Lietuviški blakių pobūrio vardai
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Lithuanian Names for the Heteroptera
ALBINA AUKSORIŪTĖ
Lietuvių kalbos institutas
KEYWORDS: Heteroptera, family name for bugs, species name for bugs, neologisms, compounds
INTRODUCTION
Over the past decade, several entomological articles and publications have appeared in which entomological terms and nomenclatural names began to be standardized (Stonis et al. 2009; Stonis et al. 2010; Stonis, Diškus 2011; Diškus, Stonis 2012a; Diškus, Stonis 2012b; Stonis, Remeikis, Baužys 2013; Stonis et al. 2015). In 2013, a textbook by three authors, Jonas Rimantas Stonis, Andrius Remeikis, and Darius Baužys, was published for students, teachers, and everyone interested in nature, Blakės. Įvairovė ir pavadinimai, describing bugs found both in Lithuania and elsewhere. This publication surveys 45 families of Heteroptera and 463 species assigned to them, for which many new names were coined. Thus, the subject of this article is the Lithuanian names of 45 bug families and 463 species, while its aim is to examine synchronically the methods used to create names for Heteroptera families and species and to form neologisms, discuss the syntactic and semantic relations between the principal and secondary components of two-word names, and identify the most productive methods of creating family and species names.
As entomologists write, insects (Latin Insecta) make up the largest share of Earth’s biological diversity. They are widely distributed throughout the world, are also abundant in Lithuania’s fauna, inhabit a variety of environments, are highly diverse, and are of great importance from both scientific-theoretical and economic-practical perspectives. It has been estimated that insects account for about 65–67 percent of Earth’s taxonomic biological diversity, or 56–57 percent of the diversity identified and described to date (Stonis et al. 2015: 6). Bugs can be found all over the world; about 300 species are currently known in Lithuania, but some remain undiscovered and, apparently, more than 400 species live in Lithuania (Stonis, Remeikis, Bau-
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žys 2013: 5). Aptariame leidinyje laikomasi šiuolaikinės sistematinės sampratos – blakės (lot. Heteroptera) skiriamos straubliuočių būriui (lot. Hemiptera, sin. Rhynchota), kuriam priklauso labai įvairūs vabzdžiai, skirstomi į daugybę šeimų ir 4 pobūrius (Stonis, Remeikis, Baužys 2013: 25), vienas iš kurių ir yra blakės. Iš viso pasaulyje esančios apie 38 000 blakių pobūrio rūšys grupuojamos į daugybę šeimų.
It is understandable that Lithuanian entomological terminology and insect names were also developed earlier, and that reference books and guides were published (Lešinskas, Pileckis 1967; Lešinskas, Pileckis 1968; Pileckis, Žuklys 1974; Pileckis 1976; Pileckis 1982; Jonaitis 1983; Pileckis et al. 1994; LF1 1995). Entomological terminology was studied not only by entomologists but also by linguists. In 1979, the terminologist Kazimieras Gaivenis published an article entitled “New Lithuanian Insect Names” in Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimuose (Lietuvių kalbos specialioji leksika, vol. 19), surveying the methods used to create Lithuanian neologisms and newly coined terms in entomological taxonomy and presenting a register of 170 Lithuanian coinages in this field (Gaivenis (1979) 2014: 332–348). The register mentioned contains only one neologism for Heteroptera: sietasparnė (2)—the modifier in the two-word family name sietasparnės blakės (Latin Tingidae) (Lešinskas, Pileckis 1967: 77; Gaivenis (1979) 2014: 345).
Vadove Lietuvos vabzdžiams pažinti (1967) (toliau – Vadovas) išskirtas ir aprašytas būrys lot. Hemiptera – blakės (puskietasparniai) ir 10 jo šeimų (Lešinskas, Pileckis 1967: 74–86). Šiame leidinyje pateikti visų minėto būrio šeimų ir joms priskiriamų 22 rūšių lietuviški vardai, o genčių nurodyti tik lotyniški vardai, išskyrus skydablakių (lot. Pentatomidae) šeimos gentį lot. Eurydema – kryžmažiedinės blakės (Lešinskas, Pileckis 1967: 79).
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It is noteworthy that most species are named with two-word names, but five species are given three-word names: patterned alfalfa bug (Latin Brachycoleus decolor), common meadow bug (Latin Lygus pratensis), green meadow bug (Latin Lygus pabulinus), brown beet bug (Latin Polymerus cognatus), and yellow beet bug (Latin Polymerus vulneratus). Thus, Lithuanian names in the publication under discussion do not always follow the requirement of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN)—the principle of binomial nomenclature—that a scientific species name is binomial, consisting of the genus and species names (see ICZN Article 5.1).
In 2010, the journal Acta Zoologica Lituanica published for the first time a comprehensive list of Lithuanian names for all 324 bug species recorded in Lithuania and assigned to 31 families (see Stonis et al. 2010: 262–272), which included many newly coined Lithuanian names for families and species. As the article’s authors note, until then most bug species and families recorded in our country either had no Lithuanian names or had species names that were not standardized; many insect species names remain descriptive in nature. This greatly complicates their use and does not conform to the principles of international binomial nomenclature. Therefore, bug names consisting of more than two words were replaced with shorter ones (Stonis et al. 2010: 265).
