Tarptautinių terminų apeliatyvacijos aspektai

Aspects of the Appellativation of International Terms JURGITA MIKELIONIENĖ Kauno technologijos universitetas KEYWORDS: eponymous terms, appellativation of proper names, deonymized term, prefixal term formation, semantic analysis of terms In the first decades of the 21st century, interest grew in Lithuanian and international eponymous concept names in various fields (anatomy, architecture, botany, etc.); research into these names reflects diverse aspects of term creation, the relationship between terms and proper names, and imagery in terminology. Notable studies include Laimutė Kitkauskienė’s (2011) work on eponymous terms in architecture, art, and construction, and comparative studies of proper names and eponymous plant names in Lithuanian and Latvian by Latvian researchers Linda Piete (2007) and Linda Kurmina (2010). A glossary, Traumatologijos ir ortopedijos eponimai (Kasradze M., Kasradze D. 2015), has been published, as has a study of eponymous anatomical terms (Litevkienė 2010). In her monograph, Angelė Kaulakienė (2009) mentions terms in physics of eponymous origin. However, a more systematic examination of the general aspects of term appellativation—that is, the transformation of a proper noun into a common term—and of the structural and semantic types of eponymous terms is still lacking, particularly for introducing them to future translators and editors of specialized language, as well as other target groups interested in applied and theoretical aspects of scientific concepts. The aim of this article is to analyze international eponymous terms structurally and semantically, focusing not only on their linguistic but also on their extralinguistic origins. Eponymous terms are concept names formed from proper nouns, and the process by which a proper noun becomes a common noun is called appellativation1. Such proper nouns that become terms are called epony- 1 The terms eponymization, deonymization are also used in the literature, especially when the emphasis is on the active process. Terminologija | 2017 | 24 127 nyms. According to David Crystal, these are personal names that have become names of inventions or places (2003). In the Lithuanian Dictionary of Linguistics Terms (Gaivenis, Keinys 1990: 59), an eponym is understood only as a “place name of anthroponymic origin”; this definition is therefore clearly too narrow, failing to reflect the diversity of other source words and the objects or subjects being named. In the Dictionary of International Words (2013), an eponym (Eng. eponym) is defined as a “word that gives its own name to something.” Valentina Skujinė regards appellativation as “the conversion of a proper name into a common noun” and identifies it as one of the sources of term creation (1993: 264). This is the opposite of onymization. Thus, onomastic and terminological research share common features: when an onym, as an object of study comprising linguistic and extralinguistic (historical, geographical, biographical, etc.) elements, becomes an appellative or eponymous term, it brings its research methodology to the study of terms. Consequently, both its linguistic and its external, extralinguistic aspects are analyzed as aspects that are difficult to separate from one another and that complement and enrich one another, helping to explain the semantic motivation and the origin of a concept name. Appellativation enriches terminology chiefly with borrowed terms; it is an active and relevant way of creating names for new concepts. For example, in 2011 the periodic table was supplemented with copernicium. In January 2016, the discovery of four new chemical elements was announced. In accordance with the recommendation of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) that chemical elements be named after mythological figures, minerals, places, countries, or scientists (Reedijk 2016), the names nihonium (nihonium, Nh; “Nihon” is one of the Japanese names for Japan, literally meaning “land of the rising sun”), moscovium (moscovium, Mc, named after Moscow, the capital of Russia, where a number of important studies were conducted), tennessine (tennessine, Ts, in honor of the U.S. state of Tennessee), and oganesson (oganesson, Og, named in honor of Russian physicist Yuri Oganessian for his pioneering contributions to element research) were proposed in June and officially approved on November 28 (IUPAC 2016). In terminology, questions of term origin are always relevant, so it is important to determine when and how the appellativation of onyms takes place. According to Prof. Tatjana Khvesko (Хвесько 2008), this happens when the individuality of the object named by an onym is no longer evident: a) when the denotatum of a proper noun becomes sufficiently familiar to everyone in a particular linguistic 128 Jurgita Mikelionienė | Tarptautinių terminų apeliatyvacijos aspektai members of the community; b) when a name is not identified exclusively with one specific denotatum (for example, maratonas—no one remembers that the race was run from the village of Marathon, and now it is simply the longest running event, a sports term). When logical links with one concept are broken or greatly weakened, links are established with another. For this to happen, an onym must acquire additional intellectual information relating to a particular scientific or other field, a sufficient amount of which turns the onym into an appellative. At that point, a semantic transformation takes place—the most important process in appellativation. It has been observed that this process is becoming increasingly intensive in English, thus reflecting language users’ changed attitude towards proper names, their uniqueness, sacredness, and so on. Since this study focuses only on internationalisms, the appellativation of Lithuanian terms is not analyzed; instead, the appellativation of international terms is considered less as a process occurring in Lithuanian (it is understood that borrowed words are most