Pastogė senovėje ir dabar

Shelter in Ancient Times and Today JONAS KLIMAVIČIUS Institute of the Lithuanian Language When American astronauts ventured into space, they looked not only at the globe, but searched with their eyes first and foremost for their own small patch of earth, where they had come from and where the people dear to them lived. That feeling of home permeated them very deeply precisely in space. Prof. Jiri Marvan (Mokslo Lietuva, 2008 11 7) Clothing is an extension of our own skin, protecting and directing our heat and energy, while a dwelling is a collective means serving the same purpose for a family or group. A home, as shelter, is an extension of our body’s heat-control mechanisms—a collective skin or garment. Marshall McLuhan (Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man, 2003, 128) Among other things, what determined the emergence, survival, and establishment of human beings (and even protohumans) in the world was their ability to appease hunger and find shelter—from heat and cold, from wild animals and... fellow tribespeople (of the species Homo sapiens), since the concept of one’s fellow human emerged and took shape only much later. Humans looked at the lairs of wild animals, their fires, caves made by them and by nature (there was the cave dweller), and birds’ nests, and did the best they could. No archaeology of the future, however advanced, will ever discover and unearth the shelters fashioned by those primitive heroes of nature. Incidentally, to this day people live in the most primitive dwellings in various parts of the world (or sink into a shelterless existence among rubbish dumps, beneath bridges...). So let us find out what the science of language can reveal here. 198 Jonas Klimavičius | Pastogė senovėje ir dabar HOMES, SWEET HOMES “A” has long been “A” letters I heard, I saw—when I said it already and built the word “mAmA.” And there was—nA-mAs. Balys Sriubas (To Love You, 2006, 61) From a philosophical perspective, the most natural and universal name for a human shelter would be life – 8. “place of residence; dwelling, home; apartment; room.” However, evidence of its antiquity reaches only as far back as Mikalojus Daukša’s Postil (1599): There is much of my father’s life at home, and further on the story sinks into the mists of time... It was also used in F. Kuršaitis’s dictionary (hired living quarters), and even by J. Jablonskis (If there were some furnished little dwelling, it would be better). Life 9., already used by K. Sirvydas, though certainly still alive in the spoken language, is marked in LKŽ III 1956 as obs. (i.e. obsolete) “homestead, land, farm”: Life in a good place is a good life Skiršnemunė. The farmer dies, and the homestead goes to ruin Šatės. Though nowhere marked in the academic dictionary, the word life 11. “storey” has already become quite quaint even for dialect-speaking users of the standard language: He built a two-storey house Ėriškiai. By the way, DŽ₁ 1954 marked life 5., and DŽ₂ 1972 life 4. “storey” as colloq., but it is no longer found in DŽ₃ 1993. There are also words from Lithuania Minor – gyvata 4. “dwelling place, homestead, farm” and gyvėnamoji. Incidentally, other languages have similar names too – Latvian dzīvoklis (apartment), Russian жилье, Polish mieszkanie, German Wohnung, English dwelling. From the point of view of semantic motivation, place is quite similar [cf. Old Church Slavonic vitati “to live” (Russian обитать and обитатель, as well as обитель “dwelling, place”)] – 18. “dwelling, home, abode”: Such a little place that beds could fit Druskininkai (19. “yard, farm, homestead, living quarters”: I will not leave my place for anywhere, except the cemetery Pilviškiai. All the homesteads have already disappeared; they moved to the settlement Griškabūdis) LKŽ XIX 1999. By the way, “place” is also thing 3., while thing 4. means “farm, homestead”: That’s a fine little place: in a beautiful spot and by the road Miroslavas (LKŽ II₂ 1969). Russian место “place” corresponds to “city” in other Slavic languages: Polish miasto, Belarusian места “place, square, city” (etymologically associated with Lithuanian misti, maistas) – from this comes our loanword miestas. Our fairy tales often begin with the word lived, Russian ones with жил был, but our būti means 1. ‖ “to live”: At home, always at home, however you were, that’s how you were Ramygala. Terminologija | 2008 | 15 1 9 9 Dieve duok vienam gimti, ne vienam būti Miroslãvas (LKŽ I₂ 1968). Yra ir būnamas kambarys Skirsnemunė. Tarmėse – daugiausia žemaičių, bet ir vakarų aukštaičių, lietuvininkų – gyvas (arba būtas) butas 1. „gyvenamasis namas, troba, pirkia“: Aukšti butai – šalti barščiai (J. Brodovskio žodynas). Viduje miško stovėjo mažas butas Daukšiai (ir butelis „kampininkui skirtas namelis“ Slavikai, Žvirgždaičiai). Pastačiau butelį ant marių krantelio, kalbinau mergelę dvylikos metelių Pilviškiai (ir buta 1. „trobesys, namas; kambarys“ K. Sirvydo žodynas, M. Daukšos Katekizmas, S. Daukantas), 2. „bet koks pastatas, trobesys“; 3. „sodyba, buta, gyvenimas“ (ir buta 2. „ūkis, gyvenimas (su namais, žeme ir visu įrengimu)“), 4. „valstiečio trobos priemenė (ppr. su ugniakuru)“ (ir butukas). Bendrinėje kalboje butas gal tik prieš šimtmetį tapo „daugiabučio namo būstu“ (LKŽ I₂ 1968 butas 5. „namo dalis iš vieno ar kelių kambarių ir virtuvės“ nurodytas ne tik iš raštų, bet ir iš laikinosios sostinės Kauno!). Jurgio Šlapelio SNŽŽ 1907 buta, butas dar tarmiški – „namai, troba, rūmas“. Deja, jame nėra tada labai paplitusios, bet keistinos svetimybės kuatiera. Prie buto įvesdinimo į bendrinę kalbą daugiausia prisidėjo didieji kalbininkai Jonas Jablonskis ir Kazimieras Būga. 1918 m. Jablonskis rašė: ėmė nepaprastai belsti į mano b u t o duris J. Jabl R I 1932 212, mano b u t e krato J. Jabl R I 1932 213 [nežinia kodėl net po 10 metų atsiranda gyvenamasis butas J. Jabl R I 1932 289 (2x)]. K. Būga 1921. VII. 31 laiške Jurgiui Geruliui rašė: Kebliausia bus su b u t u (g y v e n a m a t r o b a). <...> <...>. Universito taryba turės pasirūpinti naujų b u t ų s t a t y – m u. – – – Aš net iki šiolei dar negavau sau b u t o ir priverstas esu gyventi net be tam tikro kambario kabinietu K. Būg RR III 1961 904. Prisidėjo ir žino-mi inteligentai, visuomenės veikėjai: Kaip praėjo gimnazijos mokslo metai? Menkai teatsimenu. I-je ir II-je klasėje k v a t i e r ą turėjau pas tūlą Jakob sienę prie Bažnytinės gatvės; pirmaisiais metais b u t o vyresniuoju-perdėtiniu buvo Petras Kriaučiūnas. <...