Tarptautinės fonetinės abėcėlės (TFA) lietuviški terminai

Terminologija / Terminology 2025, Nr. 32, p. 1–26 Turinio nuoroda / Contents link ISSN 2669–2198 (elektroninis / online) LITHUANIAN TERMS OF THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET (IPA) Lithuanian Terms for the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) RIMA BAKŠIENĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language Email: [email protected] ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6716-0776Research interests: dialectology, geolinguistics, experimental phonetics, phonology. AGNĖ ČEPAITIENĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language Email: [email protected] ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6018-0520Research interests: dialectology, geolinguistics, sociolinguistics, features of spoken Lithuanian. JOLITA URBANAVIČIENĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language Email: [email protected] ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5514-2263Research interests: experimental phonetics, phonology, lexicography, geolinguistics, sociolinguistics. https://doi.org/10.35321/term32-07 ABSTRACT The article presents and analyses the set of phonetic terms approved by the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language, comprising the Lithuanian-language names of the characters of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA, English International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA]). A total of 166 head terms are examined, divided into two groups: 1) Copyright © 2025 Rima Bakšienė, Agnė Čepaitienė, Jolita Urbanavičienė. Published by the Institute of the Lithuanian Language. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licence, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. // Published by the Institute of the Lithuanian Language. This article is open access and distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licence, permitting the unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction of its content in any medium, provided the author and source are acknowledged. Received: / Received: 2025-05-30. Accepted: / Accepted: 2025-08-01. 1 Lithuanised international terms, e.g., glottal; 2) Lithuanian terms, e.g., throat-related. The synonymy of international and Lithuanian terms, the criteria for selecting the main variant, aspects of the creation of some new Lithuanian terms, and the most characteristic features of term formation in the set are reviewed. KEYWORDS: phonetics, International Phonetic Alphabet, term synonymy, term formation, Lithuanisation of terms, IPA chart. ABSTRACT The paper presents and analyses the set of phonetic terms approved by the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language. It consists of the labels of International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) characters in the Lithuanian language. A total of 166 terms have been analysed, divided into two groups: 1) Lithuanised international terms; 2) Lithuanian terms. The synonymy of international and Lithuanian terms, the criteria for selecting the main variant, some aspects of the creation of new Lithuanian terms, and the most characteristic features of the formation of the terms set are reviewed. KEYWORDS: phonetics, International Phonetic Alphabet, synonymy of terms, formation of terms, Lithuanisation of terms, IPA chart. INTRODUCTION The principal organisation for phoneticians, the International Phonetic Association (see IPhA), was founded in Paris in 1886 with the aim of promoting phonetics research and various practical applications of this science. The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA, English International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA]) was also devised at that time and first published in 1888, and its basic principles were defined. It is a universal system of symbols designed to transcribe the sounds of all the world’s languages. It is based on Latin letters for vowels and consonants, supplemented by diacritics to indicate coarticulatory and prosodic features, as well as terms naming all these symbols (see IPA 2020; for a detailed description, see HIPA 1999; see also Appendix 1). Over the nearly century and a half of the Association’s existence, the IPA has been revised and expanded several times (cf. historical editions, hIPA 2018), and adapted and used in the study of many languages and their varieties (see PHWL). The basic principles for transcribing with the IPA are published in the International Phonetic Association’s scholarly journal (English Journal of the International Phonetic