In the publication Blakės. Įvairovė ir pavadinimai, the authors provided names not only for bugs found in Lithuania, as already published in the aforementioned article, but also for species found in other countries. They followed the already established practice in entomology of not assigning Lithuanian names to genera. According to the book’s authors, many closely related bug genera that are difficult to distinguish are known. If species were given Lithuanian names whose first word designated the genus, terminological diversity would become so great that it would make using the names (remembering them and navigating the system) extremely difficult. In preparing the book, the principle was followed that priority should be given to taxa of higher rank and greater significance—the families. It was decided that naming bug genera in Lithuanian was not particularly important: 1) the taxonomy of bug genera is changing quite rapidly and is not universally accepted; 2) external morphological differences between bug genera are slight, and non-specialists would usually find it difficult (or impossible) to identify bug genera; 3) from a practical (usage) perspective, a clear assignment of species to particular families is more important than their assignment to genera (Stonis, Remeikis, Baužys 2013: 10).
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LIETUVIŠKI BLAKIŲ ŠEIMŲ IR AUKŠTESNIO RANGO TAKSONŲ VARDAI
Names of bug families
As already mentioned, the publication Blakės. Įvairovė ir pavadinimai distinguishes and discusses 45 families of the Heteroptera. According to the authors, in standardizing Lithuanian family names for the Heteroptera, they followed the principle that Lithuanian names for insect families and higher-ranking taxa should consist of either one word or two words (Stonis, Remeikis, Baužys 2013: 9).
All family names are traditionally given in the plural; most are one-word names, while 15 two-word family names are provided, for example: large-headed primitive bugs (Latin Enicocephaidae, English Gnat Bugs; Unique-headed Bugs; Enicocephalids) 30; reticulate primitive bugs (Latin Aenictopecheidae, English Aenictopecheids) 30; false minute bugs (Latin Ceratocombidae, English Ceratocombids) 31; true minute bugs (Latin Dipsocoridae, English Jumping Ground Bugs; Dip socorids) 31; false water treaders (Latin Mesoveliidae, English Water Treaders; Pondweed Bugs, Ripple Bugs) 34; true water treaders (Latin Veliidae, English Water Striders; Broad-Shouldered Watter Striders; Ripple Bugs) 34; giant water bugs (Latin Belostomatidea, English Giant Water Bugs; Electric Light Bugs; Toe-Biters; Alligator Ticks) 39; broad water bugs (Latin Naucoridae, English Saucer Bugs; Creeping Water Bugs) 41; true leaf-footed bugs (Latin Coreidae, English Squash Bugs; Leaf-Footed Bugs) 51; false leaf-footed bugs (Latin Rhopalidae, English Scentless Plant Bugs) 53; plant-eating shield bugs (Latin Acanthosomatidae, English Acanthosomatid Bugs; Shield Bugs) 75; water striders (Latin Gerridae, English Pond-Skaters; Water-Striders; Wherrymen; Jesus Bugs) 35. The latter family name had already been used in the Vadove, while several other two-word family names used in the aforementioned Vadove are given in the book Blakės. Įvairovė ir pavadinimai as synonyms, and the generic component of species names is now given as a single word, for example: bark bugs, syn. subbark bugs (Latin Aradidae, English Bark Bugs; Flat Bugs; Flat Bark Bugs) 49; plant bugs, syn. herb bugs; capsids (Latin Miridae, English Plant Bugs; Leaf Bugs) 81; lace bugs, syn. net bugs (Latin Tingidae, English Lace Bugs) 95; parasitic bugs, syn. blood bugs (Latin Cimicidae, English Bed Bugs; Blood-sucking Bugs) 103; predatory bugs, syn. predator bugs (Latin Reduviidae, English1
1When giving examples, the Lithuanian name is presented first, accented as in the source; the Latin and, if available, English equivalent is given in parentheses, and the source page is indicated after the parentheses.
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Assassin Bugs; Conenose Bugs) 99. The aforementioned one-word family names are compounds, as are all other one-word family names.
The descriptive components of two-word family names most often indicate the family’s relationship to other families: false minute bugs 31; true minute bugs 31; false water treaders 34; true water treaders 34; true leaf-footed bugs 51; false leaf-footed bugs 53; false ground bugs 56; true ground bugs 57; true shield bugs 64. Only the descriptive components of a few family names identify a characteristic distinguishing feature of the family: large-headed primitive bugs 30; reticulate primitive bugs 30; giant water bugs 39; broad water bugs 41; plant-eating shield bugs 75; water striders 35.
Most of the bug family names under discussion, and correspondingly the generic components of species names, are neologisms formed by compounding; only compounds already used in the Vadove include: water scorpions (Latin Nepidae, English Water Scorpions) 39, cf. skorpionblakes V 85; backswimmers (Latin Notonectidae, English Back Swimmers; Backswimmers; Greater Water Boatmen) 45, cf. nugarplaukos V 86; red bugs (Latin Pyrrhocoridae, English Red Bugs; Fire Bugs; Stainers) 62, cf. raudonblakės V 81; true shield bugs, syn. shield bugs (Latin Pentatomidae, English Shield Bugs; Stink Bugs) 64, cf. skydablakės V 78.
In Lithuanian terminology, compounding is the second most productive method of creating neologisms, after derivation by suffixation. As Stasys Keinys notes, compound terms allow complex concepts to be expressed in one word and meet well the requirements of precision, clarity, and conciseness that are important in specialized fields of language use (Keinys (1983) 2005: 177). Usually, the logical, grammatical, and semantic head of a compound is its second constituent, while its first constituent defines the second; compounds of this type are called determinative compounds. Taken separately, the second constituent is generally a hyperonym (generic name) in relation to the compound (hyponym) or compound term (specific name) (Gaivenis (1998) 2014: 243). All the neologisms for Heteroptera families are determinative compounds.