> J. Basan MGK 1997 25. Netrumpą laiką butas buvo ne tik gyvenamoji, bet ir administracinė patalpa: „Lietuvių Draugijos“ butas J. Basan MGK 1997 282 (1916 m.); [1917 m.] apsigyvenau aš [Lietuvos aido] redakcijos bei administracijos bute (Benediktinų gatvėje Nr. 2) P. Klim Ats 1990 129; žodyno redakcijos bute (1923 m.) K. Būg RR III 1961 485, redakcijos bute K. Būg RR III 1961 486 [dar J. Jabl L 1985 60 (1922 m.); K. Būg RR III 1961 904 (1921 m.); J. Balč RR II 1982 265 (1921 m.)]. Labai būdinga priešprieša: Ir lankytis tekdavo nebe į jo puošnų g y v e n a m ą b u t ą, bet į v i s u o m e n i š k ą j į, <...> B. Sruog R VI 1957 550 (1946 m.). Jau ir butpinig iams apie 80 metų. 200 Jonas Klimavičius | Pastogė senovėje ir dabar The Samogitian abode 1. “place of dwelling, residence” (and buvainė 1. Dusėtos; 2. “homestead site, place where a house stood”, as well as buvainė 2.) entered the standard language 100 years ago – “place of being, place of residence” SNŽŽ 1907, also “place of residence, place of dwelling”, but it is fairly specialized, e.g.: registered office of a legal entity (legal) DŽ₃ 1993. There were many more suitable words in the spoken language, but they are usually polysemous: būkla 3. “place of residence, headquarters” Miroslavas, K. Jaunius; būklas 1. “place of being, place of residence, headquarters” Panevėžys, Vaižgantas, A. Sabaliauskas–Žalia Rūta [K. Sirvydas also gives “quarters” (girls’ quarters), and “lair” (a lair of beasts, a den)]; būklė 7. “place of residence, abode, homestead” J. Brodovskis, P. Ruigys, Kalesniņkai, Marijampolė; būvis 3. “place of dwelling, condition, abode” F. Kuršaitis ‖ “living quarters, farm” writings of Lithuania Minor [while buvys, -ė Geistarai, Šunskai, būvys Vilkaviškis means “inhabitant”]; bu-vinys 4. “place of dwelling, condition” Vilkija; būtinė “place of dwelling, abode”: Here are my birthplace, my growing-up place, and my home A. Juška’s dictionary, and also Vilkaviškis, Geistarai, Kazlų Rūda; ¹būtuvė 2. “abode”: I have neither a home nor a place to return to, nothing Šatės (būtuvė 1. “household, life” Lazūnai) LKŽ I₂ 1968. The standard language has also coined a number of words. The neologism in A. Juška’s dictionary, buoykla “headquarters, abode”, did not catch on. Būstas “shelter, home, apartment” is probably a neologism coined by J. Jablonskis (see J. Jabl R I 1932 22, 31 (1893)), perhaps modeled on S. Daukantas’s būstinė, and included by J. Šlapelis in SNŽŽ 1907: būstas – “a place in a home, living quarters, room” (kvatera – not included) and long kept concise in dictionaries – “shelter, home, apartment”: school, theatre premises DŽ₁ 1954, guard quarters DŽ₂ 1972, while DŽ₃ 1993 gave no illustration – only now has it found its proper place, becoming a word for a class of things (a hypernym): “a separate dwelling house or an apartment in an apartment building or dormitory.” Only residential dwelling is unnecessary (though it occurs with great persistence), since what other kind could it be – the former bishop’s residence J. Jabl R I 1932 31 (1893) or editorial office K. Būg RR III 1961, 485 long ago became either a headquarters (a neologism by S. Daukantas, also used by J. Jablonskis) “a place where someone has quarters, where someone is regularly present or lives” LKŽ I₂ 1968, “a place, premises where someone stays temporarily”: military commander’s, guard’s, election headquarters DŽ₃, or the aforementioned abode (these two words are competing). J. Jablonskis’s dormitory LKŽ I₂, and also his hotel (J. Jabl R I 1932 3 (1884)) – the sentence from Aušra (1884, 273) cited in LKŽ XIX 1999 is by Jablonskis. At first, hotel remained undifferentiated for quite a long time from brothel 2. (Vilniaus žinios 1904, 1) and brothels (Aušra 1885, 49) (viešnamis also formerly meant 1. “inn,” Terminologija | 2008 | 15 2 0 1 “lodging,” much later—3. “brothel” LKŽ XIX 1999; there is no brothel DŽ₁₋₄). In the aforementioned J. Šlapelis SNŽŽ 1907, viešbutis – hotelis, gostinica. Thus, about 100 years ago, the standard language saw competition and differentiation among living, place of residence, apartment, dwelling, headquarters, abode / dwelling place. In 1917, the Military Dictionary (KarŽ), published in Kaunas by the Ministry of National Defence (not stated, but known to have been compiled by Petras Ruseckas), already makes a fairly clear distinction: būstas – квартира въ войскахъ, помѣщение (but помѣщение – bustas, b ū s t i n ė), butas – жилье, квартира (and butininkas – квартирмейстеръ), būstinė – жительство (о жительство – gyvenamoji vieta, būstinė), buvainė – мѣстопребывание. In civilian life, būstas long remained, as it were, superfluous. SNŽŽ 1924 has inviolability of the home—“the right that entry into another person’s h o u s e o r a p a r t m e n t is permitted only with the householder’s consent or by court order.” In time, things changed. Butas remained 1. “a part of a house consisting of several rooms and a kitchen” DŽ₁ 1954 (“one or several” DŽ₂ 1972 and DŽ₃ 1993). Būstas remained rather vague for quite some time—“shelter, home, apartment”: school, theater lodging DŽ₁ 1954, DŽ₂ 1972—guardhouse (cf. LKŽ I₂ 1968: It is a pity that our Art Society has no permanent premises rš. Schools often lack suitable premises rš.), while LKŽ I₂ 1968 has: Shouts broke out in the guardhouse rš. (DŽ₃—already without illustrative examples), although DŽ₁ 1954 already gives a similar meaning for būstinė—“a place where someone is, lives”: military, theater, student headquarters. Later, būstinė is distinguished as “a place, premises where someone is t e m p o r a r i l y”: military commander’s headquarters, election headquarters DŽ₂ 1972; DŽ₃ 1993 adds guard headquarters. Once headquarters had clearly separated from būstas, būstas too became sharply differentiated from butas: now, after independence was regained, būstas means a person’s or family’s living accommodation—a house, apartment, room in an apartment or dormitory: dweling – dwelling (house, apartment, etc.) V. Bit MokALTŽ 1998, housing cost compensation, housing subsidy SocApsTŽ 1999. Unfortunately, the dictionary (DŽ), not updated since 1993, is falling behind: būstas—“home, apartment, shelter” DŽ₄ 2000, DŽ₅ 2003, DŽ₆ 2006. T h e h o m e o f a p e r s o n i s i n v i o l a b l e. Without the resident’s consent, entry into a h o m e is not permitted, declared the Constitution of the restored Republic of Lithuania (Art. 24). There is also the Housing Program Law. There was a Housing Department⟧ of the Ministry