Tarptautinės fonetinės abėcėlės (TFA) lietuviški terminai

Terminologija / Terminology 2025, No. 32, pp. 1–26 Contents link ISSN 2669-2198 (electronic / online) Copyright © 2025 Rima Bakšienė, Agnė Čepaitienė, Jolita Urbanavičienė. all rights reserved. Published by the Institute of the Lithuanian Language. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licence, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. // Published by the Lithuanian Language Institute. This article is open access, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which allows unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction of the content in any media, provided that the author and source are acknowledged. Received: / Gauta: 2025-05-30. Accepted: / Priimta: 2025-08-01. 1 INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALBUM (IFA) LITHUANIAN DEADLINES The Lithuanian Terms of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) RIMA BAKŠIENĖ Institute of Lithuanian Language El. email: [email protected] ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6716-0776 Research fields: dialectology, geolinguistics, experimental phonetics, phonology. AGNĖ ČEPAITIENĖ Institute of Lithuanian Language El. email: [email protected] ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6018-0520 Research fields: dialectology, geolinguistics, sociolinguistics, peculiarities of the spoken Lithuanian language. JOLITA URBANAVIČIENĖ Institute of Lithuanian Language E-mail: jolita.urbanavici[email protected] ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5514-2263 Research areas: experimental phonetics, phonology, lexicography, geolinguistics, sociolinguistics. https://doi.org/10.35321/term32-07 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ANNOTATION The article presents and analyzes the phonetic terminology set approved by the State Lithuanian Language Commission, which includes the names of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) signs in Lithuanian. In total, 166 heading terms are examined, divided into two parts: 1) Lithuanianized international terms, e.g. glotal; 2) 2 Lithuanian terms, e.g. gerklinis. The synonymy of international and Lithuanian terms is reviewed, the criteria for the choice of the main variant, some aspects of the creation of new Lithuanian terms and the most characteristic features of the collection of terms. KEY WORDS: phonetics, international phonetic alphabet, synonymy of terms, term formation, terminology, TFA table. ABSTRACT The paper presents and analyses the set of phonetic terms approved by the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language. It consists of the labels of International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) characters in the Lithuanian language. A total of 166 terms have been analysed, divided into two groups: 1) Lithuanised international terms; 2) Lithuanian terms. The synonymy of international and Lithuanian terms, the criteria for selecting the main variant, some aspects of the creation of new Lithuanian terms, and the most characteristic features of the formation of the terms set are reviewed. KEYWORDS: phonetics, International Phonetic Alphabet, synonymy of terms, formation of terms, Lithuanisation of terms, IPA chart. INTRODUCTION The International Phonetic Association (IPhA) was founded in Paris in 1886 to promote research in phonetics and its various practical applications. The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) was first published in 1888, and its basic principles were defined at the same time. It is a universal system of signs to represent sounds in all languages of the world, based on Latin characters for vowels and consonants, additional diacritics for co-articulatory and prosodic features, and terms for all these signs (see IPA 2020; see HIPA 1999 for a detailed description; see also Appendix 1). During the nearly one and a half century of the association’s existence, the TFA has been repeatedly revised and supplemented (see historical revisions in hIPA 2018), adapted and used in the study of many languages and their variations (see PHWL). The basic principles of TFA notation are published in the Journal of the International Phonetic Alphabet (JIPA) and its separate series of articles Illustrations of the IPA. In 2023, a description of the characteristics of sounds in the general Lithuanian language and an illustration of the