Iš etnonimų istorijos

From the History of Ethnonyms VINCENTAS DROTVINAS Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas An ethnonym (Greek ethnos – people, tribe and onyma – name), also called an ethnic name, is the name of a people, nationality, tribe, kin group, and the like. Ethnonyms (ethnonymy)—their structure, origin, types, distribution, and functioning—are studied by the branch of onomastics known as ethnonymics. Ethnonyms are distinguished according to whether people name themselves (autonyms, or self-designations) or their neighbors name them (alloethnonyms). The relationship between an ethnonym and a country name is twofold. In some cases, the ethnonym is primary and seems to determine the country name, e.g., Greeks – Greece; in other cases, the country name forms the basis of the ethnonym, e.g., Rome – Romans, Egypt – Egyptians. In ancient times, Lithuanians knew only the names of the tribes and nationalities of their closest neighbors, with whom they maintained economic and cultural ties and often went to war. The number of ethnonyms grew continually as the ties of the Lithuanian people and state with European countries expanded, especially after Lithuania adopted Christianity and Lithuanian writing emerged. Even old dictionaries contain a considerable number of names for ethnic communities both near and far. Ethnonyms are therefore part of the inventory (register) of Lithuanian dictionaries, reflecting the vocabulary of a particular period. In dictionaries, ethnonyms most often appear alongside geographical names, and are often accompanied by an adjective derived from the ethnonym. The article surveys notable ethnonyms in early written monuments*, from Martynas Mažvydas to Kristijonas Donelaitis, particularly those found in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Lithuanian dictionaries, both manuscript and printed; it examines their origin, adaptation into Lithuanian, and survival in the standard language. Armenian Found only in K. Sirvydas’s dictionary: Orminian / Armenius, armenus, Armenas SD3. * Biblical ethnonyms found in old written monuments are not discussed here, e.g.: ugareņai, ebiōnitai, efėzai, galatai, galilėjiečiai (and galilėjūnys), jeruzalimonys, korinčionys, samaritōnai, etc. 160 Vincentas Drotvinas | Iš etnonimų istorijos Czech This ethnonym is found only in K. Sirvydas’s dictionary: Czech / Bohemus. čiekas SD1, SD3. Gypsy The Roma, originating in India, appeared in Europe in the 13th–14th centuries, and in Eastern Europe, first in Slovakia and Hungary (cf. 14th-century Hungarian cigány); later they began to appear in Poland and Lithuania. According to A. Salys, the Roma may have appeared in southeastern Lithuania around the middle of the 15th century, and reached western Lithuania a century later (Salys 1985: 499). The form cigonas is found in K. Sirvydas’s dictionary: Cygan. Cyngarus, Cygonas SD3. In the dictionaries of Lithuania Minor, alongside cigonas, we also find the present-day form čigonas: Cigeuner. Cigonas, o. M. C IV; Cigeunerin. Ciganka, os. F. C IV; Cigeuner. Czigonas. Cigeunerin, Cziganka Kr. The ethnonym derives from Modern Greek Atsinganoi (Salys 1985: 497). Another name for the Roma—Egyptians—is English Gypsies, Spanish and Portuguese gitanos, etc. (Salys 1985: 497). In France the Roma are called Bohémien. At the first World Roma Congress in 2001, their name Roma (rōm “person, man”) was officially adopted. This perhaps most mobile people in the world probably also have the greatest number of allonyms. Egyptian “inhabitant of Egypt” Derived from the place name Egypt. This form is found in 17th-century dictionaries of Lithuania Minor: Apkasse Egyptena į Smilty C I, as well as C II and others. Other variants are also found: egipcionas DP; Aegypt er Egipcion‘s Egyptionas B. Dane “Dane” Found in