of Construction and Urban Development. The h o u s i n g s t o c k, consisting of about 1 million 306 thousand a p a r t m e n t s and about 1 thousand d o r m i t o r i e s LA 1999 144 11 became the Housing Fund. A newspaper reports, for example, that Denmark has a minister of housing and construction LA 1995 182 3. But... The term būstas immediately began to be misused—as butas had been earlier—with the awkward modifier residential, e.g.: 69.3 percent of respondents live in apartment blocks 202 Jonas Klimavičius | Pastogė senovėje ir dabar houses. Interestingly, this figure is almost identical to an indicator such as housing tenure: 68 percent of respondents live in apartments owned by the state. Only 8 percent of those surveyed own their homes LA 1995 107 9; improvement of residential housing LA 2000 35 1; shortage of residential housing Dnvd 2000 5–8 13. At last, būstinė and buveinė⟧ should become more clearly distinct. Buveinė is a living word among Samogitians (and in the region adjoining Samogitia): 1. “place of dwelling, place of residence,” 2. “homestead site, site of a former dwelling” (3. “living, existence, household life” in Skišnemunė) LKŽ I₂ 1968. Although LKŽ I₂ 1968 also defines būstinė as “a place where someone’s dwelling is, where someone is permanently, lives,” perhaps that applied only to the neologism’s creator, S. Daukantas; polling-station headquarters trš contradicts this. The terms are still confused in usage, for example: Having had no headquarters of its own for a long time, FSBK now has small offices in Prague, Warsaw, The Hague and its main headquarters in Vienna LA 1994 195 6. V. Bit MokALTŽ 1998 makes a fairly clear distinction: house – house, building; abode; office – 2. headquarters, office; headquarters – staff, main headquarters; campaign headquarters – election campaign headquarters. Buveinė means residence: residence – 2. abode, residence (1. place of residence; <...>) V. Bit MokALTŽ 1998. Incidentally, SNŽŽ 1907 already has residence—“the living quarters, place of residence, abode of a king, prince or other high-ranking person” (while buveinė itself means “place of being, place of living”), TŽŽ 1936—“abode; <...> place of residence.” When a dwelling is entered in the housing register with an address, the term place of residence is used. When people proudly spoke of the vast homeland covering ⅙ of the world’s area and sang And wide indeed is our native land, the curious expression living area also appeared, prompting lexicographers to add a separate sense for plotas—3. “a place designated for some purpose” DŽ₁ 1954, DŽ₂ 1972, DŽ₃ 1993. Yet both housing and human beings are three-dimensional¹. The expression was recorded quite unpretentiously in B. Pasternak’s Nobel-winning novel Doctor Zhivago: But for now the rooms are clean. This is now called living space B. Past DŽ 1991 177. We will provide the working residents with other living space, <...> B. Past DŽ 1991 213. English flat refers only to an apartment whose rooms are all on one floor ALKŽ 1975, whereas that living space means living / dwelling space (space means area, 1 Incidentally, German fascism and National Socialism sought not area but living space—the concept Lebensraum, transferred from biology into political geography before 1890 by German ethnographer Fritz Ratzel and turned into a fundamental concept of geopolitics by geographer Karl Ernst Haushofer, was introduced into contemporary politics by Hans Grimm in his 1926 novel Volk ohne Raum (A People without Space) (Kopaliński 2001). Terminologija | 2008 | 15 203 vieta; o plotas – area); floorspace LAKŽ 1991, būstas – lodging, dwelling, apartment, room LAKŽ 1991. Dar keisčiau – nors augimo akceleracija siekė apie 15 cm, būsto aukštis sovietijoje nuo 3–4 m smuko iki pustrečio. Kareivinės aukštesnės, bet ten tame pačiame plote buvo gul­doma ir dviem, ir net trim aukštais... Prisiregistravimo ir ploto 1 asmeniui norma ne ką viršijo kapo plotą... Daniilo Charmso fiksuota: Reikėtų, kad visi savo gyvenamajame plote gulėtų D. Charms N 1998 116. Tai buvo tikra sovietinė kova dėl būvio – dėl mažyčio plotelio plačiojoje šalyje. Mūsų daug, o vietos maža K. Bagd VDP 1973, – apibūdino rašytojas Kazys Bagdonavičius humoris-tikos knygoje Vargas dėl ploto. Vėliau rašytojas Rimantas Černiauskas rašė: Stoviu eilėje [buto, o ne apelsinų] 104-tas ir gyvenu pilnakraujį gyvenimą. Rūpestis dėl gyvenamojo ploto keldavo skausmus širdies plote. O kai žmonės pasigavo pasakymą neturiu gyvenamojo ploto, butų skyrimo taisyklėse atsirado melaginga formuluotė gerinti buto sąlygas, anksčiau taikyta tik tiems, kurie jau turi butą, bet turi teisę gauti ir geresnį, didesnį. Dar keistenybė – tame gyvenamajame plote buvo naudingasis plotas, į kurį neįėjo prieškam-baris, virtuvė, vonia, tuvaletas, balkonas (balkonai). The young people carelessly took over that area—but not the living quarters, but the vacant one—for birthdays and other gatherings—of their own, without parents, but... with consequences. This was called having a party M 1985 1 22. Newspapers would write about it; dictionaries, unfortunately, did not record the word. Writers and creative people also puzzled over another kind of space—in the press and publishing, for example: <...>the editors of the second volume allotted “space” to V. Montvila, but M. Sluckis and Alf. Bieliauskas lost out Prg 1983 12 121. <....>P. Cvirka was allotted a huge amount of space: monographic chapters in the second part of the third volume and in the fourth volume. They had to settle for a more modest amount of space Prg 1983 12 123. <...>they now have more than enough space both for their journalistic and essayistic reflections and for publishing fiction L ir M 1986 29 4. Why space rather than the ordinary place? Did things change with the years of the national revival and the restoration of independence? Yes and, unfortunately, no. Phrases such as exhibition space, display space, space for stands, advertising space are entirely understandable, but why a computer’s space [10 megabytes] LA 1997 240 2? A shop’s retail space, work-area space is understandable, but why a struggle for spaces in the old town R 1990 60 5, space for a pharmacy, rather than a plot, a location? A few little novelties crop up, but then things circle back to the old usage, for example: The whole sphere of life is occupied by fighting groups, <...>. <...