often already deonymized) and more as a multifaceted result that has enriched terminology with a wealth of material. Eponymous terms are divided according to their degree of appellativation or deonymization into fully or partially deonymized forms (Skujiną 1993; Bankava 2011). Since compound terms regarded as examples of partial appellativation (Cezario pjūvis, Bertoleto druska) are very common in usage, whereas there are very few of them in TŽŽ (2013), this study is limited to one-word, fully deonymized terms. Nearly 900 names of eponymous concepts were selected from the Dictionary of International Words, although it is not a terminology dictionary, but is very useful for studying eponymous vocabulary; 45 of these names denote various domestic animals and birds. Such breed names are most often of toponymic origin (horses norfolkai [a breed developed in England, in the county of Norfolk], rabbits šampanai [a breed developed in India and improved in France, in the province of Champagne], dogs rotveileriai [named after the German city of Rottweil], sheep devonai [a breed developed in England, in the county of Devon], etc.). Given the scope of the study and the view that breed names occupy an intermediate position between onomastics and nomenclature (Klimavičius 2005: 230), eponymous names of this type are not analyzed further in this study. The study sample consists of 816 fully deonymized eponymous terms, which are reviewed below according to their formal and semantic features. Terminologija | 2017 | 24 129 STRUCTURAL TYPES OF ONE-WORD EPONYMOUS TERMS 1. The clearest examples of complete appellativation are terms that have only been grammatically adapted and phonetically assimilated to the Lithuanian language system—simple words—proper nouns. Sometimes only etymological and historical research can help identify the source of eponymous terms. Bearing in mind the characteristics of adapting loanwords (and most of the terms analyzed are precisely that) to Lithuanian, fully deonymized simple terms can be divided into two types according to their form, or more precisely, their ending: 1) when a proper name (for example, a person’s or city’s name) becomes a common noun denoting a concept without any significant phonetic, derivational, or syntactic transformations, it could be said that these are rare cases of zero affixation², especially if the onym ends in the vowel -a (tesla [named after the inventor N. Tesla’s surname], “the unit of magnetic induction in the International System of Units”); siena [named after the city of Siena], “a certain brown dye”; katiuša³ [from the diminutive form of the Russian girl’s name Katia], “a Soviet rocket launcher for artillery projectiles”); 2) if phonetic and morphological adaptation is not considered an independent method of term formation, this group also includes terms, most often derived from men’s surnames, with the Lithuanian endings -as, -is, -us: nikolis [named after the English physicist V. Nicol’s surname], “an optical device”; koloradas [named after the U.S. state of Colorado, where it first became widespread], “a leaf beetle.” This type of terminology includes many units of measurement (bekerelis [named after the French physicist A. Becquerel’s surname], “the unit of activity of a radioactive substance in the International System of Units”; celsijus [named after the Swedish physicist A. Celsius’s surname], “the temperature unit on the Celsius scale”; machas [named after the Austrian physicist E. Mach’s surname], “a non-SI unit of speed, used to express the flight speed of supersonic aircraft”); names of chemical elements (fermis [named after the Italian physicist E. Fermi’s surname]). Sometimes phonetic adaptation is more pronounced, for example, berklis [from the name of the city of Berkeley], “a radioactive artificial chemical element”; siluetas [named after 2 Here and elsewhere, only the basic form of words is meant, i.e., the singular nominative case. 3 In the Terminology Bank of the Republic of Lithuania, it is listed as a proper noun, a pragmatonym: “Katiuša.” 130 Jurgita Mikelionienė | Tarptautinių terminų apelatyvacijos aspektai the surname of Silhouette, a French minister in the 18th century, and a caricature of him] “a work of art in which figures and objects are depicted as shapes with sharply defined outer contours.” Feminine endings are added to international terms of eponymous origin in Lithuanian much less frequently, usually through grammaticalization and/or phonetic adaptation of names that are also feminine, for example, tradeskantė [named by Linnaeus in honor of the gardeners Tradescants], “a perennial herbaceous plant, Tradescantia.” Indeed, bearing in mind that, for example, the names of chemical elements in Latin take the suffix -ium and that it is retained or added in English, whereas it is absent from the Lithuanian equivalents (lorensis [named after the U.S. physicist E. Lawrence’s surname], “a radioactive artificial chemical element,” Latin and English Lawrencium), it is worth considering whether an ending added to an original surname—even if it differs from that found on a grammaticalized personal name or mythonym, for example, Lorensas and lorensis, Kurčiatovas and kurčiატovis, Neptūnas and neptūnis, Bakchas and bakchis—is a derivational or merely an inflectional element. In any case, in Lithuanian it serves a grammatical function, so such eponymous terms are classified as simple, non-derived forms. Thus, terms of this form, whether they have undergone no intervention or have been grammaticalized and adapted to the Lithuanian phonetic system, are regarded as simple eponymous terms, formed when a proper noun enters the class of terms without significant structural changes. This process cannot always be represented only as onym/eponym → appellative/term; in some languages it is sometimes a three-stage sequence: appellative → onym/eponym → appellative/term: [Latin victoria, English victory, Lithuanian pergalė] → female name English Victoria (Viktorija) → English victoria (viktorija)—bot. “a perennial aquatic plant.” 