M. Daukša’s Postil (< Polish Dunczik “Dane”). Greek The ancient Greeks’ self-designation is Hellenes (Hellēnes), and their country is Hellas (Hellas). The later name Greek (graikos) spread via Latin graecus. The oldest form in Lithuanian is grakas: Greczyn / Graecus, Grakas SD3 (cf. Grecki. Graecus, Graecanicus. Grakißkas; Grecya / Graecia (without a Lithuanian equivalent)). The form grykas, determined by German phonetics, is found in the dictionaries of Lithuania Minor, for example: Grieche, Grykas, o. M. C II (cf. Griechen=Land. Grykißka Zeme). Terminologija | 2006 | 13 161 Gudas The term gudas is known from M. Daukša’s Postil. In the dictionaries of Lithuania Minor we find: Reuß gudas, o. M. C III; Reußen. Guddas. Guddu Zeme C III; Guddas, do – eine Gudde, Gothe R, MŽ. J. Brodovskis’s dictionary also gives the equivalent maskolius: Reuß Moſcovita Guddas, Maſkolus. The meaning of the ethnonym gudas varied considerably over time. In G. H. F. Nesselmann’s dictionary, Guddas, o. M., is translated into Polish as: ein Pole. K. G. Milkus’s dictionary also contains derivatives: Gudduk‘s, ko, m., which are further explained as ein junger Gudde, schlechter polnischer Kerl M, as well as Paguddoju, oju, osu, oti ich rede nach einem polnischen Akzent, spreche schlecht littauisch. Israelite, Israelionis Derived from the proper name Israel: Israel, Israels, o. M. C II, Israel (Gottes Fürst, nom viri. Izrael). In B. M. Daukša’s Postil we find the ethnonym form izraelionis, as well as Israeliter, Israelitas, Israelitenas B, Izraelitas, ta, Izraelitenas, ene R, MŽ. Curonian Found in 17th-century dictionaries, this indicates that the Curonians were still well known to the other Balts. The form varies considerably: Chure Kurßys Lex, Cure Kurßis, io. M. C, Cure Kurszys Kr, cf. Churland Kurlendrija, Churländer Kurlendikas (?) Richt. In K. G. Milkus’s dictionary Kurßis, ßio, m. ein Kur is explained as a resident of Klaipėda County ein Einwohner im Memelschen Hauptamt (the verb pakuršiuoti is also added; cf. pakurßoju, ójau, awau, óśu, oti – to speak Lithuanian with a Klaipėda accent ich rede nach dem Memelschen Akzent Littauisch). Latvian Found in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century dictionaries of Lithuania Minor: Liefland Latvija, Lieflander latwys Lex, Lieffländer Latwys Kr, Liefland Latwya, os. F., Lieflander, Latwys, jo. M. C II. Terra Letthorum is mentioned in historical documents from the eleventh to thirteenth centuries; the name of the country Latvia appears only in nineteenth-century writings, while the word Latvian is first mentioned in 1648 (Sabaliauskas 1990: 352). According to the data from old dictionaries, the country name Latvia can be antedated by about 200 years. 162 Vincentas Drotvinas | Iš etnonimų istorijos Pole The ethnonym Pole is one of the oldest borrowings from Old Russian, which had nasal vowels until the middle of the tenth century, later developing into the diphthong en. It is recorded in dictionaries from both Lithuania Major and Lithuania Minor: Pohle lenkas Lex; Pole Lenkas Richt; Polak / Polonus Sarmata. łynkas SD1. Had this borrowing entered the language after the tenth century, it would have had a different form; cf. the Polish autonym polak and Russian поляк (Būga 1961: 756; Sabaliauskas 1990: 228). The root of this ethnonym is preserved in the name of the country Polska. Lithuanian, Lithuania Minor Lithuanian The oldest tribes of our ancestors, who lived on the eastern coast of the Baltic, were called by the name Aesti. This is indicated by the name Germania (c. 98 AD), in the work of the Roman historian Tacitus: Aestiorum gentes. The current name Balts is relatively recent—it was first used in 1845 by the German Balticist G. H. F. Nesselmann in his work “The Language of the Old Prussians” (Die Sprache der alten Preussen, Berlin). The