>. The whole sphere of young people’s lives is simply being taken over, and we again begi- 204 Jonas Klimavičius | Pastogė senovėje ir dabar we find the possibility of being ourselves, of having in our everyday lives a free s p a c e, a kind of Tarkovskian z o n e, in which we could be sincere about our own desires LA 1994 194 15. The Soviet living area held firmly in the early years, for example: the issue of housing floor area legislation that had been discussed <...> VlnL 1991 21 1, must provide living floor area LA 1992 13 6, the living-area sector LA 1994 224 13. Even at the everyday level: A Vilnius woman, a widow, <...> has living space. I would like to meet someone. In 1992, even the Law on the Provision of Residents with Living Space was adopted. Living space followed housing, for example: <People constantly come with all sorts of questions. One of the most pressing is the housing problem. >...those living in houses being returned to their owners must be provided with living space, the article says, “The most pressing issue is housing” LA 1995 101 17. And when housing emerged, living space continued alongside it, for example: <Guided by the principle that housing is a national value and national priority, a guarantee of the nation’s existence and survival, and a condition for the family’s full development, >...<: the LDDP promises to give priority support to projects helping young families obtain housing. >...There were proposals to abolish value-added tax for those building their own living space LA 1996 186 3. Newspapers went on and on about building that space. If, when discussing the size and price of a home (per 1 m²), one needs to refer to area, it should be the floor area of the home. Even today, “living area” is disseminated by the Seimas Chancellery LŽ 2008 241 1. The name living premises is not objectionable in itself, but if the term housing already exists, that other name becomes redundant. From an etymological perspective, the Indo-European word house. deserves mention first. In the monumental monograph by Tamaz Gamkrelidze and Vyacheslav Ivanov, Indo-European Language and the Indo-Europeans (1984, 1332 pp.), in keeping with tradition, “dwelling” and “homestead” are understood not as a building or settlement, but as units of social organization—kin groups. Lithuanian house differs in its n sound from all the other Indo-European languages, which have a d consonant here: Old Indic dāma-, Greek dómos, Latin domus, Old Church Slavonic domǔ. This may be a simple phonetic development—in which case house-builder <*damudaris is cited—but it is probably relatively recent, a coinage by K. Sirvydas, as would also be indicated by its variant house-constructor, and by the entirely obvious example of that coinage, the Latin aedificator listed alongside it in K. Sirvydas’s dictionary. Therefore, there is good reason to consider a different origin for house, especially since evidence is plentiful: Greek nómos / nomé ‘pasture; herd; fodder; settlement’, nomás, -ádos / nomeús ‘shepherd’, némein ‘to graze; Terminologija | 2008 | 15 2 0 5 to manage; to live,” nėrnomai “to feed; to live, exist; to manage.” The Germanist Vytautas Balaišis took this line of thought further, associating namas with the Nemunas (cf. Greek nemos and Latin nemus “grove, thicket with pastures”). It is important to note that synonymy in this domain has existed in Indo-European languages since ancient times. For instance, a unit larger than a namas was a viešė (its ruler was the vieš-pats), but also a sala (Russian село); the enclosure of a namas or viešė / sala was a gardas, and anything enclosed was also a gardas (Russian город), but also a pilis (Greek polis), Gothic baurgs (German Burg), Old English dūn (English town). It is unclear why etymologists have not noted the animal-related meaning of Samogitian numo: “Numas is deliberately built for animals, with two rounded ends, covered with boards; cattle stand at one end, horses at the other, and a fire is kept burning in the middle in cold and frost” (A. Juška’s dictionary, LKŽ VIII 1970); cf. num(o)galis “the end of an old-style house where animals are kept.” It is no coincidence that namas also acquired sense 4, “livestock shed,” in K. Sirvydas’s dictionary (Šiauliai, Šeduva, Surviliškis, Ramygala, Panevėžys). A distinction emerged: “For people, a troba; for animals, a kūtė, numas” (A. Juška’s dictionary, LKŽ XVI 1995). In the Atlas of the Lithuanian Language, the word namas is mapped only in the sense “livestock shed,” while namas as a term for a dwelling is regarded as “less common (probably newer), not forming a continuous area (indeed, it occurs across almost the entire Lithuanian-speaking area), and therefore not mapped” (Atlas of the Lithuanian Language. I. Lexicon, 1977, 34). Namas primarily means 1. “a dwelling or some other kind of building.” In old writings and dialects, namas also has a variant—the plural form namus (with singular meaning!). And everywhere namai also has its special meaning, 2. “permanent place of residence.” Thus, a person builds a house; the house stands or collapses; the house is sturdy, beautiful, with an attic (namas means “building”), but lives and does things at home, stays (at home), leaves home, comes (back) home, misses home, visits home. One can live not in a separate house, but in an apartment (in an apartment building) or a dormitory, but these are still their home, and that is where they are at home. Another nuance deserves attention: my home and his home, I am at home and he is at home, I am going home and he is going home, but I am going to his home (not “to home”), I am at his house (not at home). In senses 2, “family farm, homestead,” and 3, “household, people living together,” both namas and namai are used in dialects (and in old writings), but systematic usage in the standard language would favor only namai (unlike LKŽ VIII 1970). Indo-European in origin, though to a somewhat lesser extent, is troba (dialectally also trioba), meaning 1. “dwelling, cottage,” 2. “a room in a building” || “people living together, household” (also trobesys, trobesys, trobesis and triobesys, triobesis, triobės, triobėsys “some kind of farm building,” and trobos, triobos—“all the buildings of one farm 206 Jonas Klimavičius | Pastogė senovėje ir dabar buildings, homestead”) LKŽ XVI 1995 – cf. Greek térəmnon / tĕramnon “house, dwelling” (from which Russian ме́рем “palace; castle, tower” is borrowed), Latin trab(e)s “beam, log; pattern; trunk, tree; ship; roof, shelter, hut; table”, Oscan triibum “house”, Umbrian torba / turba “granary”, Old Cymric treb “house”, Old High