Alphabet [JIPA]) and in its separate article series IPA Transcription Illustrations (English Illustrations of the IPA). In 2023, this section also published a description of the sound features of Standard Lithuanian and an illustration of transcription using IPA symbols (see Bakšienė et al. 2023). This was the first publication in a prestigious international phonetics journal devoted to Standard Lithuanian and based on experimental research previously conducted by Lithuanian authors. In presenting the Lithuanian IPA illustration, account was also taken of the set of IPA symbols for Standard Lithuanian officially approved in Lithuania at the time (see VLKK K-25). The principles of sound transcription in Standard Lithuanian (and its dialects), refined over a century,1 were drawn on not only to identify the Lithuanian sounds’ counterparts in the IPA system, but also for them 1 During the past century, the so-called Copenhagen transcription, adapted in 1930 by Jurgis Gerulis (Georg Gerullis), was in use in Lithuania (see Gerullis 1930). It was based on the International Phonetic Association’s system adapted for Lithuanian sounds 2 terms intended to name them. The need to refine and establish a Lithuanian IPA set arose after the aforementioned IPA illustration was published: the editorial board of the JIPA journal proposed preparing an IPA chart (English IPA chart) and an interactive version of it (see TFA LT2 2025) in Lithuanian. First, the Lithuanian equivalents of the IPA symbol names were considered and approved by the Pronunciation and Stress Subcommission of the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language (see VLKK 2024), then by the Alphabet, Charts and Fonts Committee of the International Phonetic Association (English The Alphabet, Charts and Fonts committee of the International Phonetic Association2), and published alongside corresponding classificatory terms in more than twenty other languages (see IPA charts). The aim of this article is to present Lithuanian equivalents of English IPA terms and to review the problematic aspects encountered in compiling the set. To achieve this aim, the following tasks were set: 1) to discuss the main selection criteria for Lithuanian equivalents of IPA terms; 2) to highlight the principal features of synonymy among the terms in the IPA set; 3) to review the most characteristic word-formation features of the terms in the IPA set. The descriptive, comparative, and quantitative methods were used to accomplish these tasks. The object of the study is the Lithuanian names of IPA symbols. A total of 166 head terms are analysed, divided into two groups: 1) Lithuanised international terms, e.g., glotalinis; 2) Lithuanian terms, e.g., gerklinis (see Appendix 2). The set identifies (in bold) the preferred variants proposed by the authors; these are most often terms with an established tradition of use in Lithuanian. Approved by Lithuanian phonetics specialists, this set is intended to reduce terminological variation in scholarly works, refine and establish IPA terminology that conforms to the rule one term – one meaning, and encourage its use in works on Lithuanian phonetics and phonology. TFA TERMINOLOGY IN EARLIER LITHUANIAN PHONETICS WORKS The terminology of individual branches of linguistics is closely linked to their development. In the early twentieth century, the largest number of phonetic terms can be found in the works of Jonas Jablonskis (see Keinys 1967: 25), Kazimieras Būga (1958–1961), and Mykolas Durys (1929). At that time, the foundations of Lithuanian phonetic terminology as a whole were being laid, with efforts focused mainly on creating terms that were lacking. This process was accelerated by the publication of the IPA and the need to adapt it to the national sound system. The sounds of Standard Lithuanian were first transcribed using IPA symbols in 1922, in a textbook by the Swedish linguist Richard Ekblom. The system for transcribing Lithuanian sounds that subsequently became established, also known as kopenhaginė transkripcija, was created by Jurgis Gerulis (Gerullis 1930) (see also footnote 1). the Association’s 1925 revision of the IPA, adopted in Copenhagen. For more on the transcription of Lithuanian dialects using IPA symbols, see Bakšienė, Čepaitienė 2024 and the literature cited there. 2 Since 2011, this committee has run a project whose aim is to collect and publish IPA charts prepared in their original languages. These are not simply literal translations of terms from English into another language: when providing equivalent terms, one must draw on the country’s phonetics research practices and traditions (for more, see IPA charts). 