name of Lithuania, in Latin Lithuania, was first mentioned in the Quedlinburg Annals in 1009, but the ethnonym must have been known much earlier. Because written Lithuanian appeared relatively late, names for Lithuanians (known in Latin and Old Russian) remained unwritten in Lithuanian for a long time. Lietuvininkas—an old name for a Lithuanian—is found not only in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century dictionaries of Lithuania Minor: Littauer lietuwinink‘s Lex; Littauer Lietuwininkas, o. M. ka. os. F. et [Lietuwin]ke, es C II; Littauer Lietuwininkas Kr and others, but also in K. Sirvydas’s dictionaries: Litwin / Lithuanus, Lietuwinkas SD1, Litwin. Lituanus. Lietuwinkas SD3 (and Litua / Lithuania, lietuwa; litewſki / Lithuanicus: lietuwiszkas SD1, Lituá / Lithuania. Lietuwa; Litewſki / Lithuanicus. Lietuwiſzkas SD3). The borrowed ethnonym Litvin, cf. Polish Litwin, is preserved today in surnames. Simonas Daukantas was probably the first to use the current ethnonym Lithuanian (Daukantas 1993: 340). The meaning of the older ethnonym Lithuania Minor Lithuanian is now specialized—it is used to refer to Lithuanians of Lithuania Minor. Muscovite The following forms are found in dictionaries of Lithuania Minor: Muſkowiter, Maskolus (cf. also Muſcou, Makswa) Kr, Mascowiter, Mazkolus (cf. also Mascau, Makswa) Richt. In K. Sirvydas’s dictionary we find more fully Lithuanianized names maskvytis: Moſkwa / Moſcouia. Maſkwiciey / Maſkwiciu žieme, Moſkwicin / Moſchus. Maſkwitis SD3. The most recent variant of the ethnonym is maskvėnas, cf. Terminologija | 2006 | 13 163 Mykolas Lietuvis, “On the Customs of the Lithuanians, Tatars, and Muscovites” (Vilnius, 1988). pinas “Finn” It is found in seventeenth-century dictionaries of Lithuania Minor, for example: Finnen, Pinna, u. M. pl. Finnland Pinnu Zeme C II. Cf. also German Finne, English Finn, French Finnos, Polish Fin, Russian фин. Suomiu. The endonym is Suomi. The ethnonym suo-mis (K. Būga’s somai, dialectal sominis ‘wind’; somis, soma) and the name of the country Suo-mija came into use only at the end of the nineteenth century (cf. also Latvian soms, somiete). Frenchman Derived from the French endonym François, which, via Middle High German Franzois, Franseis, acquired its present form Frantzose, and entered Lithuanian via Polish franzuz and Russian француз. It is known from the seventeenth- and eighteenth-century dictionaries of Lithuania Minor: Frantz̧os Prancusas C II, Frantzose Prancuzas Kr. Prussian The Prussian ethnonym (Bruzi) was first mentioned in the ninth century in the writings of the so-called Bavarian Geographer (LKE 1999: 514). This name for the West Balts is common to both K. Sirvydas’s dictionaries and those of Lithuania Minor: prufak / Boruffus. Prutenus, prufas SD¹; Preuβ prusas Lex; Preuβ Prusas, o. M. C III; and later also prusokas, prusoke, pruselka N. Roman, Roman “Roman” This is perhaps the ethnonym with the greatest number of variants in old writings: M. Mažvydas’s rymionys; in M. Daukša’s Postil Rimionis (Polish Rzymianin, Rimionka, Rzymianka); in K. Sirvydas’s dictionary Rzymianin / Romanus, Rimionis SD¹. Also Römer Rymionis, nio. M. C III, rymionas occurs in Lex and Milkaus’s dictionaries. In the so-called Krause dictionary Römer, Rimienas; cf. also rymianas (see Palionis 2004: 395). This can be explained by variation in the base word: Rymas in M. Daukša’s Catechism, Rimas (Polish Rzym) in M. Daukša’s Postil, Rzym / Roma, Rimas SD¹, Rom, Rimija, Rimas Lex, and also Rom, Rimija Kr., Rymas R and MŽ. Until recent decades the ethnonym form romėnas was widespread; today, chiefly in texts of the Catholic Church, romietis is used most widely. 