transcription using TFA symbols were published in this section (see Bakšienė et al. 2023). This is the first publication published in a prestigious international phonetic journal dedicated to the common Lithuanian language, based on experimental research carried out by Lithuanian authors up to now. In providing the Lithuanian TFA illustration, the set of TFA signs for common language officially approved in Lithuania at the time (see VLKK K-25) was also taken into account. For a century, the principles of transcription of common Lithuanian (and dialect) sounds have been used not only to find Lithuanian sounds in the TFA 1 system, but also to 1 The so-called Copenhagen transcription (see Gerullis 1930), adapted in 1930 by Jurgis Gerulis (Georgas Gerullis), who lived in Lithuania in the last century, is based on the terms of the International Phonetic 3 Association used to name Lithuanian sounds. The need to refine and consolidate the Lithuanian TFA collection arose after the publication of the aforementioned TFA illustration – the editorial board of the JIPA journal received a proposal to prepare a TFA table (IPA chart) and its interactive version (see TFA LT2 2025) in Lithuanian. First, the Lithuanian equivalents of the TFA sign names were discussed and approved by the Subcommittee on Grammar and Pronunciation of the State Lithuanian Language Commission (see VLKK 2024), then by the Alphabet, Charts and Fonts committee of the International Phonetic Association (see IPA charts). 2 The aim of this article is to present Lithuanian equivalents of English TFA terms and to review the problematic aspects encountered in preparing the collection. 1) to discuss the most important selection criteria of Lithuanian equivalents of TFA; 2) to highlight the main characteristics of synonymy of TFA collection terms; 3) to review the most characteristic features of the TFA set of terms. Descriptive, comparative and quantitative methods were used to achieve the objectives. The object of the study – Lithuanian names of TFA signs. In total, 166 heading terms are examined, divided into two parts: 1) Lithuanianized international terms, e.g. glotal; 2) Lithuanian terms, e.g. gerklinis (see Annex 2). In the collection are highlighted the main variants provided by the authors, most often they have chosen terms with Lithuanian usage tradition. This collection, approved by Lithuanian phonetics specialists, aims to reduce the diversity of terms in scientific works, to purify and consolidate TFA terminology, complying with the rule of one term – one meaning, and to encourage its use in Lithuanian phonetics and phonology works. The terminology of individual fields of linguistics is closely related to the development of those fields. At the beginning of the 20th century, most phonetic terms are found in the works of Jonas Jablonskis (see Keinys 1967: 25), Kazimieras Būga (1958–1961) and Mykolas Durys (1929). At that time, the foundations of all Lithuanian phonetic terminology were being laid, mainly focusing on the creation of missing terms. This process was accelerated by the publication of the TFA and the need to adapt it to the national sound system. For the first time, the sounds of the common Lithuanian language were written in TFA characters in a textbook by the Swedish linguist Richard Ekblom in 1922, and the long-established system of transliteration of Lithuanian sounds, also known as the Copenhagen transcription, was created by Jurgis Gerulis. (Gerullis 1930) (see also footnote 1). the TFA version adopted by the association in Copenhagen in 1925. For more information on the transliteration of Lithuanian dialects with TFA characters, see Bakšienė, Čepaitienė 2024 and there min. lit. 2 Since 2011, this commission has been carrying out a project, the sole purpose of which is to collect and publish TFA tables in the original language. These are not merely literal translations of terms from English into another language – when providing equivalents of terms, the country’s phonetic research practice and tradition must be used (see IPA charts for more information). 