About 92 percent of the neologisms under discussion are compounds whose second constituent, like that of the names given in the Vadove, is blakės, indicating their membership in the suborder, while the first constituent defines the second according to the family’s distinguishing characteristics. Several groups can be distinguished according to the characteristic indicated by the first constituent of the compound:
a) the nominal constituent indicates various characteristics of the body or a body part, or a resemblance to something:
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velvet bugs (: velvet) (Latin: Hebridae, English: Velvet Watter Bugs) (large, robust body covered with numerous water-repellent hairs) 37, 2 species distinguished;
water boatmen (: oar) (Latin: Corixidae, English: Water Boatman; Waterboatman; Lesser Water Boatmen) 42, 27 species named;
ball bugs (: ball) (Latin: Coptosomatidae (syn. Plataspididae), English: Coptosomatids) 80, 1 species described;
stick bugs (: stick) (Latin Berytidae, English Stilt Bugs) 56, 4 species distinguished;
spur bugs (: spur) (Latin Alydidae, English Broad-headed Bugs; Broad-Headed Bugs; Ant Bugs) (the legs, especially the hind legs, are long, with spines on the thighs) 50, 2 species described;
toad bugs (: toad) (Latin Gelastocoridae, English Toad Bugs) 42, 1 species named;
lace bugs (: sieve) (Latin Tingidae, English Lace Bugs) (the membrane of the forewings has dense cells and resembles lace; the back is elongated and may partly cover the head) 95, 16 species distinguished;
shield-backed bugs (: turtle) (Latin Scutelleridae, English Shield-Backed Bugs; Shield-Back Bugs; Jewel Bugs; Tortoise Bugs; Scutellerids) (characterized by an especially large dorsal shield, which like sturdy armor covers almost the entire abdomen) 78, 8 species described;
bark bugs (: bark) (Latin Aradidae, English Bark Bugs; Flat Bugs; Flat Bark Bugs) (insects that mimic the color of tree bark) 49, 10 species named.
Also belonging to this small group are the shield bugs already listed in the Guide: shield bugs (: shield) — true shield bugs (Latin Pentatomidae, English Shield Bugs; Stink Bugs) 64, 35 species described; and herbivorous shield bugs (Latin Acanthosomatidae, English Acanthosomatid Bugs; Shield Bugs) 75, 8 species named (the dorsal shield is very strong) 64; cf. shield bugs V 78, and water scorpions (: scorpion) (Latin Nepidae, English Water Scorpions) 39, 2 species described; cf. water scorpions V 85;
b) a nominal element indicating habitat or feeding location:
ground bugs (: soil) — false ground bugs (Latin Stenocephalidae, English Spurgebugs; Spurge Bugs) 56, and true ground bugs (Latin Lygaeidae, English Ground Bugs; Seed Bugs) 57; the publication describes 1 species of false ground bugs, and 64 species of true ground bugs;
bottom bugs (: bottom) (Latin Aphelocheiridae, English Benthic Watter Bugs) 41, 1 species named;
sea bugs (: sea) (Latin Aepophilidae, English Marine Bugs) 47, 1 species presented;
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fur bugs (: fur) (Latin Polyctenidae, English Bat Bugs; Polyctenids) (adapted to live in the host’s hairy fur) 104, only the family is named;
lichen bugs (: lichen) (Latin Microphysidae, English Minute Bugs; Minute Bladder Bugs; Lichen Bugs) 97, named only at the family level;
burrow bugs (: burrow) (Latin Cydnidae, English Burrowing Bugs; sometimes Negro Bugs) 77, 9 species are described;
water bugs (: water) – giant water bugs (Latin Belostomatidea, English Giant Water Bugs; Electric Light Bugs; Toe-Biters; Alligator Ticks) 39 and broad water bugs (Latin Naucoridae, English Saucer Bugs; Creeping Water Bugs) 41, 3 species of giant water bugs are described, and 1 species of broad water bugs;
flower bugs (: flower) (Latin Anthocoridae, English Flower Bugs; Minute Pirate Bugs) 97, 13 species are named;
c) the first adjectival component indicates characteristic behavioral traits:
predatory bugs (: predatory) (Latin Reduviidae, English Assassin Bugs; Conenose Bugs) 99, 11 species are listed;
jumping bugs (: agile) (Latin Saldidae, English Shore Bugs) 47, 7 species are described;
agile bugs (: agile) – false agile bugs (Latin Ceratocombidae, English Ceratocombids) 31, 3 species are so named, and true agile bugs (Latin Dipsocoridae, English Jumping Ground Bugs; Dipsocorids) 31, 2 species are named.
Another family name worth mentioning here has a verbal first component indicating a trait arising from an action: slaughter bugs (: to slaughter, slaughtered) (Latin Nabidae, English Nabids; Damsel Bugs) (these are particularly active predators, feeding on other arthropods smaller than themselves; cannibalism is also sometimes characteristic. These bugs often hold captured prey grasped with their forelegs) 102, 11 species are described;
d) the adjectival component indicates body shape or size:
angular bugs (: angular) – true angular bugs (Latin Coreidae, English Squash Bugs; Leaf-Footed Bugs) 51 and false angular bugs (Latin Rhopalidae, English Scentless Plant Bugs) 53, 11 species are listed for each of the two families;
small bugs (: small) (Latin Schizopteridae, English Schizopterids; Jumping Ground Bugs) 32, only the family is named;
flat bugs (: flat) (Latin Hypsipterygidae, English Hypsipterygidae) 32, species are not distinguished;
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e) body color is specified by the first adjectival component:
black bugs (: black) (Latin Thyreocoridae, English Negro Bugs; Black Bugs; Ebony Bugs) 80, 1 species named;
gray bugs (: gray) (Latin Piesmatidae, English Beet Bugs; Ash-Gray Leaf Bugs) 64, 2 species listed.