164 Vincentas Drotvinas | Iš etnonimų istorijos šatas “Scot” Found in K. Sirvydas’s dictionary: Szot / Scotus, Szatas SD3, and in the dictionaries of Lithuania Minor: Schott Szatas Lex, Schott, Szatas, o. M. C III, Schotte Szatas Richt. švedas“Swede” Found in M. Daukša’s Postil (Szwedai) and in the dictionaries of Lithuania Minor: Schwede Szwedas, while Lex has Schwed Szwedas, o Richt, M, C III, and others. S. Daukantas used a form of this ethnonym with his own etymological motivation, žuvedus (fish + eat), but it did not catch on. šveicorius, šveisteris “Swiss” Schweitzer Sweiczorus Kr., Schweitzar C III—without a Lithuanian equivalent. K. Donelaitis also used šveisteris: I often dined with Frenchmen and Swiss. You French fool, with a stout Swiss, And who knows how many more of you came wandering to Lithuania to make trouble. švобas “Swabian” Szwab / Sueuus, βwobas SD3; compare also βwobu žieme in the same source. German Schwabe C III—without a Lithuanian equivalent. totorius“Tatar” The first Tatars (Crimean) settled in Lithuania during the reign of Vytautas the Great. The ethnonym totorius is recorded in M. Daukša’s Postil (Totorei) and in 17th-century sources: Tatarzyn / Tartarus, Scytba, Tatoris SD1; Horda Tatarłka. Tartarorū caetas, ciuitas. Republica. Sueyga / wisotine Totoriu SD3. In the dictionaries of Lithuania Minor we find Tartar Totorus Lex; Tartar, Totorus, aus, M. [Toto]rene, es, F. C IV; Tartar Totorus R, and others. turkas“Turk” Found in the writings of M. Mažvydas and M. Daukša’s Postil, and later in 17th-century dictionaries: Turczyn / turca. Turkas SD3; Turcke turkas Lex; compare Turckey Turku zeme; Turcke. Turkas, o. M. C IV, and others. ulendras “Dutchman” Found in F. Pretorius’s dictionary: Holländer. Ullendras, o. M. C II; compare Polish Holender “Dutchman.” The contemporary-language form is оландас. Terminologija | 2006 | 13 165 Hungarian see Hungarian Hungarian, Hungarian The ethnonym is known in Lithuanian in two forms: the old unguras and the current vengras. Unguras is a borrowing from Old Russian of the same age as lenkas: after the nasal vowel ų developed into the diphthong un in the 10th century, cf. German Ungar ‘Hungarian’, and also Latin Hungaria, hungaristica ‘Hungarian language and culture’. It originated from the Yugra River in the northern Urals. The autonym is Magyar. The standard-language form vengras is an example of a secondary, later borrowing; cf. Polish Węgier ‘Hungarian’, Węgrzy ‘Hungary’ (Būga 1961: 757). A newer form, Węgrai, is found in M. Daukša’s Postil. The current form vengras is already found in 17th-century dictionaries: Ungar Wengras, and in M. C IV and K. Sirvydas’s dictionary Węgrzyn / Pannonius, Hungarus, Wingris SD3 and Węgierka ziemia / Panonia inferior, ungaria vel hungaria, Wingriu žieme SD3. valakas, ulakas ‘Italian’ The form valakas is found in K. Sirvydas’s dictionaries: Włoch / Italus, Walakas SD1, włoch / Italus, watakas SD3, cf. wlachas (Palionis 2004: 548). The form Vłakas occurs in M. Daukša’s Postil (< Polish włoch ‘Italian’, cf. Włochy ‘Italy’). German This is one of the ethnonyms of the most obscure origin, unrelated to the German autonym Deutscher. The origin of the ethnonym vokietis was explained by Kazimieras Būga in article 93, Vokia, miksai ir Kuršas (Būga 1959: 226–230). From the country name Vokia (Latvian Vāca, Curonian *Vākijā ‘land of the Vikings’, see also Mažiulis 1996: 144–145) we have the old ethnonym *vākis ‘Viking’, borrowed through Curonian, found in Jonas Bretkūnas’s Postil: Tassai szodis Jesus ne lietuwniku, ne Lenku, nei wokių szodis ira. From the name Vokia itself, we formed the name vokiečio, first mentioned in a 1498 document of the Lithuanian Metrica (see also Vokia ‘Deutschland’ Būga 1961: 550–552). Here Būga also warns that the stress pattern vókietis is archaic, found in M. Daukša’s Postil and in the writings of P. Ruigys, K. G. Milkus, and others. The ethnonym vokietis is found in M. Daukša’s Postil