism, but it may also be regarded as a native derivative. Žegnoti(s) is also derived from Polish, cf. Pol. żegnać ‘to take leave’ (Sabaliauskas 1990: 229). Žegnonė is listed in LKŽe not as a foreignism. 44 The etymological dictionary of Polish states that Pol. aniol was formerly angiol, and in the 14th–15th centuries angiel (Brückner 1974: 5). 45 TŽŽ 1936 states that the term is of Italian origin. 57 2.3.2. Slavicisms. It is appropriate to distinguish a further group of barbarisms—Slavicisms—where it is unclear from which Slavic language a word was borrowed. A total of 28 such terms were found (nearly two-fifths of the foreignisms): apìeka KK 10 (Belarusian oneka, Polish opìeka – care TM 112), apiekūnas MRK 169, 419, TFK 13, KK 14 (Belarusian опекун, Polish opiekun – guardian TM 9), asaba MRK 41, TFK 11, 32, KK 8 (Polish osoba, Russian особа – person TM 6), atpuskai MRK 323, KK 38 (Polish odpust, Russian отпуск – indulgences TM 132), griekas MRK 39, KK 11, 36 (Belarusian грэхъ, Polish grzech – sin TM 7), griešnas MRK 240 (Belarusian грешны, Polish grzeszny, Russian грешный – sinful TM 89, fallen TM 100), griešnikas MRK 54, 91, TFK 18, KK 9 (Belarusian грешник, Polish grzesznik, Russian грешник – sinner TM 5), ketvergas TFK 37 (Russian четверг), koronė MRK 54, TFK 35, KK 12 (Polish karanie, Russian карание – punishment TM 80), krapyla MRK 374 (Polish kropidło, Belarusian крапіла), krivida MRK 159, TFK 12, KK 19 (Belarusian кривида, Polish krzywda – wrong TM 128), mylista MRK 17, 18, TFK 17 (Polish miłość, Belarusian міласць – grace TM 10), mislis MRK 49, 50, 98, TFK 22, KK 36 (Belarusian мысль, Polish myśl – thought TM 78), nodieja TFK 11, KK 40 (Polish nadzieja, Belarusian надзея – hope TM 11), prisiega MRK 186 (Polish przysięga, Belarusian прысяга), prova MRK 20 (Belarusian права, Polish prawo), roda MRK 107, TFK 12 (Belarusian рада, Polish rada – advice TM 9), rona MRK 95 (Belarusian рана, Polish rana), stonas MRK 75 (Polish stan, Belarusian стан), sumenė MRK 46, TFK 16, KK 11 (Polish sumienie, Belarusian суменне), ubagas MRK 73, TFK 12, KK 50 (Old Polish ubog, Belarusian убог), vaiskas MRK 119 (Russian войск, Polish wojsko), valdymieris MRK 45 (Russian володимир, Belarusian валадар LKŽe – ruler TM 12), veselė KK 25, MRK 237, TFK 9 (Polish wesele, Belarusian вяселле – wedding TM 109), viečnastis MRK 376 (Polish wieczność, Belarusian вечнасць), viera MRK 16, KK 18, 40, TFK 9 (Russian вера, Polish wiara – faith TM 88, belief TM 12), viernastis KK 39 (Russian верность, Polish wierność), zokonas MRK 65, TFK 22 (Polish zakon, Russian закон – command TM 7). 2.3.2.1. A Greek-derived Slavicism. Only one Slavicism was found: gromata MRK 21 (Russian грамота, cf. Greek γράμματα Vasmer 1986: 451), which is of Greek origin. In K. Paltarokas's Tikybos mokslas, published in 1916, no single-word religious terms that could be considered borrowings from Slavic languages were found. The examples show that most Slavicisms occur in Moksle Rimo Kataliku. 58 2.3.3. Belarusianisms. Tikybos mokslas also contains no Belarusianisms, which are used in other catechisms (7 terms, one-tenth of the foreign words): mūčelnykas MRK 82 (Belarusian мучельник), mūka MRK 57, TFK 11, 25, KK 46 (Belarusian мука – suffering TM 80), prietelis MRK 157 (Belarusian прыяцель), smertis MRK 36, TFK 12, 25, KK 7 (Belarusian смерць – death TM 9, miri-mas TM 90), sūdas MRK 30, TFK 12, KK 18 (Belarusian суд – court TM 91), sūdzia MRK 46, 102 (Belarusian судзя), svietas MRK 21, TFK 13, KK 9 (Belarusian свет – world TM 73). All the Belarusianisms are used in Mokslė Rimo Kataliku; fewer were found in Trumpajame Kun. Filochowskio katekizme ir Katakizmuose katalikizskuose. 