Among these names, mention should also be made of the family named in the Guide, red bugs
(: red) (Latin Pyrrhocoridae, English Red Bugs; Fire Bugs; Stainers) 62, 1 species described; cf. red bugs V 81;
f) the object of feeding is indicated by a nominal component:
blood bugs (: blood) (Latin Cimicidae, English Bed Bugs; Bloodsucking Bugs) (feeds on the blood of humans, other mammals, or birds) 103, 7 species named;
grass bugs (: grass) (Latin Miridae, English Plant Bugs; Leaf Bugs) (suck plant sap; many are pests of cultivated plants) 81, the largest family—158 species described.
The two-word names of two very ancient families are worth mentioning separately; the first adjectival component of the compound’s head, ancient bugs, also indicates this characteristic:
a) ancient bugs (: ancient) – big-headed ancient bugs (Latin Enicocephaidae, English Gnat Bugs; Unique-headed Bugs; Enicocephalids) and rare ancient bugs (Latin Aenictopecheidae, English Aenictopecheids (very archaic families) 30, species not distinguished;
b) recently discovered and described soft bugs (: soft) (Latin Stemmocryptidae, English Stemmocryptids) 33, whose adjectival first component indicates that their body is soft and lacks a shield; only the family is named.
The first components of compound family names with the second component -bugs are nominal, adjectival, and verbal; their distribution is presented in Table 1.
Table 1. First components of compounds with the second component -bugs
Nominal component
Adjectival component
Verbal component
soil-
black-
slaughter-
bottom-
angular-
bore-
small-
oar-
soft-
sea-
grey-
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Noun stem
Adjectival stem
Verbal stem
fur–
predat–
ball–
flat–
bark–
red–
blood–
old–
stick–
jump–
spiny–
nimble–
toad–
sieve–
shield–
scorpion–
veil–
water–
cart–
flower–
bark–
grass–
Total 21
Total 11
Total 1
The compound names of bug families discussed above, with the second constituent –blakės, form a group of compounds sharing the same head constituent. It is noteworthy that larger groups of such compounds have also been created in entomological terminology. The academic work Lietuvos fauna (1996), devoted to describing beetles, presents as many as 77 compound family names whose second constituent is –vabalai (: vabalas) (Gaivenis (1998) 2014: 246). St. Keinys, who studied the formation of Lithuanian compound terms, also discussed groups of this type in other fields (for more details, see Keinys (1983) 2005: 129–182).
Two other compounds used to name families and indicating the insects’ mode of swimming differ from the group of terms discussed above, because their second constituent is verbal, while the first is based on the noun water:
water-measurers (: water, measure) (Lat. Hydrometridae, Eng. Water-Measurers; Marsh-Treaders) 37, 2 species described;
water-cutters (: water, cut through, cut through) – false water-cutters (Lat. Mesoveliidae, Eng. Watter Treaders; Pondweed Bugs; Ripple Bugs), pava–
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1 species was named, and true water striders (Latin Veliidae, English Watter Striders; Broad-Shouldered Watter Striders; Ripple Bugs 34, 4 species described. Among the latter neologisms, one may also mention Vadove, already given, namely nùgarplaukos (: back, to swim) (Latin Notonectidae, English Back Swimmers; Backswimmers; Greater Water Boatmen 45, 4 species described; cf. nugarplaukos V 86 (see Table 2). This family name served as the basis for coining the only suffixal family name in the Heteroptera suborder: nùgarplaukelės (: nugarplauka + -ėlė) (Latin Pleidae, English Pigmy Backswimmer) 46; 1 species named.
Table 2. Compounds with a verbal second component
I. nominal component
II. verbal component
water-
-striders
water-
-bugs
back-
-swimmers
Names of infraorder branches and superfamilies of true bugs
The publication under discussion distinguishes seven branches of the true bug infraorder, and the sixth infraorder branch, shield bugs, is further divided into five superfamilies. As the authors note, they decided to consistently follow the traditions already established in the terminology of the beetle order and to use one-word taxa of superfamily rank in Lithuanian only with the suffix -inis. To avoid taxonomic ambiguity, use of this suffix was abandoned in family names (Stonis, Remeikis, Baužys 2013: 10). Superfamily names are given in the plural, and family names serve as their base words: bark bugs (: bark bugs) (Latin Aradoidea) 49; squash bugs (: squash bugs) (Latin Coreoidea) 50; ground bugs (: ground bugs) (Latin Lygeoidea) 56; grey bugs (: grey bugs) (Latin Piesmatoidea) 64; shield bugs (: shield bugs) (Latin Pentatomoidea) 64.
The names of the infraorder branches are formed according to the same pattern as the superfamily names: ancient bugs (: ancient bugs) (Latin Enicocephalomorpha) 30; minute pirate bugs (: minute pirate bugs) (Latin Dipsocoromorpha) 31; water striders (: water striders) (Latin Gerromorpha) 34; water scorpions (: water scorpions) (Latin Nepomorpha) 39; shore bugs (: shore bugs) (Latin Leptopodomorpha) 47; shield bugs (: shield bugs) (Latin Pentatomorpha) 49; bed bugs (: bed bugs) (Latin Cimicomorpha) 81.
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LITHUANIAN NAMES OF TRUE BUG SPECIES
Several species are distinguished in most families; only the plant bugs include 158 named species, the true ground bugs 64, the true shield bugs 35, and the water boatmen 27 species. All Lithuanian names of true bug infraorder species are two-word compound terms, consisting of a principal element—that is, the singular form of the base of the family’s one- or two-word name—and a secondary, or species-specific, element.