German dorf “village”. Not Indo-European and not even Baltic, but purely Lithuanian, the South Aukštaitian pirkia. The Lithuanian šlãjus is also found in the northwestern Aukštaitian area and an adjacent corner of eastern Aukštaitija. Thus the Indo-European Lithuanian antiquity and purity come to an end. The Slavs imposed gryčia, seklyčia, pakajus / pakajus as well (although K. Sirvydas still avoided them: pokoy, budowánie – penetrale, conclaue – giwenimas, buta SD 1642); the Germans brought bakūžė, stubas (stubas), rūmas (over a considerable area of eastern Aukštaitija, a good term for ‘dwelling house’); from the Roman lands, via Poland, the lordly palocius, stancija made their way in. We retain gryčia, seklyčia, stubas for their ancient (non-Indo-European) and regional color—as ethnographic reality and in folkloric usage—while in standard language rūmai means ‘a representative building or a particular institution’. We consign the others (and the rarer ones not mentioned here) to the chaff—after all, we are Indo-Europeans, mindful both of their proto-language and of pure Lithuanian antiquity. COMFORTS IN PENTHOUSES AND FANTASIES IN LOFTS In recent times, fashionable dwellings have come from around the world. A hundred years ago, J. Šlapelis’s SNŽŽ 1907 already defined rezidencija as “the life, dwelling place, residence of a king, duke, or other person of high rank.” And now, a century later: residence – 1. dwelling place, residence, 2. residence ArchŽ 2004. In translations, the unnecessary residence is sometimes used instead of residence, for example: Thousands of Spaniards and hundreds of foreigners are worried that the state will confiscate their seaside residences, as it wants to protect the coastal zone from urbanization and pollution Sav su TV 2008 43 4. Reziduoti means “to live in a particular place (said of high-ranking persons)” TŽŽ 1936, whereas a rezidentas, formerly a certain kind of diplomat, representative of a metropolitan power, or intelligence agent, may now be any resident who is not a citizen of that country. For a hundred years now, there has also been apartamentas—(French) “a large, beautiful dwelling, apartment” SNŽŽ 1907, (French) “a suite of rooms in a large apartment” TŽŽ 1936, “a large, luxurious apartment or hotel suite”; chamber 1. – apartments, room – “a space used for private living” ArchŽ 2007. Why, even in architecture, is this word deprived of its singular form? And why must it be accompanied by the qualifier residential: residential apartment and office building (Vd 2007 31 10)? Terminologija | 2008 | 15 207 Residence (and residential castle) and apartments—have no Lithuanian equivalents. Still, better than rūmai or pakajus... For some reason, ArchŽ 2007 wants to foist the Roman villa on Lithuanians too (though it distinguishes a rural and urban villa)—English villa 2. “nowadays, a sumptuous suburban or country d w e l l i n g h o u s e or s u m m e r h o u s e” (but is a summer house not also a “dwelling house”?), whereas bower – 1. summer house – is “a small country house in a picturesque location.” Nor does ArchŽ 2004 want to distinguish Romans from Lithuanians: villa – summer house, villa—both the Roman kind (in the countryside) and “later, a summer-type r e s i d e n c e in the suburbs or by the seaside”; nowadays, “a detached u r b a n - t y p e house with an adjoining garden”; sometimes, “in resort areas.” Perhaps summer house (see GK 2003 10 10–11 for more) should now be understood not as a “house for summering,” but as a “summer house,” suitable not only for spending the summer in but also simply for indulging oneself away from the city. Of course, finding Lithuanian equivalents for everything is not easy. Take bungalow – bungalow, “a one-storey country cottage with a veranda,” in the English–Lithuanian section of ArchŽ 2004; in the Lithuanian–English section, bungalas – bungalow and vasarnamis – bungalow, gazebo, while gazebo means 1. a little tower (on a house roof), belvedere, 2. summer house: it affords a view into the distance. And yet another summer house – cottage (in the country) and country-cottage, as well as summer cottage – summer cottage LAKŽ 1991. ArchŽ 2007: cottage ornée, ferme ornée – cottage—“a small country house of roughly hewn stone or logs from the late 18th to early 19th century”; we must add: in England. Similar buildings appeared in Lithuania much later, but here too cottages began to be built in Lithuania in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The best-known example is the so-called colony of banker J. Montvila in Vilnius, beside Lukiškės Square (1911, architect A. Kleinas et al.). Following the English-style cottages, the Žagarė manor stablemaster’s and other employees’ d w e l l i n g h o u s e s were built (late 19th c.), as were the Šešuolėliai m a n o r h o u s e (1900, architect T. Rostworowski) VLE X 2006. There are many c o t t a g e - t y p e d w e l l i n g h o u s e s in Kaunas, Panevėžys and other towns; after the Great Patriotic War (especially from 1955), they were also built in rural settlements TLE II 1986. But it is only now that architects’ and builders’ cottage is gaining currency: cottage – cottage—“a single-family dwelling. The rooms are arranged over two floors: the first usually contains living and utility rooms, while the second has bedrooms. The stairs are inside the house. Often, there is a plot of land beside the house” ArchŽ 2004. Cottage sounds very foreign, is used without necessity, and the proposed equivalent pilaitė is justifiably recommended (GK 2003 10 11–12) and used (in informal registers). But architecture dictionaries are trying to foist— 2 0 8 Jonas Klimavičius | Pastogė senovėje ir dabar …to designate another kind of small castle: castellet – 1. small castle – “a small castle,” although there is no castle: castle – small castle 1. “a palisaded (enclosure) castle” (e.g. Medininkai Castle!), 3. a ruler’s residence, palace, while castellum is 1. a fortified town ArchŽ 2004; château – castle, palace, but only in France; likewise chatelet – small castle, whereas in other countries (or only in England?) castle means 2. “a king’s or nobleman’s residence with fortifications,” while peel, pele – small castle means “in medieval northern England and Scotland, a small military defensive structure, usually a low fortified tower suitable for habitation”; but castellum – castellum means “a small fortified settlement or fort surrounded by farmsteads” ArchŽ 2007. Thus small castles still need to find a place in the terminology system; some terms also need to be coined (palisade, little fortress), while some concepts need two-word names (palisaded castle, ruler’s and nobleman’s palace, fortified town, fortified settlement, tower house)… One should also remember the realities of Lithuania: the garden cottage (garden house), and the Alytus cottage / Alytus-style house found in settlements and other places. The parts of an old-fashioned house were native words – foundation, wall, beam, ceiling, floor, roof, door, window, threshold, porch, entrance porch, entryway, vestibule, upper floor, and the neologism kitchen. Of foreign origin are chamber, room, chambers (nonstandard: = porch). Many parts of a modern, genteel house are international words – veranda, corridor, vestibule, hall, foyer, salon, balcony, loggia (and loggia 2. “an open arcaded gallery attached to a building or standing separately, <...