2. As the quantitative analysis shows, eponymous terms in Lithuanian are more often derived forms (about 61 percent of the entire dataset); suffixal derivatives predominate among them, while compounds and terms formed in other ways are much less common⁴. Some of these are difficult to segment morphologically in Lithuanian, and derivational analysis overlaps with etymological analysis. Appellatives 4 Admittedly, some studies also classify abbreviations as eponymous terms, particularly given their abundance in computing (Karavaeva 2011), but they were not analyzed in this study because they are not included in TŽŽ. Terminologija | 2017 | 24 131 the proper name not only acquires new semantic components, but is often also noticeably transformed derivationally, giving rise to eponymous derived terms. 2.1. Suffixation, despite being the most productive method of forming eponymous terms both in other languages (Karavae va, 2011) and in Lithuanian, is not characterized by a great variety or originality of derivational types: a few very common formants used in international words generally are employed to name concepts (for example, in English, according to Tatjana Karavae vos (2011), these are -ian, -ism, -ist, -ium, -ite); derivatives with less common suffixes are also found. The following main categories and types of eponymous-term formation have been identified: • abstract nouns (names of actions and properties). Names of chemical and physical processes, treatment methods, and branches of science are derived with the suffixes –(i)acija, –izacija, –ija, for example: darsonvalization [after the surname of the French physician D’Arsonvall] “treatment with alternating electric current or a high-frequency electromagnetic field”; pupinization [after the surname of the American physicist M. Pupin] “increasing the inductance of an electric circuit by connecting inductance coils to it in series at certain intervals.” The suffix –istika (Byzantinistics, Lithuanian studies) conveys the totality of research in one field or another. The suffix –iada (spartakiad) is used to name competitions and other large-scale events. Names of properties derived from proper nouns are most often formed with the suffix –izmas. As is also stated in Grammar of Contemporary Lithuanian (1994: 103), most such nouns designate philosophical, religious, artistic, and scientific movements, political trends, systems, and social and political orders. The terms identified are derived from anthroponyms—most often the surnames of prominent philosophers, theologians, and artists (Bergsonism [after the surname of the philosopher A. Bergson] “a philosophical movement that regards intuition as the most important means of acquiring knowledge”; Petrarchism “a poetic movement characterized by the imitation of the love lyrics of the Italian poet F. Petrarch”) and given names (Thomism “the religious-philosophical system of Thomas Aquinas and the Catholic philosophical movement that developed on its basis”); theonyms or mythonyms (Mithraism “a syncretic religious system based on the cult of the god Mithras”; Prometheanism “an ethical principle requiring that the well-being of all humanity or a social group be regarded as the goal of an individual’s activity”), and occasionally terms of pseudonymous origin (Trotskyism [after 132 Jurgita Mikelonienė | Tarptautinių terminų apeliatyvacijos aspektai Bronstein’s pseudonym Trotsky] ‘an ideological political concept’). There are several terms with the suffix -izmas derived from oikonyms, for example, mančesterizmas [after the name of the British city of Manchester] ‘an economic doctrine of a group of English politicians and economists in the first half of the 19th century’; solecizmas ([Latin soloecismus < from Greek soloikismos, after the name of Soli (Greek Soloi), an ancient Athenian colony whose inhabitants spoke impure Greek] ‘a syntactic error, usually a syntactic barbarism’). There are very many terms with abstract meanings, and their derivational bases may be of either anthroponymic or toponymic origin; • Names of bearers of qualities may be formed from proper names of both living beings and inanimate objects. These are eponymous terms formed with the suffixes -itas (sperilitas [after the surname of Francis L. Sperry, a 19th-century Canadian chemist] ‘a silvery-white mineral and source of platinum’), -ija (ešerichija [after the surname of the German physician T. Escherich] ‘a rod-shaped bacterium’). Mathematical terminology includes terms with -ianas (hesianas [after the surname of the German mathematician O. Hesse] ‘a mathematical quadratic form of a function constructed in a particular way’), jakobianas [after the surname of the German mathematician C. G. J. Jacobi] ‘a determinant formed from the partial derivatives of a function of several variables’, vronskianas [after the surname of the Polish mathematician J. Wroński] ‘a determinant formed from the solutions of a linear homogeneous equation and their derivatives’, and so on); names of diseases with the suffix -iozė (boreliozė [after the surname of its discoverer, Amédée Borrel] ‘a tick-borne disease’); a few derivatives with the suffixes -ika (orfika [from the name of Orpheus, a figure in ancient Greek mythology] ‘a keyboard musical instrument, a miniature piano, especially popular in the first half of the 19th century’), -ikas (anakreontikas ‘a work in a cheerful love mood or with motifs of carefree, joyful domestic life, written in the style of the Greek poet Anacreon’), -ina (granadinà [after the city of Granada] ‘a Spanish folk dance; a variety of fandango’), -inas (andezinas [after the name of the Andes Mountains] ‘a plagioclase mineral’), -usė (pijusė [after the Latin name of Pope Pius] ‘a small, round cap sewn from four pieces and worn by senior Catholic clergy’), -idai (aleksandridai ‘medieval fantastic tales based on motifs from the campaigns of Alexander the Great’) and Terminologija | 2017 | 24 133 so