Syntactic aspect
According to the types of syntactic relations, word combinations are classified as coordinate, subordinate, and conjunctive, while according to how subordination is expressed, there are three types of subordination: agreement, government, and adjunction (DLKG 2006: 480–484). As K. Gaivenis notes, compound terms are divided into three groups according to the syntactic relations between the principal and secondary elements: 1) those with an agreeing modifier; 2) those with a governed modifier; and 3) those with an adjoined modifier (Gaivenis (1975) 2014: 65). The secondary elements in all the true bug species names examined are agreeing modifiers, with the exception of three species names, which have governed modifiers: Linnaeus’s water boatman (Latin Hesperocorixa linnaei) 43; Thomson’s ground bug (Latin Scolopostethus thomsoni) 62; Wagner’s plant bug (Latin Capsus wagneri) 83. The secondary elements of these species names are expressed by the genitive of the name of the researcher who described the species denoted by the modifying element of the compound term. These secondary elements were chosen in accordance with the Latin term.
Most secondary elements functioning as agreeing modifiers are expressed by various adjectives, which can be divided into four groups:
1) a relational adjective with the suffix -inis, e.g.: European minute pirate bug (Latin Cryptostemma (Pachycoleus) waltli) 32; cross water boatman (Latin Sigara (Microsigara) hellensii) 44; Atlantic sea bug (Latin Aepophilus bonnairei, English Marine Bug) 47 (see Fig. 2); sand shore bug (Latin Saldula orthochila) 48; birch bark bug (Latin Aradus betulae) 49; woodland ground bug (Latin Drymus (Sylvadrymus) sylvaticus) 58; southern shield bug (Latin Carpocoris (Carpocoris) pudicus) 68; pasture plant bug (Latin Chlamydatus (Euattus) pulicarius) 84;
2) a compound adjective, e.g.: pale-spotted water skater (Latin Microvelia (Microvelia) reticulata) 34; black-headed velvet water bug (Latin Hebrus (Hebrus) pusillus) 38; dark-winged water boatman (Latin Callicorixa praeusta) 42; red-edged squash bug (Latin Boisea trivittata, English Box Elder Bug; Maple Bug) 53 (see Fig. 3); brown-legged ground bug (Latin Acompus rufipes, English Ground Bug) 57; two-spotted shield bug (Latin Aelia rostrata, English Wheat
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Stink Bug) 66; pale-striped grass bug (Latin Acetropis gimmerthalii) 81; bright-winged flower bug (Latin Anthocoris limbatus) 98;
3) a simple qualitative pronominal adjective, e.g.: grey water strider (Latin Aquarius najas, English Water Strider) 35; agile water boatman (Latin Hesperocorixa moesta) 43; pale backswimmer (Latin Notonecta (Notonecta) lutea, English Yellow Greater Water-Boatman) 45; dusky square bug (Latin Spathocera laticornis) 53; black ground bug (Latin Geocoris (Geocoris) ater) 58; flat shield bug (Latin Sciocoris (Aposciocoris) microphthalmus) 74; common tortoise bug (Latin Odontoscelis (Odontoscelis) fuliginosa) 79; whitish grass bug (Latin Amblytylus albidus) 82;
4) a derived pronominal or non-pronominal adjective, e.g.: bearded ground bug (Latin Scolopostethus puberulus) 61; spotted lace bug (Latin Piesma maculatum) 64; armored shield bug (Latin Podops (Podops) inuncta, English Turtle Bug) 73; colorless grass bug (Latin Lopus decolor, English Plant Bug or Grass Bug) 88; hop grass bug (Latin Monosynamma bohemanni) 90; granular grass bug (Latin Pantilus (Pantilus) tunicatus) 91; striped damsel bug (Latin Nabis (Limnonabis) lineatus, English Reed Damsel Bug) 102; hairy bed bug (Latin Cimex pilosellus) 104.
Most secondary constituents of bug species names are expressed by adjectives with the suffix -inis—33.7 percent of all species names; the other groups are less numerous (see Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Percentage distribution of secondary constituents in bug species names
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Four more species names belong among those with an agreeing attribute, whose secondary constituent is expressed by a pronominal past passive or present active participle: variegated shield bug (Latin Holcostethus strictus vernalis) 71; marked grass bug (Latin Blepharidopterus angulatus, English Black Knead Capsid) 83; shining ground bug (Latin Megalonotus antennatus, English Ground Bug) 59; wandering grass bug (Latin Notostira erratica) 90.
A species name already used in the Guide deserves separate mention: soldier bug (Latin Pyrrhocoris apterus, English Fire Bug) 62, in which the non-agreeing attribute is a noun used figuratively (see Fig. 4).