2.3.4. Germanisms. Bishop K. Paltarokas's Tikybos mokslas uses only one Germanism (1.4% of the foreign words)—podžiai TM 120 (cf. German dialectal podž, pōd Alminauskis 1931: 103, cf. modern German die Pate – godparents TM 120). No Germanisms were found in the other catechisms. 2.3.5. Concluding remarks. Seventy-one single-word religious terms (about 15% of all single-word terms; see Fig. 1) are borrowings from Slavic and Germanic languages. These are loanwords—some, such as griekas, mylista, pekla, smertis, among others, are already found in the writings of M. Mažvydas—that began to be avoided much earlier than the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This period, however, marks a certain turning point, when attention once again turned to the native Lithuanian language and its resources. In the catechisms Mokslas Rimo Kataliku, Trumpajame Kun. Filochowskio katekizme ir Katakizmuose katalikizskuose, Lithuanian religious terms are used synonymously alongside loanwords, for example: cnata MRK 51, TFK 11, KK 40 – virtue MRK 88, TFK 42, KK 40, dora MRK 18, TFK 42; dūšia MRK 29, TFK 8, KK 11 – spirit MRK 75, TFK 13, KK 8; gramnyčia MRK 403, 422 – candle MRK 121; loska MRK 18 – grace MRK 46, TFK 15, KK 12; pekla MRK 42, 144, TFK 8, 13, KK 7 – hell MRK 42, TFK 13; atpuskai MRK 323, KK 38 – indulgences MRK 70, TFK 35, KK 38; mylista MRK 17, 18, TFK 17 – grace MRK 46, TFK 10, KK 12; smertis MRK 36, TFK 12, 25, KK 7 – death TFK 17, KK 16, and so on. It is difficult to determine which term—Lithuanian or borrowed—is preferred (this is a separate topic for the article). It has been observed that Lithuanian religious terms began to be used in the catechisms, while their synonymous terms of foreign origin 59 are written in parentheses, e.g.: rites (ceremonies) of the holy church MRK 2446, morality (cnata) MRK 17, lechery (lokomstva) MRK 234, suffering (mūka) MRK 301, bloody suffering (mūka) MRK 319, grace (mylista) of God KK 12, loss of hope (nodiejos) MRK 431, hell (pekla) MRK 144, miracle (čiūdas) MRK 81, sign (čiūdas) MRK 23, etc. Sometimes terms of foreign origin are presented after the conjunction or, e.g.: rites or ceremonies of the holy church MRK 419, Church rites (or ceremonies) TFK 40, miracle or čiūdas MRK 81, etc. Although the reverse order is also used, e.g.: eternal mūka (suffering) KK 16, podžiai (kūmai) TM 120, smertis (death) KK 16, etc., or the equivalent of an international word is given in parentheses, e.g.: desperation (despondency) MRK 431, Communion (or participation) TFK 36, etc. All this suggests that the catechisms move in the direction of Lithuanization. This can be seen in K. Paltarokas’s Tikybos moksle. 3. Partly Lithuanian One-Word Terms In the catechisms, one-word religious terms that are hybrids were found. Hybrids are words containing constituent elements derived from both native and borrowed words (KTŽ 1990; LKE 1999; Keinys 1984: 115)47. In total, 33 hybrid terms were found. Some hybrids are acceptable in contemporary standard Lithuanian (13 terms): small altar MRK 424, booklet TM 72, small cross MRK 174, young lady TM 82; baptizing MRK 308, fasting MRK 110; prince MRK 7548, customs officer KK 22, MRK 121, making the sign of the cross TM 5; priesthood MRK 302, TFK 9, KK 27, 39, TM 8, paganism TFK 19, pagandom KK 42, MRK 280, bishopric49 MRK 118; others are unacceptable (20 ter- 46 Examples of compound terms are also provided here. 47 Linguists define hybrids in different ways. For example, in A. Pupkis’s view, hybrids are “words codified negatively, containing a derivational element (prefix or suffix) borrowed from other languages” (Pupkis 1980: 106). 