3 In the mid-twentieth century, J. Gerulis’s student Elzbieta Mikalauskaitė, who had studied at the universities of Berlin, Leipzig, and Hamburg, worked in phonetics. In her works, she relied on IPA terms, used IPA symbols, and presented classifications of Lithuanian vowels and consonants based on the IPA (Mikalauskaitė 1975: 22, 37). Valerija Vaitkevičiūtė, a representative of the ideologically opposed so-called Leningrad School of Linguistics, may be regarded as the author of the Phonetics section (and another version of the sound classification) in the first academic Lietuvių kalbos gramatikai (LKG 1965). Thus, phonetics in Soviet Lithuania successfully brought together scientific ideas coming from both East and West. However, during this period IPA terms and symbols were used systematically only in a few scholarly works, mostly comparative ones, for example, in comparing the vowels of Lithuanian and English (Svecevičius 1960: 29–48), and the like. In the 1980s, the terminology of pure phonetics developed up to that point was supplemented by a new structuralist branch—phonology—which grew out of the Prague Linguistic Circle and glossematics. During this period, national terminology for phonetics and phonology was developed and significantly established in the research of Antanas Pakerys (1986) and in the monograph Fonologija (1981) by Alekso Girdenis, the founder of the Lithuanian school of phonology. The terminology of phonetics also came to include prosody, as a component of phonology, and the terms relevant to it (Pakerys 1982; Gaivenis, Keinys 1990). At the end of the twentieth century, IPA symbols began to be used primarily in grammars of Lithuanian published in other languages, cf. Lithuanian Grammar (LG 2006: 16–17), Грамматика литовского языка (GLJ 1985: 13–14). The Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatikoje (DLKG 2005) also introduced IPA symbols. It was observed that the universality of the IPA is particularly suitable for comparative studies of contemporary Baltic languages, where sounds from different languages need to be transcribed using the same system. For example, IPA symbols were used in the Lithuanian Institute of Language series Baltų kalbų garsynas XXI a. pradžioje3. This encouraged the creation of new terminology; for example, when referring to consonants, the metaphorical terms kietasis and minkštasis were abandoned and replaced by the international terms palatalinis (for primary palatalisation) and palatalizuotas (for secondary palatalisation) (Urbanavičienė et al. 2019: 22). The IPA system was also used to classify Lithuanian sounds phonetically. Classifications of this kind in the context of the IPA were proposed by Jurgis Pakerys (2014: 88–92), Rytis Ambraz evičius and Asta Leskauskaitė (2014: 164–167), and Asta Kazlauskienė (2018: 45). R. Ambraz evičius and A. Leskauskaitė sought to adapt IPA symbols (and the corresponding terms) to Lithuanian by comparing the F2 locus values of consonants in English and Lithuanian. In recent years, the IPA has also been refined and established in other works on the phonetics of Standard Lithuanian 3 Volume I: Balsių ir garsų sąveikos instrumentinis tyrimas (Jaroslavienė et al. 2019); Volume II: Priebalsių instrumentinis tyrimas (Urbanavičienė et al. 2019); Volume III: Lietuvių ir latvių kalbų sonantų lyginamasis akustinis ir perceptyvinis tyrimas (Urbanavičienė, Tapertė 2023). 4 in researchers’ work (see: Švageris 2022; Kazlauskienė 2023; Kazlauskienė et al. 2023; Kazlauskaitė 2024: 13–18, etc.). Because of the specific nature of phonetics, Lithuanian (and not only Lithuanian) terms in this field had to be coined primarily by specialists, since alongside phonetics, phonology, prosody, and morphonology (an intermediate discipline between phonology and morphology; see DLKG 2005: 17), research developed in the areas of speech acoustics, perceptual and statistical studies of sounds, and others. Thus, terminologists and phonetics specialists had to work together. The first Lithuanian Kalbotyros terminų žodynas (Gaivenis, Keinys 1990) was limited to terms from pure phonetics, phonology, prosody, and morphonology (Kazlauskaitė 2000: 26). Separate glossaries devoted to phonetics (2008) and phonology (2011) were compiled by Rima Bakšienė (Bacevičiūtė). R. Ambrazevičius (2011) provided a concise and illustrative overview of acoustic phonetics terminology, while A. Kazlauskienė (2018) and Evaldas Švageris (2022) reviewed experimental phonetics terminology. STRUCTURE AND PROBLEMATIC ASPECTS OF THE IPA TERM SET Synonymy of Lithuanianised international