Fig. 2. Atlantic sea bug
(Drawing by L. Jasiukonytė and J. R. Stonis)
Fig. 3. red-edged square bug
(Drawing by L. Jasiukonytė and J. R. Stonis)
Fig. 4. Soldier bug (Photo by D. Baužys)
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Semantic aspect
According to K. Gaivenis, multiword terms are divisible not only from a grammatical (syntactic) perspective, but also with respect to the meaning they express. Their modifiers can characterize the head in various ways (Gaivenis (1975) 2014: 70). Species names of true bugs can be divided into several groups according to the semantic functions of their secondary constituents (see Fig. 8). The secondary constituents of true bug species names indicate the species’:
1. An external feature. This is the largest semantic group of secondary constituents, accounting for about 57 percent of all true bug species names; four semantic subgroups can therefore be distinguished:
a) the secondary constituent of a true bug species name indicates pattern characteristics of the whole body or a body part: cross-banded water boatman (Latin Micronecta (Micronecta) poweri, English Water Singer) 43; banded water boatman (Latin Cymatia coleoptrata, English Water Boatman) 43; two-spotted shore bug (Latin Saldula saltatoria, English Common Shore Bug) 48; striped-bellied rhopalid bug (Latin Rhopalus (Rhopalus) subrufus) 55; black-spotted ground bug (Latin Eremocoris abietis) 58; dotted ground bug (Latin Ortholomus punctipennis) 60; two-coloured shield bug (Latin Piezodorus lituratus, English Gorse Shield Bug) 73; three-striped juniper shield bug (Latin Cyphostethus tristriatus, English Juniper Shield Bug) 75; brown-spotted grass bug (Latin Alloeotomus gothicus) 82; eight-striped grass bug (Latin Pilophorus clavatus) 92; striped-antennal grass bug (Latin Trigonotylus caelestialium) 95; spotted damsel bug (Latin Nabis (Nabis) punctatus) 103;
b) the modifying constituent indicates the colour of the body or its parts, e.g.: red-headed velvet bug (Latin Hebrus (Hebrusella) ruficeps) 31; pink water strider (Latin Limnoporus rufoscutellatus) 37; grey water scorpion (Latin Nepa cinerea, English Water Scorpion) 39; dark-brown water boatman (Latin Hesperocorixa sahlbergi) 43; green backswimmer (Latin Notonecta (Notonecta) viridis, English Green Water Boatman) 45; black bark bug (Latin Aneurus (Aneurodes) avenius, English Flat Bark Bug) 49; brown rhopalid bug (Latin Sticto-pleurus crassicoris) 55; brown-backed stilt bug (Latin Berytinus (Berytinus) clavipes) 56; pale-headed ground bug (Latin Cymus claviculus, English Seed Bug) 57; red-brown ground bug (Latin Eremocoris plebejus) 58; blue shield bug (Latin Zicrona caerulea, English Blue Stink Bug) 74 (see Fig. 5); yellow-brown burrowing bug (Latin Cydnus aterrimus) 77; dark predatory bug (Latin Reduvius personatus, English Masked Hunter) 101;
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c) the secondary constituent expresses the size or shape of the body or one of its parts, e.g.: short-winged agile bug (Latin Ceratocombus (Xylonannus) brevipennis) 31; small agile bug (Latin Cryptostemma (Pachycoleus) pusilimum) 32; large water measurer (Latin Hydrometra stagnorum, English Greater Water Measurer) 37; long water scorpion (Latin Ranatra linearis, English Water Stick Insect) 39; giant water bug (Latin Lethocerus grandis, English Giant Water Bug; Colossus Water Bug) 40; long-legged water boatman (Latin Sigara (Subsigara) longipalis) 44; slender shore bug (Latin Chartoscirta elegantula) 47; leaf-footed rhopalid bug (Latin Diactor bilineatus, English Amazonian Leaf-footed Bug) 51; large-headed ground bug (Latin Geocoris (Geocoris) megacephalus) 58; narrow ground bug (Latin Ischnocoris angustulus) 58; arched-backed shield bug (Latin Sciocoris (Sciocoris) cursitans) 74; round lace bug (Latin Acalypta nigrina) 96;
d) the modifying constituent indicates surface characteristics of the whole body or its parts, e.g.: hairy pondweed bug (Latin Mesovelia furcata, English Pondweed Bug) 34; bristly rhopalid bug (Latin Coriomeris denticulatus) 51; wrinkled ground bug (Latin Pachybrachius fracticollis) 60; hairy grass bug (Latin Amblytylus nasutus) 82; rough grass bug (Latin Phytocoris (Phytocoris) hirsutulus) 92; smooth flower bug (Latin Orius (Heterorius) laticollis) 99.
Most secondary constituents in true bug species names belong to the first two subgroups; the other two subgroups are considerably smaller. It should also be noted that in all true bug species names whose head constituent describes the pattern, colour, size, or shape of a particular body part, the secondary constituents are expressed by compound adjectives.
2. Food source, e.g.: spruce bark bug (Latin Aradus obtectus, English Flat Bark Bug) 50; rice bug (Latin Leptocorisa oratorius) 51; alfalfa rhopalid bug (Latin Bathysolen nubilus, English Squashbug) 51; nettle ground bug (Latin Heterogaster urticae, English Nettle Ground Bug) 58; juniper shield bug (Latin Chlorochroa (Rhytidolomia) juniperina) 68; forget-me-not burrowing bug (Latin Sehirus luctuosus, English Shield Bug) 77; potato grass bug (Latin Closterotomus norwegicus, English Potato Capsid; Potato Bug) 84; bat bed bug (Latin Cimex pipistrelli) 104; swallow bed bug (Latin Oeciacus hirundinis, English Swallow Bug) 104. Most species-specific constituents of this type are expressed by adjectives with the suffix –inis, whose derivational bases are the names of plants or animals on which the bugs feed.
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Two species names of bugs were found whose secondary constituent is a compound adjective: flower-loving plant bug (Latin Phytocoris (Ktenocoris) insignis) 92; varied-diet plant bug (Latin Phytocoris (Ktenocoris) ulmi) 92. This semantic group accounts for 17 percent of all bug species names.
3. Habitat, e.g.: pond skater (Latin Gerris (Gerris) lacustris, English Common Pondskater) 36; bottom-dwelling water boatman (Latin Sigara (Subsigara) fossarum) 44; ant-hill alydid bug (Latin Alydus calcaratus, English Ant Bug) 50 (see Fig. 6); shade-dwelling ground bug (Latin Cymus glandicolor, English Seed Bug) 57; meadow shield bug (Latin Rubiconia intermedia) 74; steppe plant bug (Latin Leptopterna ferrugata) 87; fruit-tree flower bug (Latin Anthocoris nemorum) 98; field damsel bug (Latin Nabis (Nabis) ferus, English Field Damsel Bug) 102. The secondary constituents of bug species names expressing this meaning are formed with adjectives containing the suffix -inis. This group is half the size of the one discussed above.