48 K. Alminauskis kunigaikštį kildina iš kunigo ir laiko germanizmu (Alminauskis 1931: 75). A. Rubinas straipsnyje Dvasininkų pavadinimai ir jų istorija rašo, kad kunigaikštis pasidarytas iš žodžio kunigas „karalius“ su priesaga -aikštis (Rubinas 2001: 191, dar plg. Kabelka 1964: 120; Būga 1958: 546). 49 According to S. Ambrazas, place names with the suffix -ystė are “translated morpheme by morpheme from Slavic languages” (Ambrazas 2000: 70). LKG makes no mention of the Slavic origin of the suffix (LKG 1965: 310–311, 402). 60 mines): brostvinýkas MRK 425, geradėjas MRK 40950, nobažnumas KK 49, TFK 12, MRK 433 (cf. Polish nobożność); geradėjystė KK 49, MRK 42, 54 (cf. hybrid geradėjas; TM 12 already uses geradarybė), neprietelystė MRK 64 (cf. hybrid neprietelis); nečystata TFK 10, MRK 214, neprietelis KK 17, MRK 157, TFK 21, pariškada MRK 397 (cf. iškada—Polish szkoda LKŽė); apmislijimas MRK 408, atpakūtavojimas TFK 35, apieravojimas MRK 330, 76, blagaslovyjimas MRK 314 (cf. palaiminimas TM 101), bluznijimas MRK 185, nepakūtavojimas TFK 10, pakūtavojimas KK 37, prisiegavimas MRK 191; darbygriekis TFK 27, pradžiogriekis TFK 27; kryževotojas MRK 158, mukryževotas MRK 374. In total, 20 hybrid one-word terms were found, containing constituent elements of foreign origin (Polish or Slavic languages), that is, not from an old loanword or an international word, and of native origin (prefixes or suffixes). Given that the catechisms were prepared in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it is not surprising that they contain many hybrid religious terms, especially since three-fifths of them can today be considered formations derived from foreign words. 4. Conclusions 1. The late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were a period of rapid development of the modern standard Lithuanian language. Religious terminology had become established by then, but was very impure. From the beginning of the twentieth century, religious terminology has been among the best-organized areas of terminology. Many factors contributed to this. However, perhaps the most important was the consistent and purposeful organization of religious terminology by the priests of that time (J. Laukaitis, M. Pakalniškis, S. Tijūnaitis, A. Vytartas, J. Tumas, J. Mačiulis, and others) and linguists (K. Būga, J. Jablonskis, J. Balčikonis, J. Šlapelis, and others). 2. The linguistic expression of the terms in the Lithuanian Catholic catechisms examined was influenced by changes in the Lithuanian language that depended on non-linguistic factors (Polonization, occupations, the press ban, and others). 50 Cf. Polish dobrodziej, South Belarusian добродей. In the List of Major Language Errors approved by the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language, -dėjas is regarded as a foreign word element and classified as a word-structure error (LKKN 1998: 149). Linguist J. Klimavičius (in the article Geradėjas, piktadėjas, niekadėjas – purely Lithuanian words) demonstrated that geradėjas is a purely Lithuanian word, not a Slavic hybrid (Klimavičius 2000: 64). This article still adheres to the traditional view. 61 3. Non-Lithuanian religious terms in catechisms published before 1916 Mokstas Rimo Katalikų, Trumpasis Kun. Filochowskio katekizmas, Katakizmai katalikiški account for almost a third of all single-word terms (see Fig. 1). 