and Lithuanian IPA terms The subject chosen for this article—Lithuanian names for IPA symbols—is relatively new in phonetic terminology. Although Lithuanian phonetics has advanced considerably, its terminology (not only that for IPA symbols) varies, and names are lacking for some phenomena (especially those not characteristic of the Lithuanian language) (cf. the analysis of phonetic terms in Kazlauskaitė 2000: 25–31; see also the subsection of this article “Lithuanianised international and Lithuanian IPA terms”). The compilation of a set of Lithuanian names for IPA symbols likewise could not avoid terminological synonymy4. Although synonymy in terminology can result in a lack of precision and clarity, the absence of synonyms is nevertheless not one of the requirements for coining new terms (cf. Keinys 1980; Gaivenis 2002, etc.; see also Mitkevičienė 2015: 39–59; 2020: 1–18). However, only synonymy between Lithuanian and international terms is considered justified (Klimavičius 1975; see also Kazlauskaitė 2000: 25; Mitkevičienė 2020: 1–18, etc.), and the analysed IPA term set is characterised by this type of synonymy5. Synonymous terms predominate in the Lithuanian IPA set (64%) (see Appendix 2). Among the synonymous Lithuanianised international and Lithuanian equivalents, one-word terms predominate (57% of all synonymous terms). They are of two types: a) a Lithuanian and 4 In this article, IPA terms are considered synonymous when different names (a Lithuanianised international name and a Lithuanian name) designate the same symbol, have no differences in nuance of meaning, and are often interpreted as doublets (Gaivenis 2014: 200, etc.). For differing conceptions of synonyms in general and synonyms in terminology, see: Klimavičius 1975: 91–122; Zemlevičiūtė 2001: 35–38; Mitkevičienė 2015: 39–59; 2020: 1–18, etc. 5 As research conducted to date shows, terminological synonymy is characteristic of the terminology of many other fields as well: physics (Kaulakienė 2009); informatics and computing (Kaulakienė 2000: 23–28; Celiešienė 2011: 23–30; Auksoriūtė et al. 2018); medicine (Zemlevičiūtė 2001: 34–39); law (Umbrasas 2004: 100–118); construction (Stunžinas 2005: 7–26); astrology (Vaskelaitė 2021: 192–223); economics (Vaskelaitė 2022); clothing (Rimkutė-Ganusauskienė 2023), and others. See also Mitkevičienė 2015: 39. 5 an international term, e.g.: fricative (English fricative)6, approximant (English approximant); b) a Lithuanian term and a hybrid7, e.g.: uvular (English uvular), palatalized (English palatalized), bilabial (English bilabial), dental (English dental), glottal (English glottal). Most of the recommended one-word terms are Lithuanian terms, reflecting the broader tradition of usage in Lithuanian phonetics scholarship. Compound terms are also characterized by synonymy and consist of two to four elements, e.g.: lateral fricative (English lateral fricative), voiced labial-palatal approximant (English voiced labial-palatal approximant). Some such terms are composed of Lithuanian and international words, e.g.: nasal release (English nasal release), lateral release (English lateral release), voiced alveolar lateral flap (English voiced alveolar lateral flap). There are also cases of synonymy in which the Lithuanian equivalents of IPA character names are terms of different structures; compare one-word and two-word terms, e.g.: labiodental (English labiodental), palatal (English palatal), pharyngealized (English pharyngealized), laminal (English laminal); one-word and three-word terms, e.g.: apical (English apical); two-word and three-word terms, e.g.: alveolo-palatal fricative (English alveolo-palatal fricatives); three-word and four-word terms, e.g.: voiced labial-velar approximant (English voiced labial-velar approximant), voiceless labial-velar fricative (English voiceless labial-velar fricative). The final Lithuanian-language set of IPA terms submitted to the international phonetics community consists of the main variants of IPA terms highlighted in bold in the table (see Appendix 2 and IPA LT 2025; IPA LT2 2025). The list of main terms is dominated by: a) Lithuanian terms (65%), rather than Lithuanianized international terms (35%); b) one-word terms (59%), rather than compound terms (41%). This was determined, among other things, by their more established use in major works on phonetics and phonology, as well as by considerations of precision and clarity (cf.: Gerullis 1930; Mikalauskaitė 1975; Girdenis 2003; Pakerys 2003; Ambraz evičius, Leskauskaitė 2014; Pakerys 2014; Kazlauskienė 2018; Jaroslavienė et al. 2019; Urbanavičienė et al. 2019; Kazlauskienė et al. 2023). 