4. An evaluative characteristic of the subject, e.g.: diminutive swift bug (Latin Ceratocombus (Xylonannus) corticalis) 31; common pond skater (Latin Gerris (Gerriselloides) lateralis) 36; graceful water measurer (Latin Hydrometra gracilenta, English Lesser Water Measurer) 37; common water bug (Latin Ilyocoris cimicoides, English Saucer Bug; Common Water Creeper) 41; common bark bug (Latin Aradus corticalis, English Flat Bark Bug) 49; true stilt bug (Latin Neides tipularius) 57; mysterious ground bug (Latin Peritrechus convivus) 60; sad ground bug (Latin Stygnocoris fuligineus) 62; wonderful plant bug (Latin Miris striatus) 89. Species names in this semantic group account for about 6.5 percent of all species names.
5. Place of origin or distribution, e.g.: Alpine water strider (Latin Velia (Plesiovelia) currens) 35; American water bug (Latin Lethocerus americanus, English American Giant Water Bug) 40; European water boatman (Latin Arctocorisa germari) 42; southern ground bug (Latin Eremocoris podagricus) 58; Australian jewel bug (Latin Calliphara imperialis, English Jewel Bug) 78; German plant bug (Latin Alloeotomus germanicus) 82; Mexican assassin bug (Latin Paratriatoma hirsute, English Mexican Bed Bug) 100; tropical bed bug (Latin Cimex hemipterus, English Tropical Bedbug) 103. Place of origin or distribution, like habitat, is expressed by adjectives formed with the suffix -inis; it accounts for only 5 percent of all bug species names.
6. Characteristic behavioral feature, e.g.: predatory pond skater (Latin Gerris (Gerriselloides) asper 36; fierce water bug (Latin Lethocerus
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(Lethocerus) patruelis, English European Giant Water Bug) 40; agile ground bug (Latin Dicranocephalus agilis) 56 (see Fig. 7); pine-climbing plant bug (Latin Camptozugum aequale) 83; tree-climbing plant bug (Latin Neoly gus viridis) 90. Species names whose qualifying constituents indicate characteristic behavioral features make up only about 3 percent of all species names, making this the smallest semantic group.
Fig. 5. Blue shield bug
(Photograph by D. Baužys)
Fig. 6. Ant-hill alydid bug
(Drawing by L. Jasiukonytė and J. R. Stonis)
Fig. 7. Agile ground bug
(Drawing by L. Jasiukonytė and J. R. Stonis)
Fig. 8. Percentage distribution of bug species names according to the semantic functions of their secondary constituents
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CONCLUSIONS
1. The family names of the true bug suborder of the order Hemiptera are one-word and two-word names and, as is customary in entomology, are given in the plural. Two-word names make up one third of all family names in this suborder.
2. Most of the main components of one-word and two-word family names are compounds; only one neologism (nugarplaukėlės) and the main component of a previously used two-word family name (čiuožikas) are suffixal derivatives. Thus, compounding is the predominant method of forming family names in the true bug suborder. The compound family names of the true bug suborder are determinative compounds.
3. About 92 percent of compound bug family names form a group of compounds sharing the same second component, –blakės, whose first components define the second according to distinguishing family characteristics. The first components of two thirds of these compounds are nouns that indicate features of the body or its parts, resemblance to something, or habitat or feeding location.
4. The names of superfamilies and suborder branches are consistently formed from family names with the suffix –iniai.
5. Almost all secondary components of bug species names are attributive modifiers and are expressed by various adjectives. More than one third are formed with adjectives bearing the suffix –inis; slightly less than one third of the secondary components are compound adjectives, and slightly more than one fifth are definite simple adjectives.
6. In terms of their semantic function, the secondary components of bug species names are not all of one type. The largest group, accounting for about 57 percent of all species names, indicates external characteristics; the second-largest group, which indicates the food source, accounts for about 17 percent; and the fewest species are described by characteristic behavioral traits—only about 3 percent of all bug species.
7. The use of compound nouns in naming families and the use of compound adjectives to designate secondary components of species names are characteristic features of naming in the true bug suborder, probably arising from the need to name and distinguish one taxon from another as precisely as possible.
LITERATURE AND SOURCES
Diškus A., Stonis J. R. 2012a: Lietuvos endobiontiniai vabzdžiai. Nepticulidae faunos taksonominė, chorologinė ir trofinė charakteristika. Monografija, Kaunas: Lututė.
Diškus A., Stonis J. R. 2012b: Pažinkime egzotinę pasaulio fauną. Gyvalazdės, Kaunas: Lututė.
DLKG 2006: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas.
Gaivenis K. (1998) 2014: Apie dvi lietuviškų sudurtinių terminų serijas su tais pačiais sandais. – Rinktiniai raštai, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 243–248.
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Gaivenis K. (1975) 2014: Dvižodžiai sudėtiniai terminai dabartinėje lietuvių kalboje. – Rinktiniai raštai, Vilnius: Lietuvos kalbos institutas, 60–97.
Gaivenis K. (1979) 2014: Nauji lietuviški vabzdžių pavadinimai. – Rinktiniai raštai, Vilnius: Lietuvos kalbos institutas, 332–348.
ICZN – International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Fourth Edition. – http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted-sites/iczn/code/.
Jonaitis V. 1983: Lietuvos ichneumonidai, Vilnius: Mokslas.
Keinys St. (1983) 2005: Lietuviškų sudurtinių terminų daryba. – Dabartinė lietuvių terminologija, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla, 129–182.
Lešinskas A., Pileckis S. 1967: Vadovas Lietuvos vabzdžiams pažinti, Vilnius: Mintis.