on. Numerous international theological and philosophical terms with the formants -itai, -inai, -istai denote persons (joanitai [the name derives from the Hospital of St John (Latin Joannes) in Jerusalem] ‘a religious lay Catholic order’, bernardinai ‘a branch of the Cistercian monastic order; its statutes were drawn up by Bernard of Clairvaux (French Bernard de Clairvaux)’; eberistai [after the surname of one of its leaders, J. Hébert] ‘left-wing Jacobins who defended the interests of the urban poor’). Singular forms are less common among terms denoting persons (sokratikas ‘a follower of the Greek philosopher Socrates’; mahometonas [after the name of Muhammad, the founder and prophet of Islam] ‘a follower of the Islamic faith’). Analysis of eponymous terms also revealed derivational features characteristic of other types of terms; among them are derived forms with two suffixes, for example, salmonelė [after the surname of the US pathologist D. Salmon] → salmoneliozė ‘an acute infectious disease that most often affects the stomach and intestines’; some eponyms have also become the basis of larger derivational families: daltonas, named after the English scientist John Dalton daltonas (‘a non-systematic unit of mass used in nuclear physics’), has also given rise to several derivatives: daltonizmas (‘congenital inability to distinguish certain colours’), daltonikas (‘a person with daltonism’), daltonidai (‘chemical compounds of constant composition’). With regard to suffixal formation of eponymous terms, a clear analogy should also be noted: alongside the better-known derivatives olimpiada, spartakiada are analogous names of other sporting events, formed with the same suffix -iada and having the same derivational meaning: alpiniada (‘a mountain-sports event or gathering whose participants climb mountains along designated routes; held since 1933’), makabiada (‘the worldwide Jewish games of the Maccabi sports association, held in Tel Aviv according to the Olympic programme’), ik其中ariada (‘the World Air Games, the first of which was held in France in 1991’). Analogy is linked to conspicuous regularity in some fields and to established naming traditions; for example, the suffix -itas is most often used to name minerals: prustitas [after the surname of the French chemist J. L. Proust], otenitas [after the name of the French town of Autun], silimanitas [after the surname of the US mineralogist B. Silliman] and so on. Plant names, although derived from masculine surnames, take the feminine formant -ija (magnolija [after the surname of the French botanist P. Magnol], gledicija [after the surname of the German bota- 134 Jurgita Mikelionienė | Tarptautinių terminų apeliatyvacijos aspektai the surname of Niko Gledič (Gleditsch)], paulinia [after the surname of the 17th-century Danish botanist S. Pauli (Paulli)], vallisneria [after the surname of the Italian naturalist A. Vallisnieri etc.), less often -ėja, for example, cobaea [after the surname of the Spanish botanist B. Cobo] “a climbing ornamental plant”. Alongside the previously mentioned word-formation types found in almost every field, there are also quite specific eponymic terms with rarer suffixes, sometimes discernible only morphologically or diachronically. These are most often terms of Slavic origin, for example: Cyrillic “one of the two (the other being Glagolitic) early Slavic alphabets; named in honor of Cyril, the enlightener of the Slavs”; liavonicha [Belarusian Leon's wife] “folk dance”; kujaviakas [Polish Kujavia (Kujawy), a historical region of Poland] “Polish folk dance”. Among the examples analyzed, there are also hybrids of various meanings with Lithuanian suffixes: -ybė (mahometonybė), -ininkai (garibaldininkai “participants in the Italian resistance movement against fascism, who called themselves followers of the national hero G. Garibaldi”), -ėlė (kanarėlė “zool. a songbird of the finch family, native to the Canary Islands”) and others. Most such terms designate people who, by virtue of belonging to an organization, movement, association, school, or the like, take the suffix -iečiai (elžbietiečiai “English playwrights of the late 16th and early 17th centuries (the last two decades of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I and the reign of King James I), whose work (especially that of W. Shakespeare) constitutes one of the most important achievements of Renaissance literature”; miletiečiai “the first Greek philosophical school, active in the 6th century BCE in the city of Miletus”). Only one hybrid derived from the stem of a Lithuanian personal name was found in the Dictionary of International Words: domeikitas [after the surname of the geologist I. Domeika] “a white, gray, brittle, rare mineral, copper arsenide”. 2.2. Compared with suffixed and simple terms, the other structural types of one-word eponymic terms—compounds, blends, and abbreviations—are less common. In compound eponymic terms, the first element is usually deonymized, while the second is of classical origin, for example, -meter, -phone, which can also function as an independent word: hercmetras, newtonmeter, ohmmeter; saxophone, gramophone, naming devices and instruments. There are also isolated cases in which both elements derive from independent words, but the second does not recur in other eponymic compounds, for example, newton-second “unit of impulse,” Portland cement [after the name of the Isle of Portland in Great Britain + cement] “the most widespread hydraulic binding material—a finely ground mixture of clinker, gypsum, and active mineral additives.” Terminologija | 2017 | 24 135 Among compound eponymic terms, some also contain non-independent international second elements: names of disciplines with -logy (atlantology, Egyptology, venerology), rarer compounds with the elements -typy (daguerreotype [after the surname of the Frenchman Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre, one of the inventors of photography] “the first photographic process”), -saur (atlantosaur “a fossil reptile about 40 m long that lived in the Mesozoic era”) and others. Sometimes an onym in a compound word appears as the base of a derived second element, for example, social Darwinism “a sociological school that mechanically applies the biological laws identified by the English naturalist C. Darwin to explain social phenomena.” Serial formations include compounds of this type with the prefixoid neo- (Neo-Kantianism “a philosophical school that developed I. Kant’s ideas; it arose in Germany in the second half of the 19th century,” neo-Hegelianism “a philosophical school of the late 19th and early 20th centuries that developed and criticized G. W. F. Hegel’s philosophical ideas,” Neoplatonism, etc.). There are even fewer blended terms (portmanteaus) and abbreviations: boson [after the surname of the Indian physicist S. Bose + (electr)on] “an elementary or composite particle whose spin is zero or an integer”; Orimulsion ([after the name of Venezuela’s Orinoco region, where it is produced + emulsion] “an emulsion of heavy oil and water”); do (“a sound also called C” [from the first syllable of the surname of the Italian musician G. B. Doni]). Because of the polysemy of derivational formants, eponyms can be misleading, formed without regard for the requirements of precision, clarity, and unambiguity imposed on terms. For example, the suffix -ite is found not only in mineral names but also in disease names; compare the mineral biotite [after the surname of the French physicist and astronomer Jean-Baptiste Biot] “a mineral of the mica group in the silicate class” and maxillary sinusitis “inflammation of the maxillary sinus” [named after the English anatomist N. Highmore, who described this sinus]; the suffix -ia is used in terms with even more diverse semantics, for example, names of plants (Araucaria [after the name of the Chilean province of Arauco] “a tall evergreen conifer”), bacteria (Borrelia [after the surname of its discoverer, Amedee Borrel] “a bacterium transmitted by ticks”), and fossil reptiles (Seymouria [after the name of the US city of Seymour, where it was found], among others). Such diversity and overlap of formants do not help a non-specialist identify the denotatum immediately. However, since these terms are used in different 136 Jurgita Mikelionienė | Tarptautinių terminų apeliatyvacijos aspektai fields, their use may cause some confusion only when they appear in popular science articles or internet news headlines. To sum up the structural typology of eponymic terms, it can be said that, since most of them are international, their structural types are nearly identical in many languages, with suffixed derivatives and a large number of simple eponymic terms predominating. Lithuanian eponymic terminology stands out more markedly only in terms of adaptation and, of course, the originality of the formants in hybrid formations. SEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF EPONYMIC TERMS In the course of the study, the Dictionary of International Words provided 816 fully deonymized, eponymic, single-word terms from various fields. Their semantic classification is based primarily on the relation between the concept named and a particular field of science or activity. On this basis, the terms are divided into 15 terminological groups of varying scope: philosophy, religion, political science, etc. (20.6%), chemistry (18%), physics, mathematics and astronomy (8%), botany (7.6%), medicine, veterinary medicine and zoology (7.5%), philology (6.3%), technology (5.9%), clothing and textiles (5%), music and choreography (4.2%), cookery (3.9%), geology and paleontology (3.7%), architecture, fine arts and photography (3.5%), economics and numismatics (3.3%), geography (1.3%), and sports (1.2%). Focusing on the cognitive aspect of appellativation, that is, the feature of a proper noun becoming a common noun, as already noted, it was established that the principal mechanism of this process is metonymization, whereby a salient logical connection is discerned between space, time, place, cause and effect, or part and whole. In the appellativation of terms, however, the most common relations are (a) anthroponym – object (plant, mineral, chemical element, unit of measurement, etc.); (b) toponym – object. On this basis, and drawing on the conventional onomastic classification of proper nouns (for a clear, systematic overview, see Mickienė, Bčiūnaitė-Lūžienė 2013), all eponymic terms can be divided into those derived from the names of living beings and those derived from the names of inanimate objects; these, in turn, can be subdivided into more specific types and subtypes. 1. Basic names of real and fictional living beings include, first and foremost, anthroponyms (given names, surnames, pseudonyms, character names), mythonyms and theonyms. The names of living beings form the basis for more than 60% of the concepts. Terminologija | 2017 | 24 137 1.1. It is beyond doubt that almost all terms of anthroponymic origin of this type arose for pronounced egocentric and extralinguistic reasons (Burkova 2010): • to honor the inventors, discoverers and designers themselves (kocher, medicine, “a toothed instrument for clamping a blood vessel,” named after its creator, the Swiss surgeon E. Kocher; handheld firearms deringer, berdan, browning, colt, nagant, mauser, winchester are named after the designers who created them); terms were coined in memory of great botanists, naturalists and other scholars in various fields: gerbera, “a perennial herb, an ornamental plant,” in honor of the German physician and naturalist Gerber; elzevir, “a printer’s typeface; a small-format book,” after the surname of the Dutch printer-publishers Elzevir (Elsevier), active in the 16th–17th centuries; macadam, “a road surface made of several layers of crushed, mechanically compacted stone,” after the surname of the Scottish inventor McAdam; diesel, “an internal combustion engine,” after the surname of the German inventor R. Diesel; and others; • as