4 In the middle of the 20th century, J. Gerulis’ pupil Elzbieta Mikalauskaitė, who studied at the universities of Berlin, Leipzig and Hamburg, worked in the field of phonetics. In her works she relied on TFA terms, used TFA signs and presented TFA-based classifications of Lithuanian vowels and consonants (Mikalauskaitė 1975: 22, 37). Valerija Vaitkevičiūtė, who prepared the Phonetics section (and another version of the sound classification) for the first academic Lithuanian grammar (LKG 1965), is considered to be the representative of the ideologically opposite – the so-called Leningrad school of linguistics. Thus, the phonetic science in Soviet Lithuania successfully combined scientific ideas coming from both the East and the West. However, TFA terms and characters were used more systematically in that period only in individual, mostly comparative, scientific works, for example, comparing Lithuanian and English vowels (Svecevičius 1960: 29–48) and others. In the 1980s, the terminology of pure phonetics was supplemented by a new direction of structuralism – phonology, which grew out of the ideas of the Prague Linguistic Club and glossematics. During this period, a national terminology of phonetics and phonology was created, which was significantly established in the researches of Antanas Pakerius (1986) and in the monograph of Aleksas Girdenis, the founder of the Lithuanian phonology school, entitled Fonologija (1981). The terminology of phonetics also includes the field of prosody as a component part of phonology and relevant terms (Pak erys 1982; "Gaivenis, Keinys 1990". At the end of the 20th century, TFA characters were used primarily in Lithuanian grammar published in other languages, e.g. : Lithuanian Grammar (LG 2006: 16–17), Grammar of Lithuanian Language (GLJ 1985: 13–14). TFA signs are also introduced in the Grammar of Contemporary Lithuanian Language (DLKG 2005). It has been noted that the universality of TFA is particularly suitable for comparative works of current Baltic languages, when the same transcription system needs to record sounds of different languages, for example, TFA characters are used in the Lithuanian Language Institute series Baltų kalbų garsynas pradžioje XXI a. This 3 encouraged the creation of new terminology, for example, when talking about consonants, the metaphorical terms hard and soft were abandoned – instead of them the international terms palatalinis (denoting primary palatalization) and palatalizuotas (naming secondary palatalization) were used (Urbanavičienė et al. 2019: 22). The TFA system is also used to phonetically classify Lithuanian sounds. Such classifications in the context of TFA were proposed by Jurgis Pakerys (2014: 88–92), Rytis Ambrazevičius and Asta Leskauskaitė (2014: 164–167), Asta Kazlauskienė (2018: 45). R. Ambrazevičius and A. Leskauskaitė sought to adapt TFA characters (and corresponding terms) to Lithuanian by comparing the meanings of English and Lithuanian F2 locus of consonants. In recent years, TFA has been refined and consolidated in other general Lithuanian phonetics 3 I series book: Instrumental examination of the interaction of vowels and sounds (Jaroslavienė et al. 2019), II series book: Instrumental examination of prefixes (Urbanavičienė et al. 2019); Book III: Comparative acoustic and perceptive study of Lithuanian and Latvian sonates (Urbanavičienė, Tapertė 2023). 5 researchers (see. : Švageris 2022; Kazlauskienė 202 3; Kazlauskienė et al. 2023; Kazlauskaitė 2024: 13–18 and others. ). Due to the specificity of phonetics, Lithuanian (and not only) terms in this field had to be created primarily by specialists, because in addition to phonetics, phonology, prosody, morphology (an intermediate discipline between phonology and morphology, see DLKG 2005: 17) language acoustics, perceptual, statistical and other sound studies were developed. Thus, terminologists and phonetics specialists had to work together. In the first Lithuanian dictionary of Kalbotyros terms (Gaivenis, Keinys 1990) it was limited to terms of pure phonetics, phonology, prosody and morphology (Kazlauskaitė 2000: 26). Separate dictionaries for phonetics (2008) and phonology (2011) were prepared by Rima Bakšienė (Bacevičiūtė). The terminology of acoustic phonetics was briefly and illustratively reviewed by R. Ambrazevičius (2011), experimental phonetics – A. Kazlauskienė (2018), Evaldas Švageris (2022). Synonymy of Latinized International and Lithuanian TFA Terms The chosen subject of the article – Lithuanian names of TFA signs – is relatively new in phonetic terminology. Although the Lithuanian phonetic science is already well advanced, the terminology (not only of TFA signs) varies – there are no names for some phenomena (especially those not characteristic of the Lithuanian language) (cf. the analysis of phonetic terms Kazlauskaitė 2000: 25–31; see also the subsection “Lithuanised international and Lithuanian TFA terms” of this article). When preparing the collection of Lithuanian names of TFA signs, synonymy of terms was also not avoided. 