and K. Sirvydas’s dictionary Niemiecka žiemia / albo rzę|ża niemiecka / Alemania, germania, teutonia. Wokia / wokiečių žiame SD1, Niemiec / Germanus, teutono, Alemanus. wokietis SD1, and also Niemka / Germana, alemana, teutona, wokiete SD1; also in the dictionaries of Lithuania Minor: Deutscher Woketis Lex; 166 Vincentas Drotvinas | Iš etnonimų istorijos Deutscher Wokėtis, czio C I; Deutscher Woketis Kr. Deutschland tauta Wokė Lex, Deutschland Wókie, es. Tauta, os F. C I; cf. Deutschland Woke Tauta Kr, also in the dictionaries of Ruigys and Milkus. The country name Vokietija, derived from the ethnonym vokietis, is first found, apparently, in Friedrich Kurschat’s dictionary of 1870. zaksas “Saxon” Found in the so-called Richter dictionary manuscript: Sachse. Zaksas. In F. Pretorius’s dictionary, Sachse and Sachsen appear in C III without Lithuanian equivalents. Jew The ethnonym Jew derives from the name of the ancient Judaeans, that is, the descendants of Judah (Yehuda); compare also the choronym Judea. The Jews living in Spain (half a million) were persecuted by the edict of the Grand Inquisitor Torquemada in 1492, and forced either to convert to Christianity or flee the country. The expelled Jews spread to Portugal, England, and Germany, where they lived on both sides of the Rhine, and later reached Eastern Europe. Alongside the general ethnonym Hebrews (a branch of the Semitic peoples, the Israelites), derived from Greek hebraios ‘Jew’, cf. Italian ebrei, Russian евреи, Jews acquired distinct names according to the countries in which they lived; for example, Jews of Portugal are called marranos, those of Spain and Portugal Sephardim (Sephardic Jews), those of Germany Ashkenazim (from the Hebrew name for Germany, Ashkenazi), and Jews of Lithuania, Poland, and Belarus Litvaks, and so on. From Latin Judaeus, via Middle High German jude, came the name of the Ashkenazi Jewish language judisch – (j)ididisch. In the 20th century, the Jew of Odessa Eleazar Ben Yehuda (1858–1922) adapted Biblical Hebrew for contemporary use and published the work Thesaurus totius Hebraitatis (1908). The ethnonym is found in the writings of M. Mažvydas (Mažiulis 1996: 438), and in 17th-century dictionaries: żyd / Judaeus, hebraeus, źidas3; Jude Zydas, Judin Zydelka Lex; Jude Zydas, o. M. Judin, Zydelka, os. F. C, and so on. The emergence of the consonant ž is explained (Преображенский 1959: 211) by the fact that Slavic languages received this word from Germanic languages, which in turn received it from Romance languages spoken north of the Alps; compare Latin Judaeus, French juif, Italian giudeo, Czech Žid, Židovka, Polish Żid, Żidowka. CONCLUSIONS The article focuses on the group of ethnonyms in the semantic field “names of persons according to nationality,” selected from old Lithuanian writings (16th–18th centuries). It discusses the origins of the ethnonyms, their adaptation into Lithuanian, and their survival in the standard language. Terminologija | 2006 | 13 167 In terms of content, the ethnonyms under discussion are names for European peoples more closely related to Lithuanians. By origin, the ethnonyms (except for the Lithuanians’ own self-designation) are part of the borrowed lexicon of the Lithuanian language. The ethnonyms have diverse origins: Baltic (liet uvis, latvis, prūsas), borrowings from Old Russian (lenkas, vengras), from German (Lithuanian vokietis, Latvian vā cietis); more recent ones were acquired through intermediary languages. Most of the old ethnonyms have been retained in present-day Lithuanian. Some old borrowed ethnonyms became archaisms and have now been replaced by newer forms (unguras – vengras, pinas – suomis, šatas – škotas). The traditional inventory of old ethnonyms is constantly supplemented by new ethnonyms. This is driven by Lithuania’s economic