a sign of respect for authority, the names and surnames of emperors, tsars, kings and queens become terms (alexandrite, “a mineral, a variety of chrysoberyl; a first-class gemstone,” named after the Russian tsar Alexander II; victoria, “a perennial aquatic plant,” named after Queen Victoria of Great Britain; Bonapartism, “a form of counterrevolutionary dictatorship that emerged in France in the early 19th century under Emperor Napoleon I Bonaparte”); • military commanders, dictators and generals are also commemorated (bekes, “a coat fitted at the waist and lined with fur or cotton wadding; worn from the 16th century by the nobility of Lithuania and Poland,” named after K. Bekeš (Polish Bekiesz), a military commander of the Polish–Lithuanian state; galliffet, “trousers that are narrow below the knee and widen above it,” after the surname of the French general G. A. de Galliffet; Pershing, “a medium-range nuclear ballistic missile,” after the surname of the American general Pershing; • paying tribute to famous writers (goethite, “a mineral, an iron hydroxide; a needle-like iron ore,” after the German poet J. W. Goethe; Byronism), encyclopedists (rudbeckia, “a tall herbaceous plant,” named by Linnaeus in honor of the Swedish encyclopedist Rudbeck), that is, famous individuals who are not directly connected with the object being named; 138 Jurgita Mikelionienė | Tarptautinių terminų apeliatyvacijos aspektai • To commemorate dear ones—wives, daughters, and friends (hortenzija [named after Hortense, the wife of Jean-André Lepaute, the renowned French clockmaker and maker of exceptionally accurate chronometers] “an ornamental park and garden flower, also grown in pots,” as well as berta [named after Berta, the wife of the industrialist Krupp] “an artillery piece.” It should be emphasized that surnames predominate in this group of eponymic terms; indeed, it is the largest category of eponymic terms overall. 1.2. Mythology and religion are important parts of human identity, so it is hardly surprising that terms based on the names of the gods of Greek Olympus and the Roman pantheon (apolonas “zool. a diurnal butterfly”), as well as other mythological characters—for example, Tantalus, the Chimera, and Medusa—are present (tantala “chem. element Ta, atomic no. 73, a bluish metal”; chimera “a work of art, a decorative element in architecture or art depicting the mythological Chimera or another fantastic creature”; medūza “zool. a marine coelenterate”). Most of these entered international terminology through the classical languages and are therefore readily understood, evoking associations with striking external or internal features, unusual abilities, or powers. There are somewhat fewer terms named after the gods or legendary heroes of other peoples, for example, the ancient Scandinavian gods (egirinas [named after Ægir, the Icelandic god of the sea] “a mineral, dark-green pyroxene”; vanadis [named after Vanadís, the ancient Scandinavian goddess of beauty] “chem. element V, a metal”), as well as saints and various biblical characters (abramitai “a religious sect in 18th-century Bohemia whose members professed the ancient Jewish religion, i.e. the religion of Abraham”). Many religious terms derived from the names of various saints are in one way or another associated with a particular denomination, its adherents, and so on. All terms of anthroponymic origin are vivid by virtue of their specific connection with the source word alone; however, concepts named after literary characters are especially expressive (arlekinada “a short pantomime scene featuring its principal character, Harlequin, and other masked characters from Italian comedy”; montekristas [named after the hero of A. Dumas’s novel The Count of Monte Cristo (Monte Cristo)] “a small-calibre rifle, revolver, or pistol”; hamletizmas [named after the hero of the tragedy Hamlet by the English writer William Shakespeare] “the beha- Terminologija | 2017 | 24 139 vior of a tormented, sensitive person who cannot tolerate evil but is indecisive, inactive, and irresolute”; pantagrielizmas [named after the hero of F. Rabelais’s work Gargantua and Pantagruel (French Pantagruel)] “coarse, cynical humor,” etc.). 2. Eponymic terms formed from proper names of inanimate objects are mostly derived from place names (toponyms, hydronyms, and oikonyms); only a few come from the names of musical groups (bitlas [named after the English instrumental-vocal ensemble The Beatles] “a member of an instrumental-vocal ensemble performing beat music”) or publications (parnasiečiai [named after the poetry collection Le Parnasse contemporain (1866)] “a group of French poets of the second half of the 19th century”). Such terms can be further classified according to the objects named by their source words. Terms of geographical origin, derived from: • continents (europis [named after the continent of Europe] “chem. element Eu, atomic no. 63; a metal”), countries (portugalas “a gold coin minted in the 16th and 17th centuries in Southern and Central Europe on the model of Portuguese gold coins”), regions and states (čakas [named after Chaco, a province in northern Argentina] “a complex of savannas and forests in northwestern Argentina”; kalifornis [named after the U.S. state of California, where it was discovered] “a radioactive, artificial chem. element Cf, atomic no. 98”), cities (čarlstonas [named after the U.S. city of Charleston] “a fast-paced social dance”; plomb yras [named after the French town of Plombières] “ice cream made from cream”), and even villages or localities (badmintonas [named after the English locality of Badminton] “a sports game”; iterbis [named after Ytterby in Sweden, where it was discovered] “chem. element Yb, atomic no. 70; a metal”). This is the largest group of terms derived from toponyms, and it is also distinguished by the large number of Latin oikonyms and historical place names in other languages that have become terms (e.g., chemical elements hafnis [named after the Latin name