4 Although synonymy in terminology may lead to a lack of accuracy and clarity, the absence of synonyms is not one of the requirements for creating new terms (cf. Keinys 1980; Gaivenis 2002 et al.; see also Mitkevičienė 2015: 39–59; 2020: 1–18). However, only the synonymy of Lithuanian and international terms is considered justified (Klimavičius 1975; see also Kazlauskaitė 2000: 25; Mitkevičienė 2020: 1–18 and others), which is the characteristic of the analyzed TFA term set. 5 The Lithuanian TFA collection is dominated by synonymous terms i (64 per cent) (see Annex 2). In the group of Lithuanianized international and Lithuanian equivalents provided as synonyms, one-word terms dominate (57% of all synonyms). They are twofold: (a) Lithuanian and 4 In the article, synonyms of TFA terms are considered to be different names (Latinized international and Lithuanian) for the same mark, which have no meaningful difference in shades and are often interpreted as duplicates (Gaivenis 2014: 200 et al.). For the different concept of synonyms in general and synonyms in terminology, see. : Klimavičius 1975: 91–122; Zemlevičiūtė 2001: 35–38; Mitkevičienė 2015: 39–59; 2020: 1–18 and others. 5 As the research done so far shows, the synonymy of terms is characteristic of terminology of many other fields as well: physics (Kaulakienė 2009); computer science (Kaulakienė 2000: 23–28; Celiešienė 2011: 23–30; Auksoriūtė et al. 2018); medicine (Zemlevičiūtė 2001: 34–39); rights (Umbras 2004: 100–118); construction (Stunžinas 2005: 7–26); astrology (Vaskelaitė 2021: 192–223); economics (Vaskelaitė 2022); clothing (Rimkutė-Ganusauskienė 2023) and others. See also 2015: 39. 6 an international term, e.g. fricative, approximant; b) a Lithuanian term and a hybrid, e.g.: uvular, 6 palatalized, bilabial, dental, glottal. Most of the recommended single-word terms, taking into account the broader tradition of usage in Lithuanian phonetic works, consist of Lithuanian 7 terms. Compound terms are also synonymous, consisting of two to four elements, such as the lateral fricative, the voiced labiopalatal approximant, and the voiced labial-palatal approximant. Some of these terms are composed of Lithuanian and international words, e.g.: nasal release, lateral release, voiced alveolar lateral flap. There are also such synonyms, where the equivalents of the names of TFA marks in Lithuanian language consist of terms of different structure, e.g. one-word and two-word terms, e.g. labiodental, palatal, pharyngealized, laminar, tongue anterior; single-word and three-word terms, e.g. apical; two-word and three-word terms, e.g. alveolo-palatal fricatives; three-word and four-word terms, e.g. voiced labial-velar approximant, voiceless labial-velar fricative. The final set of TFA terms in Lithuanian language submitted to the international phonetic community consists of the main variants of TFA terms highlighted in the table (see Annex 2 and TFA LT 2025; TFA LT2 2025). The list of key terms is dominated by: a) Lithuanian (65%) rather than Lithuanianized international (35%) terms; (b) single words (59%) rather than compound terms (41%). This, among other things (accuracy, clarity), resulted from their more common use in the main works of phonetics and phonology (cf. : Gerullis 1930; Mikalauskaitė 1975; Girdenis 2003; Pakerys 2003; Ambrazevičius, Leskauskaitė 2014; Pakerys 2014; Kazlauskienė 2018; Jaro slavienė et al. 2019; Urbanavičienė et al. 2019; Kazlauskienė et al. 2023). 6 When examining terms, the examples provide only the constituent elements of terms. See Annex 2 for full terms. 7 Hybrids in the article are all terms that have roots or affixes of other languages in their root. : Kazlauskienė et al. 2011: 56; VLEe et al. ). 