>” ArchŽ 2004; also Vd 2008 23 78, 50 12). Even as on a train or ship: tambour / tambour – tambour 3. “a small room next to a room, intended to protect against cold air or wind” ArchŽ 2004. But surely this is simply an entryway (although DŽ₃ 1993 defines entryway as 1. “the space by the outside door,” LKŽ X 1976 – “the space by the door”: He stood in the doorway and did not dare go inside ‖ “the part of a room by the door” Radviliškis ‖ “the part of a barn by the door” Krinčinas, Šeduva, Surviliškis, Grūžiai; on the outside – outside the door, between – doorway). The architectural sense is different: tambour 4. “a circular or polygonal base of a dome” TŽŽ 1985, TŽŽ 2001, but this is a drum: tambour / drum 2. “the base of a dome” ArchŽ 2007. A hall – why not an entrance hall? A vestibule⟧ is very suitable by a great hall (though not only there). Let us leave hall, foyer and vestibule⟧ to palaces. At home, a salon is well replaced by the neologism living room (also online), but it has not proved possible to call just any salon, or even (3.) a hotel (LKŽ XIV 1986), a living room (2.). The troublesome Polish word sálka, which had caused much difficulty, was replaced not by room under the roof or upper room (LKŽ XII 1981), but by the international term mansard (TT 1992). A mansard is not Terminologija | 2008 | 15 209 just an attic or loft, but a room in the roof space, a little room or even a whole little apartment, but of course this is not an architectural term. The mezzanine comes in many forms: “a half-storey of a low-rise residential building (above the central part of the house)” TŽŽ 2001; mezzanine / entresol – 1. “a low storey or half-storey built above the central part of a low-rise residential building. (...)”; 2. “in a multi-storey building Δ, a low storey between the main floors, usually built on one side” ArchŽ 2004; mezzanine, entresol – “a low-ceilinged storey in a building, usually the topmost” – mezzanine, half-storey ArchŽ 2007. Thus a mezzanine is not only a half-storey, but could also be an intermediate storey (cf. Greek mesos – meaning both “middle” and “intermediate”), or an upper storey, upper house (built not above, but on top of something!) – there are many equivalents, but not one is quite right. The equivalents of the international word fligel, “a side wing of a house or a separate building in a manor courtyard” TŽŽ 2001, can be assessed similarly: annex – extension, wing, fligel ArchŽ 2004; annex, annexe – wing, fligel, extension – “an auxiliary structure attached to the main building” ArchŽ 2007; extension – wing, fligel, annex ArchŽ 2007; wing – wing – “the side part, or section, of a large building, a fligel” ArchŽ 2004; wing – wing, fligel – “a part of a building branching off from or added to the main section; a side extension” ArchŽ 2007. Extension is quite unsuitable here; there is some resemblance to a wing, but there is also a flanker – a wing. Other equivalents have existed – side-building, side-house; side extension: fligel – “an extension to a house or a small building in a courtyard behind larger houses; side-building” TŽŽ 1936; fligel – “a side extension to a building or a small building in a courtyard behind large houses; side extension, side-house” DŽ₁ 1954. Atšlainis in J. Brodovskis’s dictionary means “alcove,” but alcove can also mean both a particular side room and an extension to a manor palace (see GK 2000 4–6 20–23; TechEnc I 2000). Thus, probably the two best equivalents are fligel || (house) wing; side-house (Kalbos patarimai. Leksika: skolinių vartojimas, 2005). Among modern-era neologisms, mention should be made of Jonas Jablonskis’s building and the new sense of structure (variant statinis), which A. Vir I 1924 changed to: 1. “something being built or already built; a building” DŽ₁ 1954. In construction and architecture, building replaced the term trobesys used for that purpose in the interwar period (see J. Baltr VMI I 1934 (“the text was reviewed linguistically by Mr Talmantas, and many individual concepts were checked by Mr Rukštelė” 7), II 1939 (“the text was reviewed linguistically by J. Būtenas 5)). We reach the sad conclusion, where it must be said that the key people in the language kitchen—the journalists—do not use architectural terminology dictionaries and 2 1 0 Jonas Klimavičius | Pastogė senovėje ir dabar unnecessarily disseminates anglicisms. Giedrė Putelytė reports: So-called penthouses (super-expensive apartments) in Vilnius cost more than in Copenhagen, Helsinki, Munich, Berlin, Stockholm, Vienna, Frankfurt, Brussels or Athens Vd 2007 26 62. Such a view will open to the owner through the window of a “penthouse” in Vilnius, on the right bank of the Neris, which is being sold for 10 million litas Ibid. Thus Lithuanian is cheapest in Vilnius... With 10 million litas, a lot could be done for it! Only, of course, if love and spirit were added. But now... “penthauzas”penthauzas is sometimes so-called, sometimes in quotation marks, sometimes a synonym. If “penthauzas” is written, does that mean that “penthauzas” is or will be in the dictionary? The author’s synonym super-expensive apartments is not exact—she herself knows this, because she writes: The English word “penthouse” or “penthouse apartment” means a luxurious dwelling of unique construction, or one located on the top floor of a high-rise building Ibid. There has long been no shortage of dictionaries that include the English penthouse: penthouse – 1) extension, roofed shelter, attic, 2) American rooftop structure (on a roof), cf. pent – 2. enclosed; <...>, house – 1) house; <...