for Copenhagen (Latin Hafnia)], holmis [named after the Latin name for Stockholm (Latin Holmia)], germanis [named after the Latin name for Germany (Latin Germania)], rutenis [named after the name for Russia (Latin Ruthenia)]; geol. kambras [named after the Latin name for the Welsh peninsula in Great Britain, Cambria] “the geological history of the Earth, pe- 140 Jurgita Mikelionienė | Tarptautinių terminų apeliatyvacijos aspektai “the first period of the Paleozoic era”; zool. n a u p l i u s [after the name of the ancient Greek city of Nauplia (Greek Nauplio)] “the planktonic larva of most lower crustaceans”; chor. l i p s i s [German Lipsi; after the Latin name for Leipzig, Lipsia] “a German social dance,” etc.); mountains (v e z u v i a n a s [after the name of the Vesuvius (Italian Vesuvijus) volcano] “a mineral, a complex calcium and aluminum silicate”; a n d e z i n a s [after the name of the Andes (Spanish Andes) mountains] “a plagioclase mineral”) and valleys (h ã l i n g a s [Norwegian Halling, the Hallingdal valley] “a Norwegian folk dance”); islands (b o r n e o l i s [after the name of the island of Borneo (Kalimantan)] “an organic compound C”; t o p a z a s [after the name of Topaz Island in the Red Sea] “a mineral, a hydrous aluminum silicate”) and peninsulas (l a b r a d o r a s [after the name of the Labrador (English Labrador) peninsula] “a plagioclase mineral”); rivers (i p r i t a s [French yp érite] “chem. a toxic chemical warfare agent; first used by the Germans in 1917 in battles in Belgium near Ypres”; t v i d a s [after the name of the River Tweed (English Tweed) in Scotland] “a finely patterned fabric woven from woollen worsted yarn”; a m a z o n ė [after the name of the Amazon River] “a medium-sized green parrot, Amazona”; g i u n c a s [after the name of the Giunco (German Günz), a tributary of the Danube] “the oldest glacial period of the Quaternary in the Alps”), springs (a g a t a s [French agate < Greek achatēs, after the Agate spring in Sicily, where it was first found] “a mineral, a semiprecious stone”) and other hydronyms. As the examples of oikonymic origin show, terminology is dominated by terms that arose through a metonymic relationship, in which the name of a place where an object was discovered or created, or a phenomenon observed, became the name of that object or phenomenon. More individual cases also occur: for example, the chemical element rutenis (ruthenium) was named after the country where the scientist who discovered it was born. In this way, through the deonymization of toponyms and hydronyms, many eponymous terms have been created in chemistry, geology, and choreography. Much less often, eponymous terms arise through another type of semantic transfer, namely metaphorization, whereby a name becomes the basis for eponymous terms on the basis of similarity in an external or internal feature (for example, h i a c i n t a s, derived from a mythonym, is now a term in mineralogy and botany, based on the same color and beauty of the flower and mineral; Terminologija | 2017 | 24 141 chimera “zool. a fish capable of changing color”; apparently, because of its unusual nature, it too was named after a mythonym). In terminology, the univocality of concept designations, their independence from context, and their emotional neutrality are often emphasized. These qualities are clearly not always observed when creating eponymous terms, because the associative link can be exceptionally strong (for example, a worm growing up to 10 cm, afroditė (Aphrodite), whose body is covered in bristles shimmering with rainbow colors that resemble a greenish-golden coat, lives burrowed in the surface sediment of the sea and, for its beauty in the animal kingdom, is the equal of Aphrodite on Olympus)5. The eponymous term itself, through the simplicity of its form, sometimes does not contribute to semantic transparency, since only the ending may distinguish eponymous terms derived from the same proper noun; consequently, choosing one or another term for a concept may cause communicative or scientific confusion for a less attentive user: cf. afganis (“monetary unit”) and afganas (“a southwesterly wind blowing in the upper reaches of the Amu Darya” and “a carpet woven in Central Asia”); einšteinas (“phys. a unit of light measurement”) and einšteinis (“a radioactive artificial chemical element”). Eponymous terms are also avoided because of occasional homonymy. Sometimes a homonymous onym is the basis for two homonymous terms (1 bostonas and 2 bostonas): the city of Boston in Great Britain is commemorated in textile terminology as “a woollen fabric with a twill weave,” while the name of Boston in the USA became a choreography term denoting a type of slow waltz. It is true that such cases are rare in specialist dictionaries of different fields, while in dictionaries of foreign words they are listed in separate entries; thus, the only remaining issue is the choice of the source being represented or of the word. CONCLUSIONS 1. As a proper name becomes an eponymic term, it loses its individuality but acquires new features, while the language system as a whole is enriched with international words of various structures and neologisms—distinctive, fully-fledged terms; because of the evident analogical formation, the number of derivatives that have an obvious connection with proper names but perform functions no longer characteristic of the latter increases. 5 In English, this worm is called See mouse, which shows that terms are not borrowed blindly, even when they are international; instead, the most salient associations are sought. 142 Jurgita Mikelionienė | Tarptautinių terminų apeliatyvacijos aspektai 2. Terms of eponymic origin can have various structures. In Lithuanian, more often than in Latin or English, the simple form of the word is retained and grammatically adapted; however, unlike English, where even the stem retains the Latinized spelling of the original language, in Lithuanian it is phonetically adapted. 