7 Latinized international and Lithuanian TFA terms Lithuanian TFA terms Only Lithuanian terms, apart from their Lithuanianized equivalents, are mainly in the part of TFA vowels and supersegmental elements, e.g.: tap or flap, clicks; primary stress, syllable break, rising, etc. (see Annex 2). Most of them are already widely used and established in Lithuanian phonetic works, but in some cases, when preparing the TFA collection, it was necessary to look for an exact Lithuanian equivalent, because the authors of phonetic works used several terms for the same phonetic concept. The TFA vowel subsystem has two degrees of openness for the close-mid and open-mid vowels. In earlier works of phoneticists, only after the TFA sound classification began to be used more actively, the terms semi-closed and semi-open vowels were used (see: Jaroslavienė 2015: 1–17; Bakšienė, Čepaitienė 2017: 105–135). However, over time, Lithuanian equivalents of the medium closed and medium open have been established (see: Kazla uskienė 2018; Jaroslavienė et al. 2019; Bakšienė, Čepaitienė 2024; VLKK K-25), which are also provided in the final TFA set. During the preparation of the Lithuanian TFA collection, a lot of discussion was caused by the English term clicks, which describes a certain group of non-pulmonary consonants (pronounced not when exhaling, but when breathing in air) characteristic of the Khoisan language family, for example, used in the agglutinative Zulu language and articulated with certain clicks (Degėsys 2012: 8 40). In Lithuanian literature, such consonants are sometimes called chepsimai (see VLEe). However, the term "chopping consonants" is stylistically connoted, has a metaphorical connotation, and does not quite accurately describe the articulation of these consonants. It was also considered to provide the simply lithuanized English word klikas, but it would not comply with the principle of effectiveness of terminology, according to which the term provided should be clear and understandable at least to specialists in that field (Gaivenis 2002: 96). Clicks do not cause associations with specific consonant articulation (clicking, tapping like a fish) even to Lithuanian phoneticists, so the VLKK Council and Pronunciation Subcommittee discussed terminology of Lithuanian words clicking, tapping, tapping. It was also attempted to look for equivalents in the Latin language – the medical terms avulsive / avulsive were discussed, but they are also not accurate, because they describe more the separation of a part from the whole (e.g., the detachment of a part of bone, rupture, separation from its main part). Thus, in this case, the Lithuanian word clicking has been chosen to be terminologized. When converting common language words into terms, the principles of terminology purity, efficiency, economy are observed (Gaivenis 2002: 58; Bielinskienė et al. 2014: 137–151; Rutkienė 2015: 56–58). In the TFA group of diacritics, the English term creaky voiced describes a cracking vowel articulation. Although there are no such systemic sounds in Lithuanian, 8 Researchers note that Zulu has five vowels and many consonants, such as the dental [c], semi-alveolar [q], alveolar lateral [x], etc. The adjectives may have aspirated, squeezed / dull, etc. variants, of which one can be pronounced with so-called clicks or squeaks (Degėsys 2012: 40; VLEe). 8 cases of such articulation may occur, especially in dialects, for example, when pronouncing vowels with a Žemaičių broken suffix. The Lithuanian equivalent gergždiantis skardusis has been chosen for this description, because the participle form in many words (see E. language) is given precisely to describe the voice, sound characteristics, in addition, this term has already been used by other authors to describe the peculiarities of the Lithuanian language 9 intonation (see Kazlauskienė et al. 2023: 89). There is particularly much variation in Lithuanian phonetic terms in the supersegmental units and in the prosody. In Lithuanian linguistic works in these areas, the terms have not settled, the area of prosody, especially intonation of Lithuanian language, has been studied somewhat less, only in recent years larger prosody works have appeared (Kazlauskienė 2023; Kazlauskienė et al. 2023). One of the most varied terms in phonetic works is the name of the boundary marks [|] and [‖] for phrase breaks (internal, boundary and final). In English, these signs are referred to as minor (foot) group and major (intonation) group. For the first sign [|] the most commonly used terms in Lithuanian scientific works are pause of the intonational unit / end of the internal phrase (syntagm) / pause of the boundary of the syntagm, and for the second [‖] – end of the intonational unit and end of the phrase. After discussions in