Lešinskas A., Pileckis S. 1968: Vadovas augalų kenkėjams pažinti iš pažeidimų, Vilnius: Mintis.
LF1 1995: Lithuanian Fauna: Beetles 1, Vilnius: Science and Encyclopaedia Publishing House.
Pileckis S., Žuklys L. 1974: Augalų apsaugos darbuotojo žinynas, Vilnius: Mintis.
Pileckis S. 1976: Lietuvos vabalai, Vilnius: Mokslas.
Pileckis S. 1982: Globokime naudingus vabzdžius, Vilnius: Mokslas.
Pileckis S., Repšienė D., Vengeliauskaitė A., Žuklienė R., Žuklys L. 1994: Lauko augalų kenkėjai ir ligos, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla.
Stonis J. R., Dapkus D., Auksoriūtė A., Vilkas A. 2009: Žirgelių (Insecta, Odonata) taksonominis lietuviškų vardų sąrašas. – New and Rare for Lithuania Insect Species. Records and Descriptions 21, 155–165.
Stonis J. R., Diškus A. 2011: Pažinkime egzotinę pasaulio fauną. Maldininkai, tarakonai, termitai, akmenropės, gladiatoriai, tinkluočiai ir trunėsinukai, Kaunas: Lututė.
Stonis J. R., Remeikis A., Auksoriūtė A., Baužys D., Vilkas A. 2010: Sunorminti ir nauji Lietuvoje aptinkamų straubliuotųjų būrio, blakių pobūrio (Insecta: Hemiptera: Heteroptera) vabzdžių vardai. – Acta zoologica Lituanica 20(3), 262–272.
Stonis J. R., Remeikis A., Baužys D. 2013: Pažinkime pasaulio vabzdžius. Blakės. Įvairovė ir pavadinimai, Vilnius: Edukologija.
Stonis J. R., Sruoga V., Diškus A., Remeikis A., Auksoriūtė A., Žvironienė J. 2015: Vabzdžių grupių apžvalga ir siūlymai dėl terminijos vartosenos. 1 dalis. Archaeognatha – Hemiptera, Heteroptera. Metodinė priemonė / Lietuvos edukologijos universitetas, Baltijos–Amerikos biotaksonomijos institutas, Vilnius: Lietuvos edukologijos universiteto leidykla.
LITHUANIAN NAMES OF THE SUBORDER OF HETEROPTERA
In 2013 a text book for students under the title of Blakės. Įvairovė ir pavadinimai (Heteroptera. Variety and Names) by Jonas Rimantas Stonis, Andrius Remeikis and Darius Baužys was published. It describes Heteroptera common in Lithuania and in other countries. The subject of this paper is the Lithuanian names of 45 families and 463 species of Heteroptera. The aim is to synchronically research the ways the names of the families and species in this suborder are formed, to describe syntactic and semantic relations between the main and subordinate elements of two-word names and to establish the most productive ways of name creation.
One-word or two-word names in the plural, as is usual in entomology, are used to name families in the order Hemiptera, suborder Heteroptera. One third of all family names in this suborder are two-word names. Most of the main elements of one-word or two-word names are compounds (irklāblakės, Lat. Corixidae, Eng. Water Boatmen; Lesser Water Boatmen; rupūžblakės, Lat. Gelastocoridae, Eng. Toad Bugs; žiedblakės, Lat. Anthocoridae, Eng. Flower Bugs; Minute Pirate Bugs; žōlblakės, Lat. Miridae, Eng. Plant Bugs; Leaf Bugs), only one neologism (nugarplaukėlės, Lat. Pleidae, Eng. Pigmy Backswimmer) and the main element of a family name that was already in use (čiuožikas, Lat. Gerridae, Eng. Pond-Skater) are suffixal derivatives.
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Compounding is the prevailing way in which the names of families in the Heteroptera suborder are formed. Such compounds are subordinative compounds.
About 92 percent of family names in the Heteroptera suborder belong to the group of names with the second component -blakės, which is specified by the first component according to a distinctive feature of the particular family. Two thirds of these compounds have a noun as their first component, describing body or body-part features, resemblance to something, or habitat or feeding location (pilkblakės, Lat. Piesmatidae, Eng. Beet Bugs; Ash-Gray Leaf Bugs; vėžliablakės, Lat. Scutelleridae, Eng. Shield-Backed Bugs; Shield-Back Bugs; Jewel Bugs; Tortoise Bugs; Scutellerids; urvāblakės, Lat. Cydnidae, Eng. Burrowing Bugs). Superfamily and suborder-branch names are consistently formed from family names using the suffix -inai (žiēviablakìniai (Aradoidea), dirvablakìniai (Lygeoidea), skorpionblakìniai (Nepomorpha), šokliablakìniai (Leptopodomorpha)).
Nearly all subordinate elements of names of Heteroptera species are attributes in concord and they are expressed in adjectives. More than a third of them are adjectives with the suffix -inis, less than a third are compound adjectives, more than one fifth are underived definite adjectives. Subordinate elements of names of Heteroptera species vary according to semantic function. The largest group of names comprising about 57 percent of all names of species specifies external features, the second largest group comprising about 17 percent specifies food and only 3 percent of Heteroptera species are named according to their characteristic behaviour.
Usage of compound nouns for naming families and compound adjectives for naming subordinate elements of species is a characteristic feature of word-formation of Heteroptera suborder names which is most likely determined by the need to name taxa in the most precise way and to distinguish one taxon from another.
Received 2016-11-09
Albina Auksoriūtė, Institute of the Lithuanian Language, 5 P. Vileišio St., LT-10308 Vilnius. Email: [email protected]
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