3. The semantic transformation of proper names into terms most often occurs through metonymy. Most terms are of anthroponymic origin and are derived from men’s surnames. Polysemy and homonymy in eponymic terms are undesirable, but are avoided because terms are used in different fields. 4. Any proper name designating a person distinguished for some achievement and widely renowned, or the name of a place of significance, can become an eponymic term through appellativation. REFERENCES AND SOURCES Bankava B. 2011: Eponīmi latviešu valodā: lingvistiskais aspekts, Rīga: Latvijas universitāte. Burkova T. 2010: Peculiarities of the Appellativation of Anthroponyms in a Scientific Style. – Vestnik Yaroslavskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, 87–91. Crystal D. 2003: The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Grammar of Contemporary Lithuanian, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijos leidybos centras, 1994. Gaivenis K., Keinys S. 1990: Kalbotyros terminų žodynas, Kaunas: Šviesa. IUPAC 2016: IUPAC Announces the Names of the Elements 113, 115, 117, and 118. IUPAC. Prieiga per internetą: https://iupac.org/iupac-announces-the-names-of-the-elements-113-115-117-and-118/. Karavaeva T. L. 2011: Structural and semantic types of eponyms. – Opera in onomastica 14, Odesa: Astroprint, 80–89. Prieiga per internetą: http://karpenko.in.ua/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Karavaev.pdf. Kaulakienė A. 2009: Lietuvių fizikos terminijos raida, Vilnius: Technika. Kasradze M., Kasradze D. 2015: Traumatologijos ir ortopedijos eponimai, Klaipėda: Klaipėdos universiteto leidykla. Keinys S. 2005: Galūninė lietuviškų terminų daryba. – Dabartinė lietuvių terminologija, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla, 77–112. Kitkauskienė L. 2011: Eponiminiai architektūros, meno ir statybos terminai lietuvių kalboje. – Santalka: filologija, edukologija 19(1), Vilnius: VGTU leidykla, 48–58. Klimavičius J. 2005: Lingvistinis požiūris į veislių nomenklatūrą. – Leksikologijos ir terminologijos darbai: norma ir istorija, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla. Kurmiņa L. 2010: Eponiminiai augalų pavadinimai latvių ir lietuvių kalbose: darybos būdai. – Leksikografija ir leksikologija 2, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 355–367. Litevkiene N. 2010: Eponyms of Anatomy. – Vārds un tā pētīšanas aspekti 14(1), Liepāja: Liepājas universitāte, 156–161. Mickienė I., Bačiūnaitė-Lužienė L. 2013: Onomastikos įžvalgos, Vilnius: Vilniaus universitetas. Pietė L. 2007: Personvārdi latviešu un lietuviešu augu nosaukumos. – Vārds un tā pētīšanas aspekti 11, Liepāja: Liepājas universitāte, 45–53. Reedijk J. 2016: How to name new chemical elements. IUPAC. Prieiga per internetą: https://iupac.org/recommendation/how-to-name-new-chemical-elements/. Skujiņa V. 1993 (2002): Latviešu terminoloģijas izstrādes principi, Rīga: Zinātne. TŽŽ 2013: Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas, Vilnius: Alma littera. Хвесько Т. 2008: Когнитивное описание формирования топонимов. – Язык и культура, Томский государственный университет, 77–82. Prieiga per internetą: http://sun.tsu.ru/mminfo/000349304/03/image/03-077.pdf. Terminologija | 2017 | 24 143 ASPECTS OF APPELLATIVATION OF INTERNATIONAL TERMS Lithuanian terminology research into eponymous terms of various fields (anatomy, architecture, botany, etc.) began in the 21st century. However, a more systematic view that includes the general aspects of the appellativation of terms is still eligible, especially in order to introduce them to the future translators of the subject language, the editors, and other target groups that are interested in the applied and theoretical aspects of the scientific concepts. Although appellativation complements the terminology most often with the borrowed terms, and most eponymous terms were created back in the nineteenth century, it is an active and relevant way of creating new term names. For example, in January 2016 the discovery of four new chemical elements was announced, which, in line with the IUPAC recommendation to give chemical elements the names of mythological figures, minerals, locations, countries or scientists, in June 2016 were proposed to be named as nihon, moskov, tenesin and oganeson. The given terms were legalized on 28th November 2016. An onym loses its individuality in the process of turning into the appellative term, but acquires new features, and and the new words of various structures enter the language system. The article gives a brief overview of the 816 eponymic words from various fields created on the basis of a proper names selected from the Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas (Dictionary of International Words) (2013), the structural and semantic varieties of the fully appellative terms, by combining linguistic and extralinguistic aspects related to the encyclopedic and scientific knowledge of various fields. According to the field, all the terms are divided into 15 groups (for example, chemistry, physics, mathematics and astronomy, botany, technical, clothing, sports, choreography, etc.). The main method of appellativation is metonymization when there is a strong logical connection between the proper name of a person or an area and a particular object or phenomenon. The oikonyms have become the background for more than 60 percent of the concepts researched, most of which have developed due to egocentric motives. Not only does the appellative onym acquire new semantic components, but it is often derivatively transformed: among the deonymized terms there are not only grammatically adapted terms (fermis, klarkas), but also there is an abundance of suffixal derivatives (hesianas, mahometonybė, rusoizmas), compounds and blends (atlantozauras, orimulsi̇ja). Received 2017-09-18 Jurgita Mikelionienė Kaunas University of Technology K. Donelaičio St. 73, LT-44249 Kaunas Email: [email protected] 144 Jurgita Mikelionienė | Tarptautinių terminų apeliatyvacijos aspektai