> ALKŽ 1975, penthouse – 1) rooftop structure (above a house), 2) attic (extension), shed ALKŽ 1998, penthouse – (luxury) apartment in the attic PONS.ALKŽ 2004. General dictionaries show the quite ordinary origins of today’s architecturally and image-wise chic penthouse—even kinship with a shed or roofed shelter. In architecture, the word also has various meanings: 1. a lean-to extension, 2. rooftop structure (a structure on the roof of a multi-storey building), 3. roofed shelter ArchŽ 2004, penthouse, pendice, pentice – rooftop structure – “a structure occupying less than half the roof area of a building with a broad roof” ArchŽ 2007. Which would best express the two characteristics of a penthouse: 1) on the roof (rooftop structure) or on the top floor (attic) and 2) separate, isolated? Rooftop structures can take various forms; attic-apartment looks rather poor; a better term is attic apartment—it also conveys separateness. That would be the term. Of course, in the Anglophile-European setting of Ober Haus, Helios City, Maxima, Akropolis, Ermitažas, Babilonas, Panorama, Europa, Mega, BIG, can one expect Lithuanian-ness?.. But we say, and will keep saying, that Lithuanians—all of them, each and every one!—need it desperately. We have said, and will keep saying, that not all of us are, nor will all of us become, emigrants bent on grabbing dollars and euros, or—most unhappy of all!—domestic emigrants who have everything in abundance. Could journalists at least understand? But when I hear and see their and advertising’s sucked-dry word comfort, I imagine a communist fortress (walled off from the nation and culture). Even more saddening are the lofts adopted by the artists’ guild—for a Lithuanian, or at least Latin, spirit has always been alive there, not a cosmopolitan Anglophile-European one. Yet Rasa Pakalkienė writes, recounting how the artist (and journalist) Vaidotas Terminologija | 2008 | 15 211 Žukas, who converted a former military factory into so-called lofts, which are studio apartments LŽ 2007 178 16. In the end—open-plan apartments or “lof-ts. Back to square one... Giedrė Petkevičiūtė neither came up with anything nor looked for anything: Apartments like this one—industrial premises adapted for living—are popularly called lofts Vd 2007 50 54. There is also a mezzanine: “a bedroom set up on the mezzanine”. That popularity comes from the banks of the Thames... The English loft has several meanings too: 1. attic, upper floor; garret, 2. choir gallery (in a church), 3. archit. emporium, gallery (emporium – 1. marketplace, market, 2. department store), cf. lofty – 1. (very) high; grand, 2. (very) noble, 3. haughty, arrogant PONS.ALKŽ 2004. In architecture too, loft has various meanings: 1. gallery (in a hall or church); choir gallery, 2. attic; high loft ArchŽ 2004, 1. attic – “space beneath a roof without a ceiling, often used as storage”, 2. organ loft, choir balcony, cf. also cochloft – attic, loft – “a room in the roof space of a house” (and garret – 1. attic – “a room inside a roof”, 2. attic – “a room, usually with sloping ceilings”) ArchŽ 2007. Of the many characteristics of the English loft, the essential ones are spaciousness, openness and height. A studio apartment can be anything, but here perhaps a spacious flat, large flat, high-ceilinged flat (there may be no studio, but if there were, we could add it—large studio flat). Lithuanian-ness, overrun by foreignisms, is fragile. A language without neologisms is a language without a future. Unnecessary foreignisms may be not only international terms but also ordinary international words that are stylistically unjustified, for example: The living room should be spacious, especially if there are young children in the family. Little ones always want to interact with adults, so the room’s functional zones should be arranged so that they do not interfere with one another. If a dining area is planned in this room, it could be closer to the door. We choose a quieter part of the room for the living area, farther from the entrance. Those zones could also be saddled with zoning, zonal arrangement. There are zones in geography, topography, military affairs, mathematics and physics, and for some, in captivity; but in a room we would rather not have one—and besides, the phrase itself says: we choose a zone in a part. So better: part, half, corner, nook. Entrance is also exit, already expressed simply too as door. Advertising, too, is not made of Lithuanian wood: you will furnish your kitchen rationally; clay accumulates heat, and the microclimate remains the same as in a wooden building. Should one write one way and speak another? It is easy to notice that writing in an internationalized manner inevitably leads to speaking that way too, while Lithuanian words remain, and few people bother to look for them. 212 Jonas Klimavičius | Pastogė senovėje ir dabar CONCLUSIONS The most natural and universal name for a human dwelling, gyvenimas (also gyvata, gyvenamoji), has typological parallels—Latvian dzīvoklis, Russian жилье, Polish mieszkanie, German Wohnung, English dwelling—but is more terminological as well as not at all terminological. In terms of motivation, vieta is fairly similar too. būti (‘to be’) is related to butas (‘apartment’; in colloquial speech there are more derivatives). Different from buto is J. Jablonskis’s neologism būstas (also the source of bendrabutis and viešbutis), which acquired its present meaning only after independence was restored. The Samogitian-origin buveinė and S. Daukantas’s neologism, also used by J. Jablonskis, būstinė—usually temporary—have not yet become clearly differentiated. A peculiar product of the Soviet era is gyvenamasis plotas (‘living area’). This (as well as the formerly used gyvenamasis butas, ‘residential apartment’) prompted the semantically redundant term gyvenamasis būstas (‘residential dwelling’) as well. It is difficult to get by with both in use. Gyvenamosios patalpos (‘residential premises’) is unobjectionable, but once one has būstą, it becomes unnecessary. From Indo-European antiquity comes namas (‘house’). Less Indo-European is troba (‘farmhouse’). The southern Aukštaitian pirkia is not even Baltic, but specifically Lithuanian. That is where the Indo-European antiquity and purity of Lithuanian end. The Slavs imposed gryčia, seklyčia, pakajus / pakajai; the Germans, bakūžė, stuba / stubas, rūmas; and from the Romance lands, via Polish, came palocius / palociai, stancija. We retain gryčia, seklyčia and