the final Lithuanian TFA set it was decided to provide three-word Lithuanian terms of similar structure for both signs: end of internal phrase and end of intonational phrase. The pair of English terms high rising / low rising, denoting changes in the tone contour, is translated as strongly rising / weakly rising, although the latter, when discussing the TFA collection, was also widely discussed as to which Lithuanian adverb would most accurately reflect a lesser degree of tone change. The other pair of English terms in the group of tone characteristics, extra high / extra low, does not denote a change in the tone contour, but its constant level, and is translated into Lithuanian by renouncing the international word and also using the Lithuanian adverb – labai žemas / labai aukštas. A sudden lowering or raising of the tone level in the TFA English version is described by the terms downstep / upstep, which in Lithuanian is called jump down / jump up; The word jump has already become a common term for some sudden change, used in many other fields of science, e.g.: energy jump (physics), price jump (economics) and others (see TB). The TFA signs [↗] and [↘] used to mark the rise or fall of the intonation curve of a phrase are described as global rise / global fall in the English version, but the international word globalus has been abandoned in their translation, and the more common Lithuanian word – bendrasis kilimas / bendrasis kritimas has been chosen. In the TFA prosody there is the English term linking, provided with an explanation in parentheses (absence of a break), describing the diacritics – the loop [ ], most commonly used in transcription to connect clitics to pronounced words. For this term, when considering 9 The Lithuanian TFA terminology will probably still be refined, so in the future a shorter adjective variant of this term gergždus should be considered. So far, it has not been discussed, because no Lithuanian dictionary provides such a word, but plg. girgždus „girgždantis, gvergždžiantis“ (see E. language). 9 In the Lithuanian set, several Lithuanian equivalents were proposed: jungtis / glaudi sąsaja / samplaika and so on, but finally chosen as the more common in the language (for example, in syntax) term šliejimas, the explanation in parentheses translated as the absence of break. Latinized international TFA terms Some TFA terms are used very rarely in Lithuanian phonetic works, because there are no sounds of such articulation in Lithuanian, for example: there are no nonpulmonic, or nonpulmonary, consonants pronounced not by blowing out, but by drawing air into the lungs; there are no specific vowels with the [r] accent that are typical of American English (such a pronunciation of sounds, called rhoticity, is marked with a special accent), etc. One of the ways to identify a new phonetic concept in Lithuanian is to Lithuanianize an international term. There are several options: 1) to borrow the entire international term (by adding only the Lithuanian 10 ending); 2) to borrow the international root and adapt the model of creation from the Lithuanian language; 3) to borrow the model of construction and to take the root and affixes of the term from the Lithuanian language (see Gaivenis 2014: 327; also cf. Drotvinas 2002: 20). When translating TFA international terms, the second – hybrid – method of terminology was most often used, when a Lithuanian suffix is added to the international root (for more details on the peculiarities of TFA terminology, see the subsection “More Important Features of TFA 11 Terminology”). We will discuss in more detail some rare Lithuanianized international terms. The consonants of all languages are divided into two main groups: pulmonic consonants, which are pronounced by blowing air out of the lungs, and non-pulmonal consonants, which are articulated by drawing air into the lungs. The latter consonants in the TFA set are divided into three classes according to the way of pronunciation: 1) consonants, when pronouncing excess air pressure is formed not in the lungs, but in the vocal tract, in the larynx, after closing the vocal opening (ejectives); 2) consonants, generated at the palate and pronounced with a specific clicking of the tongue (clicks; see the subsection “Lithuanian TFA terms”); 3) consonants that overcome an obstacle by an explosion that diverts the air flow not to the outside but to the inside (implosives). All these sounds, which are little known to Lithuanian linguists, were decided to be named as Lithuanianized international terms. The two main classes of consonants are described by the terms pulmonary and non-pulmonary (from Latin pulmonis "lung"), which are well known in medicine, for example. Decision to withdraw 12 10 The term Lithuanianized international term is used in the article to describe both hybrids (e.g., uvuliarinis) and borrowed words adapted to the Lithuanian grammar system (e.g., klikas). It was chosen to use the broader definition of Lithuanianization, which includes both phonetic and grammatical adaptation of international terms, e.g.: angl. fricative / liet. frikatyvas; angl. pharyngeal / liet. faringalinis. Other researchers refer to this phenomenon as grammatization (Drotvinas 2002: 20) or adaptation (Kalėdienė 2008: 50–60). 11 International words according to their adaptation to the Lithuanian language system can have several degrees: 1) unadapted (unchangeable); 2) minimally adapted (only endings are added); 3) sufficiently adapted (with Lithuanian construction affixes) (Kalėdienė 2008: 52). 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Tarptautinės fonetinės abėcėlės (TFA) terminų lietuviškų atitikmenų sąrašas Originalus TFA (IPA) terminas terminas bilabial Sulietuvintas tarptautinis bilabialinis abilūpis Lietuviškas terminas CONSONAN- (PULMONIC) TS VOCAL (PULMONINVOCAL IAI) labiodental babiodentalinis lūpinis dantinis dental dentalinis dantinis alveolar alveolinis postalveolar postalveolinis užalveolinis retroflex retrofleksinis velar veliarinis gomurio užpakalinis uvular uvuliarinis liežuvėlinis pharyngeal faringalinis ryklinis glottal glotalinis gerklinis plosive eksplozinis sprogstamasis nasal nazalinis nosinis tap or flap viendūžis fricative frikatyvas pučiamasis (PLAUTINIAI) palatal palatalinis lateral fricative lateralinis frikatyvas šoninis pučiamasis approximant aproksimantas sklandusis lateral approximant lateralinis aproksimantas šoninis aproksimantas PULMONIC) (NEPULMONINIAI) (NEPLAUTINIAI) clicks spragtelėjimai bilabial bilabialinis abilūpis dental dentalinis dantinis (post)alveolar (post)alveolinis (už)alveolinis palatoalveolar gomurio vidurinis trill vibrantas virpamasis palatoalveolinis alveolar lateral alveolinis lateralinis alveolinis šoninis voiced implosives skardieji imploziniai bilabial bilabialinis abilūpis dental/alveolar dentalinis / alveolinis dantinis / alveolinis palatal palatalinis gomurio vidurinis velar veliarinis gomurio užpakalinis uvular uvuliarinis liežuvėlinis ejectives ejektyviniai CONSONANTS bilabial bilabialinis abilūpis (NON-VOCAL) dental/alveolar dentalinis / alveolinis dantinis / alveolinis velar veliarinis gomurio užpakalinis alveolar fricative alveolinis frikatyvas alveolinis pučiamasis OTHER SYMBOLS KITI ŽENKLAI voiceless labial-velar fricative duslusis labioveliarinis duslusis lūpinis gomurinis pučiamasis voiced labial-velar approximant skardusis labioveliarinis skardusis lūpinis gomurinis voiced labial-palatal skardusis labiopalatalinis skardusis lūpinis palatalinis sklandusis voiceless epiglottal fricative duslusis epiglotalinis duslusis antgerklinis pučiamasis voiced epiglottal fricative skardusis epiglotalinis skardusis antgerklinis pučiamasis epiglottal plosive epiglotalinis antgerklinis sprogstamasis alveolo-palatal fricatives alveolopalatalinis alveolinis palatalinis pučiamasis voiced alveolar lateral flap skardusis alveololateralinis skardusis alveolinis šoninis SUPRASEGMENTALS SUPERSEGMENTINIAI pučiamasis aproksimantas sklandusis approximant aproksimantas pučiamasis pučiamasis sprogstamasis pučiamasis viendūžis viendūžis simultaneous ʃ and x simultaninis VOWELS BALSIAI close uždarasis open-mid vidutinis atviresnysis open atvirasis front 25 priešakinis central centrinis vidurinis back tonai ir žodžio kirčiai užpakalinis ELEMENTAI primary stress pagrindinis kirtis extra low very low secondary stress šalutinis kirtis half-long pusilgis extra-short labai trumpas minor (foot) group vidinės frazės pabaiga major (intonation) group intonacinės frazės pabaiga syllable break skiemens riba linking (absence of a break) šliejimas (pertrūkio nebuvimas) level lygis contour kontūras extra high labai aukštas high aukštas mid vidutinis low žemas downstep šuolis aukštyn upstep šuolis žemyn rising kylantis close-mid vidutinis uždaresnysis long ilgasis tones and word accents