6 When examining the terms, only the constituent elements of terms are given in the examples. See Appendix 2 for the complete list of terms. 7 In this article, hybrids are defined as all terms whose stems contain roots or derivational affixes from other languages (see: Kazlauskienė et al. 2011: 56; VLEₑ et al.). 6 Lithuanianized international and Lithuanian IPA terms Lithuanian IPA terms Only Lithuanian terms, without Lithuanianized equivalents, are found mainly in the vowel and suprasegmental sections of the IPA, e.g.: flap (English tap or flap), clicks (English clicks); primary stress (English primary stress), syllable boundary (English syllable break), rising (English rising), and so on (see Appendix 2). Most of these terms are already widespread and firmly established in Lithuanian phonetics scholarship; however, in some cases, when compiling the IPA set, it was necessary to seek an accurate Lithuanian equivalent because authors of phonetics works had used several terms variably for the same phonetic concept. The IPA vowel subsystem includes mid vowels of two degrees of openness (English close-mid and open-mid). In earlier phonetics studies, when the IPA sound classification was first being used more actively, the terms half-close, half-open vowel were used (see: Jaroslavienė 2015: 1–17; Bakšienė, Čepaitienė 2017: 105–135). Over time, however, the Lithuanian equivalents closer mid and more open mid became established (see: Kazlauskienė 2018; Jaroslavienė et al. 2019; Bakšienė, Čepaitienė 2024; VLKK K-25), and these are the terms used in the final IPA set. When preparing the Lithuanian IPA set, the English term clicks, which describes a particular group of non-pulmonic consonants (produced by inhaling rather than exhaling air) characteristic of the Khoisan language family, for example, found in the agglutinative Zulu language8 and articulated with certain clicks (Degėsys 2012: 40), prompted especially extensive discussion. In Lithuanian literature, such consonants are sometimes called smacking consonants (see VLE). However, the term smacking consonants is stylistically connoted and metaphorical, and does not describe the articulation of these consonants with complete accuracy. The possibility of using a Lithuanianized form of the English word, kliksas, was also considered, but it would not meet the principle of terminological effectiveness, according to which a proposed term should be clear and understandable at least to specialists in the field (Gaivenis 2002: 96). Kliksas does not evoke associations with a specific consonant articulation (a click or tongue smack) even for Lithuanian phoneticians, so the VLKK Subcommission on Pronunciation and Stress considered adopting the Lithuanian words clicks, smacks, slaps as technical terms. Equivalents in Latin were also sought—the medical terms avulsive / avulsionary were considered, but these, too, are inaccurate, since they describe more specifically the separation of a part from a whole (e.g., a fragment of bone breaking, tearing, or separating from the main part). Thus, in this case, the Lithuanian word clicks was adopted as a technical term. In converting common-language words into terms, the principles of purity, effectiveness, and economy in term formation are observed (Gaivenis 2002: 58; Bielinskienė et al. 2014: 137–151; Rutkienė 2015: 56–58). In the IPA diacritics group, the English term creaky voiced describes a creaky, discontinuous vowel articulation. Although Lithuanian has no such systemic sounds, but 8 Researchers note that Zulu has five vowels and many consonants, e.g.: dental [c], post-alveolar [q], alveolar lateral [x], and others. Consonants may have aspirated, voiced/voiceless, and other variants, each of which can be produced with so-called clicks or smacks (Degėsys 2012: 40; VLEₑ). 7 Such cases of articulation may occur, especially in dialects, for example, when pronouncing vowels with the Samogitian broken accent. The Lithuanian equivalent creaky voiced was chosen for this description because the participial form is given in many dictionaries (see E. kalba) specifically to describe qualities of the voice or sound; moreover, this term has already been used by other authors to describe features of Lithuanian intonation (see Kazlauskienė et al. 2023: 89)9. There is considerable variation in Lithuanian phonetic terms, especially in the areas of suprasegmental units and prosody. Terms in Lithuanian linguistic studies of these areas have not become established; prosody, particularly Lithuanian intonation, has been studied somewhat less, and only in recent years have more substantial