and cultural relations with the peoples of Europe and the world. ŠALTINIAI B – Lexicon Germanico-Lithvanicum et Lithvanico-Germanicum... von Iacobo Brodowski (~ 1740, rankraštis Lietuvos mokslų akademijos bibliotekoje). C – Clavis Germanico-Lithvana (fotografinis leidimas). Rankraštinis XVII a. vokiečių-lietuvių kalbų žodynas, I–IV. Parengė Vincentas Drotvinas, Vilnius, 1995–1997. Daukantas – Simonas Daukantas. Didysis lenkų–lietuvių kalbų žodynas. Lt. Parengė Giedrius Subačius, Vilnius, 1993; III t. Parengė Giedrius Subačius, Vilnius, 1996. DK – Mikalojaus Daukšos 1595 metų Katekizmas. Parengė Vida Jakštienė ir Jonas Palionis. Vilnius, 1995. DP – Indeks-słownik do „Daukšos Postilė“. T. II. Opracował Czesław Kudzinowski, Poznań, 1977. Kr – [Andriejus Kraužė?] Vokiečių–lietuvių kalbų žodynas (XVIII a., rankraštis Lietuvių kalbos instituto bibliotekoje). Lex – Lexicon Lithuanicum (fotografinis leidimas). Rankraštinis XVII a. vokiečių-lietuvių kalbų žodynas. Parengė Vincentas Drotvinas, Vilnius, 1987. M – Littauisch-deutsches und Deutsch-littauisches Wörter-Buch... von Christian Gottlieb Mielcke... Königsberg, 1800. MR – Dominykas Urbas. Martyno Mažvydo raštų žodynas, Vilnius, 1997. N – Nesselmann G. H. F. Wörterbuch der Littauischen Sprache, Königsberg, 1851. R – Littauisch-Deutsches und Deutsch-Littauisches Lexicon... von Philipp Ruhig... Königsberg, 1747. Richt – [Johannas Richteris?] Vokiečių–lietuvių kalbų žodynas, Halle, 1728 (rankraštis Halles-Wittenbergo Martino Lutherio universiteto Frankės fundacijos bibliotekoje). SD¹ – Senasis Konstantino Sirvydo žodynas (fotografinis leidimas). Parengė Kazys Pakalka, Vilnius, 1997. SD³ – Pirmasis lietuvių kalbos žodynas: Konstantinas Sirvydas. Dictionarium trium linguarum (fotografinis leidimas). Parengė Kazys Pakalka, Vilnius, 1979. LITERATŪRA Būga K. 1959: Rinktiniai raštai 1, Vilnius. Būga K. 1961: Rinktiniai raštai 3, Vilnius. LKE: Lietuvių kalbos enciklopedija. Parengė Kazys Morkūnas, redagavo Vytautas Ambrazas, Vilnius, 1999. Mažiulis V. 1996: Prūsų kalbos etimologinis žodynas 3, L–P. Vilnius. 168 Vincentas Drotvinas | Iš etnonimų istorijos Palionis J. 2004: XVI–XVII a. lietuviškų raštų atrankinis žodynas, Vilnius. Sabaliauskas A. 1990: Lietuvių kalbos leksika, Vilnius. Salys A. 1985: Čigonai. – Raštai 3. Roma. 497–499. Преображенский А. Т. 1959: Этимологический словарь русского языка. Том первый, А–О. Москва. FROM THE HISTORY OF ETHNONYMS This paper deals with a group of ethnonyms in the semantic field of the names of nationalities, taken from old Lithuanian writings (16–18th centuries). It discusses the origin of ethnonyms, their Lithuanisation and survival in the standard language. In respect of content, the ethnonyms discussed are names of European nationalities. According to origin, ethnonyms (except for the name of Lithuanians themselves) are part of the borrowed vocabulary of the Lithuanian language. The origin of ethnonyms differs: they are Baltic (lietuvis (Lithuanian), latvis (Latvian), prūsas (Prussian)), borrowings from the Old Slavonic (lenkas (Pole)), German language (Lith. vokietis, Lat. vā­cietis) or newer ethnonyms which came through intermediary languages. The majority of old ethnonyms have survived into modern Lithuanian. Some old borrowed ethnonyms became archaisms and were substituted with newer names (unguras – vengras (Hungarian), pinas – suomis (Finn), šatas – škotas (Scott)). The traditional inventory of old ethnonyms is constantly being complemented with new ethnonyms. This is a reflection of economic and cultural relations between Lithuania and other European and world nations. Gauta 2006-07-10 Vincentas Drotvinas Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas Lietuvių kalbotyros katedra T. Ševčenkos g. 31, LT–03111, Vilnius E. paštas [email protected] Terminologija | 2006 | 13 169