stuba for our ethnographic past, folklore usage and regional colour. Rūmai in standard language means “a prestigious building or a certain institution”. We relegate the others to the chaff in standard language. In recent times, from the wider world came the grand residences—residence, apartment (a separate flat), villa (summer house), cottage (small castle). The parts of an old house had their own names—foundation, wall, beam, ceiling, floor, roof, door, window, threshold, porch, entrance porch, prie namis, vestibule, upper floor—and the neologism virtuvė (‘kitchen’). Of foreign origin are kamara, kambarys, gon kos (non-standard:= prieangis, ‘porch’). The parts of a modern, grand house are largely international words—veranda, corridor, vestibule (partly an entry hall, anteroom), hall (entrance hall), foyer, reception room, balcony, loggia, even tambour (vestibule), salon (living room), salka (attic—a little room in the roof space), mezzanine (half-storey, intermediate floor, upper storey, ant namis), flygel (not really ‘wing’; šal namis, ‘side building’, would be better). The latest are anglicisms: penthauzas (=attic apartment), loftas (=spacious flat, large flat, high-ceilinged flat). A language without neologisms is a language without a future. Terminologija | 2008 | 15 2 1 3 ŠALTINIAI ALKŽ 1975 – Anglų–lietuvių kalbų žodynas. Sudarė A. Laučka, B. Piesarskas, E. Stasiulevičiū-tė, Vilnius. ALKŽ 1998 – B. Svecevičius. Anglų–lietuvių kalbų žodynas, Vilnius. ArchŽ 2004 – L. Kitkauskienė, N. Kitkauskas. Anglų–lietuvių kalbų aiškinamasis architektūros žodynas, Vilnius. ArchŽ 2007 – Cyril M. Harris. Iliustruotas architektūros istorijos žodynas. Sudarytoja ir mokslinė redaktorė A. Jankevičienė, lietuviškų terminų redaktorė G. Kazlauskaitė, Vilnius. K. Bagd VDP 1973 – K. Bagdonavičius. Vargas dėl ploto, Vilnius. J. Balč RR II 1982 – J. Balčikonis. Rinktiniai raštai 2, Vilnius. J. Baltr VMI I 1934 – J. Baltrušaitis. Visuotinė meno istorija, Kaunas. J. Baltr VMI II 1939 – J. Baltrušaitis. Visuotinė meno istorija, Kaunas. J. Basan MGK 1997 – J. Basanavičius. Mano gyvenimo kronika ir nervų ligos istorija. 1851–1922 m., Vilnius. V. Bit MokALTTŽ 1998 – V. Bitinaitė. Mokomasis anglų–lietuvių kalbų teisės terminų žodynas, Vilnius. K. Būg RR III 1961 – K. Būga. Rinktiniai raštai 3, Vilnius. D. Charms N 1998 – D. Charmsas. Nutikimas, Kaunas. Dvnd – Dienovidis (savaitraštis). DŽ₁ 1954 – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, Vilnius. DŽ₂ 1972 – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, Vilnius. DŽ₃ 1993 – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, Vilnius. DŽ₄ 2000 – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, Vilnius. DŽ₅ 2003 – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, Vilnius. DŽ₆ 2006 – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, Vilnius. J. Jabl R I 1932 – Jablonskio raštai 1, Kaunas. J. Jabl L 1985 – Jono Jablonskio laiškai, Vilnius. KarŽ 1919 – Kariškas lietuviškai–rusiškas ir rusiškai–lietuviškas žodynėlis, Kaunas. P. Klim Ats 1990 – P. Klimas. Iš mano atsiminimų, Vilnius. LA – Lietuvos aidas (savaitraštis). LAKŽ 1991 – B. Piesarskas, B. Svecevičius. Lietuvių–anglų kalbų žodynas, Vilnius. L ir M – Literatūra ir menas (savaitraštis). LKŽ I₂ 1968 – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas 1, Vilnius. LKŽ II₂ 1969 – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas 2, Vilnius. LKŽ III 1956 – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas 3, Vilnius. LKŽ VIII 1970 – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas 8, Vilnius. LKŽ X 1976 – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas 10, Vilnius. LKŽ XII 1981 – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas 12, Vilnius. LKŽ XIV 1986 – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas 14, Vilnius. LKŽ XVI 1995 – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas 16, Vilnius. LKŽ XIX 1999 – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas 19, Vilnius. LŽ – Lietuvos žinios (dienraštis). M – Moksleivis (žurnalas). PONS.ALKŽ 2004 – PONS. Anglų–lietuvių kalbų žodynas, Kaunas. Prg – Pergalė (žurnalas). R – Respublika (dienraštis). rš – raštai. Sav su TV – Savaitė su TV (savaitraštis). SD 1642 – Pirmasis lietuvių kalbos žodynas: Konstantinas Sirvydas. Dictionarium trium linguarum [fotografuotinis tekstas], 1979. SNŽŽ 1907 – Svetimų ir nesuprantamų žodžių žodynėlis. Sudarė J. Šlapelis, Tilžė. SNŽŽ 1924 – J. Norkus. Svetimų ir nesuprantamų žodžių žodynėlis, Kaunas. SocApsTŽ 1999 – Socialinės apsaugos terminų žodynas, Vilnius. B. Sruog R VI 1957 – B. Sruoga. Raštai 6, Vilnius. 214 Jonas Klimavičius │ Pastogė senovėje ir dabar TechEnc I 2000 – Technikos enciklopedija 1, Vilnius. TLE II 1986 – Tarybų Lietuvos enciklopedija 2, Vilnius. trš – tarybiniai raštai. TT 1992 – Terminologijos taisymai. Parengė K. Gaivenis, A. Kaulakienė, St. Keinys, J. Klimavičius, Vilnius. TŽŽ 1936 – Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas, Kaunas. TŽŽ 1985 – Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas, Vilnius. TŽŽ 2001 – Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas, Vilnius. Vd – Veidas (savaitinis žurnalas). A. Vir I 1924 – A. Virėliūnas. Įvardai arba terminai, priimti Terminologijos komisijos, Kaunas. VLE X 2006 – Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija 10, Vilnius. VlnL – Vilniaus laikraštis. LITERATŪRA Balaišis V. 1987: Der lit. Flussname Nemunas und das lit. namas „Haus.“ – Kalbotyra 37(3), 18–23. Kalbos patarimai. Leksika: skolinių vartojimas. Autorė ir sudarytoja D. Mikulėnienė, Vilnius, 2005. Kiekviena kalba – tai atskiras pasaulis. Pokalbis su Jiržiu Marvanu. – Mokslo Lietuva 2008 11 1, 6; 12 12–13. Klimavičius J. 2000: Alkierius, erkeris, alkova. – Gimtoji kalba 4–6, 20–23. Klimavičius J. 2003: Vila – vasarnamis, kotedžas – pilaitė. – Gimtoji kalba 10, 10–13. Kopalínski W. 2001: Žodynas. XX amžiaus įvykiai, sąvokos ir mitai. Vertė N. Kvietkauskas, Vilnius. Lietuvių kalbos atlasas. I. Leksika. Ats. red. K. Morkūnas, Vilnius, 1977. Litauisches etymologisches Wörterbuch von Ernst Fraenkel, Heidelberg–Göttingen, 1955–1965. Sabaliauskas A. 1990: Lietuvių kalbos leksika, Vilnius. Senkus J. 1965: Gyvenamojo namo vardai. – Kalbos kultūra 8, 38–40. Гамкрелидзе Т. В., Иванов Вяч. Вс. 1984: Индоевропейский язык и индоевропейцы, I–II, Тбилиси. Gauta 2008-10-24 Jonas Klimavičius Lietuvių kalbos institutas P. Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 E. paštas: [email protected] Terminologija | 2008 | 15 215