3.1. International terms (24.1% of non-Lithuanian terms) and old borrowings (25.5% of non-Lithuanian terms) used in the catechisms of the period under examination remain in use today, essentially unchanged. 3.2. The catechisms published in 1879–1903 contain considerably more foreignisms (71) among non-Lithuanian terms—just over half of all single-word non-Lithuanian religious terms (50.4%). From today’s perspective, the single-word terms examined bear witness to a stage in the development of the Lithuanian language when church writing was transitioning to modern standard Lithuanian. 3.3. As much as 82.2% of the terms in the priest K. Paltarokas’s Tikybos moksle are purely Lithuanian. The catechism uses only one foreignism of German origin—podžiai TM 120. Thus, over the course of a few years at the beginning of the twentieth century, foreign religious terms were replaced with Lithuanian ones. 3.4. K. Paltarokas’s catechism uses those religious terms of foreign origin that have no Lithuanian equivalents, for example, old borrowings (bažnyčia, pagonis, poteriai, pasninkas, krikščionis, vyskupas ir kt.) and international terms (kardinolas, sakramentas, antifona, diakonas ir kt.). 4. After Bishop K. Paltarokas, the terminology of Lithuanian Catholic catechisms changed little in essence. ŠALTINIAI KK – Katekizmai katalikiški. Visureikalingiausi dėl vaikų ir žmonių praszcziokų su Lementoriu ir Ministranturu, Bitėnai, 1903. MRK – Mokstas Rimo Katalikų. Naujei perweizetas, pertaisitas ir antra karta atspaus-tas, Vilnius, 1879 (su pieštuku – 1888). TFK – Trumpasis Kun. Filochowskio katekizmas. Vaiszganto verstas. Antrą kartą išleistas, pataisytas, Vilnius, 1863 (su pieštuku – Tilžė, 1901, trečia laida). TM – Paltarokas K. Tikybos mokslas (Šv. Istorija ir Katekizmas), Petrapilis, 1916. LITERATŪRA Alminauskis K. 1931: Die Germanismen des Litauischen 1. 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Z i n k e v i č i u s Z. 1994: Lietuvių kalbos istorija 6. Lietuvių kalba naujaisiais laikais, Vilnius. Z i n k e v i č i u s Z. 2000: Lietuvių poteriai: Kalbos mokslo studija, Vilnius. Z i n k e v i č i u s Z. 2002: Rinktiniai straipsniai 2. Valstybė ir kalba. Senųjų raštų kalba. XVIII–XIX a. rašomoji kalba. XX amžius. Rytų Lietuva, Vilnius. Фасмер М. 1967: Этимологический словарь русского языка 1, Москва. Фасмер М. 1986: Этимологический словарь русского языка 3, Москва. NON-LITHUANIAN TERMS IN THE CATHOLIC CATECHISMS FROM THE END OF THE 19ᵗʰ AND THE BEGINNING OF THE 20ᵗʰ CENTURIES Summary Lithuanian Christian terminology is one of the oldest fields of terminology – the old borrowings (for instance, bažnyčia (church), gavenia (Lent), krikštas (baptism), kūčios (Christmas Eve), Kalėdos (Christmas), Velykos (Easter)) came into Lithuanian before the official conversion of Lithuania to Christianity – in 10ᵗʰ-12ᵗʰ centuries. The beginnings of Lithuanian terminology are found in extant manuscripts of prayers (Viešpaties malda (The Lord’s prayer), Angelo pasveikinimas (Hail Mary), Tikėjimo išpažinimas (The Nicean Creed) written down in Vilnius diocese in the 16ᵗʰ century, which are the oldest of all presently known texts and the first printed Lithuanian book – an evangelical Lutheran catechism Catechismvsa prasty Szadei written by Martynas Mažvydas in 1547. This article analyses one-word non-Lithuanian origin terms of religion used in Catholic catechisms from the end of the 19ᵗʰ and the beginning of the 20ᵗʰ centuries. This period is not a random choice, because the literature of the Church and its language at that time were corrupt with barbarisms. From four Catholic catechisms published at that period – Mokslas Rimo Kataliku (Teaching of Roman Catholics) (1879), Trumpasis Kun. Filochowskio katekizmas. 65 Vaišzganto verstas (Short Catechism by Priest Filochowski. Translated by Vaišzgantas) (1901), Katekizmai katalikiški (Catholic Catechisms) (1903) and Tikybos mokslas (Šv. Istorijos ir Katekizmo) (Teaching of Religion (Holy History and Catechism)) (1916) by the priest Kazimieras Paltarokas – 1158 one-word terms of religion and their variants, were picked up. Some terms were the same, so it made 613 different terms and 125 their variants. The majority of one-word terms – 439 terms – were of the native origin. This article investigates 141 different terms of non-Lithuanian origin and 33 hybrid terms of foreign origin. Non-Lithuanian, i.e. terms of religion of the foreign origin are so called international words (34 terms), barbarisms (71 term) and old borrowings (36 terms). The absolute majority of international terms (33 terms) are derived from classical languages – Latin (aktas (act, note) TFK 43, ostija (host) KK 30, MRK 322, TM 123, sakramentas (sacrament) MRK 16, 79, 138, TFK 9, KK 22, TM 72, 85) and Greek (antifona (versicle) TM 11, balzamas (balsam) MRK 315). Some international terms came through Slavonic (Belorussian, Polish) languages, for instance, altorius (altar) MRK 176, TM 110, adventas (advent) MRK 79, 333, TM 109, angelas (angel) TM 12, 76 and other. The origin of old borrowings varies. These catechisms have majorily old borrowings from Slavonic languages, for example, bažnyčia (church) MRK 25, TFK 20, 25, KK 19, TM 7, 88, grabas (coffin) MRK 75, KK 15 and other. This is the oldest layer of Lithuanian terms of religion. There are many barbarisms in earlier mentioned catechisms (71 term): Polonisms (abrozas (picture) MRK 79, dušia (spirit) MRK 29, TFK 8, KK 11, tjemnyčia (mystery of rosary) MRK 50), Slavonicisms (ap ieka (care) KK 10), Belorussianisms (mūka (suffering) MRK 57, TFK 11, 25, KK 46) and germanisms (podžiai (godparents) TM 120). The end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries is the period of the fast creation of common language. At that time terms of religion were already established, but the language was corrupted with barbarisms and was not pure. In the beginning of the 20th century there were attempts to normalize terms of religion – barbarisms were changed, international terms and old borrowings were left. In the work of the priest K. Paltarokas Tikybos mokslas (The Teaching of Religion) even 82% of terms are purely Lithuanian. In this catechism there is only one barbarism from German language – podžiai (godparents) TM 120. Furthermore, barbarisms, used in catechisms published in 1879-1903, were changed, for instance, dirmavonė MRK 108, TFK 9, KK 27 – sutvirtinimo sakramentas TM 120 (confirmation), čyščius MRK 63, TFK 17, KK 16, 37 – skaistykla TM 89 (purgatory) and others. After the bishop Paltarokas the terminology of Lithuanian catholic catechisms hardly changed. Aušra RIMKUTĖ Lietuvių kalbos institutas P. Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius E. paštas [email protected], [email protected] Gauta 2005-10-25 66