works on prosody appeared (Kazlauskienė 2023; Kazlauskienė et al. 2023). Among the terms that vary most in works on phonetics are the names for the boundary markers [|] and [||] indicating phrase pauses (internal, syntagmatic-boundary, and final). In English, these signs are denoted by multiword compound terms—minor (foot) group and major (intonation) group. In Lithuanian scholarly works, the first sign [|] has most often been described using the terms intonation-unit pause / end of an internal phrase (syntagm) / pause at a syntagm boundary, while the second [||] has been described as end of an intonation unit and end of a phrase. After discussion, the final Lithuanian IPA set adopted three-word Lithuanian terms of analogous structure for both signs: end of an internal phrase and end of an intonation phrase. The English pair of terms high rising / low rising, describing changes in the tone contour, has been translated into Lithuanian as strongly rising / weakly rising, although there was also considerable discussion of the latter during consideration of the IPA set, particularly about which Lithuanian adverb would most accurately convey a lesser degree of tone change. Another pair of English terms in the group describing tone features, extra high / extra low, describes not a change in the tone contour but its steady level. In Lithuanian, it was translated without the international word, likewise using a Lithuanian adverb: very low / very high. A sudden lowering or raising of the tone level is described in the English version of the IPA using the terms downstep / upstep, which are proposed in Lithuanian as step down / step up; the word step has already become a common term denoting some kind of abrupt change, used in many other fields of science, cf. energy jump (in physics), price jump (in economics), etc. (see TB). The IPA signs [↗] and [↘], used to indicate a rise or fall in the phrase intonation contour, are described in the English version as global rise / global fall. However, in translating them, the international word global was avoided, and the more familiar Lithuanian terms general rise / general fall were chosen. The prosody section of the IPA includes the English term linking, given with an explanation in parentheses (absence of a break), which describes the diacritic—the tie bar [ˍ]—used in transcribing the most common way of attaching clitics to stressed words. For this term, when considering 9 The Lithuanian IPA term set will probably be refined further, so a shorter adjectival variant of this term, creaky, may also be considered in the future. For now, it was not considered because no Lithuanian dictionary lists such a word; however, compare girgždus ‘creaking, squeaking’ (see E. kalba). 8 several Lithuanian equivalents were proposed for the Lithuanian set: connection / close linkage / combination and the like. Ultimately, however, the more familiar term in linguistics (for example, in syntax), cliticization, was chosen, and the explanation in parentheses was translated as absence of a break. Lithuanised international IPA terms Some IPA terms are used very rarely in Lithuanian phonetics studies because Lithuanian has no sounds with that type of articulation; for example, it has no non-pulmonic (English non-pulmonic), or non-pulmonic, consonants produced by drawing air into the lungs rather than pushing it out; nor does it have specific vowels pronounced with an [r]-colouring, which are characteristic of the American variety of English (a special diacritic marks this type of pronunciation, called rhoticity in English), and so on. One way of naming a new phonetic concept in Lithuanian is to Lithuanise an international term10. This approach allows several options: 1) borrow the entire international term (adding only a Lithuanian ending); 2) borrow the international root and adapt the word-formation model from Lithuanian; 3) borrow the word-formation model while taking the term’s root and affixes from Lithuanian (see Gaivenis 2014: 327; cf. also Drotvinas 2002: 20). In Lithuanising international IPA terms, the second, hybrid method of term formation was used most often: a Lithuanian suffix is added to an international root11 (for more on the word-formation features of the IPA set, see the subsection “Characteristic features of IPA term formation”). We will discuss in greater detail several less common Lithuanised international terms. In the IPA, the consonants of all languages are first divided into two main groups: those produced by pushing out the compressed airflow from the lungs (English pulmonic consonants) and those articulated by drawing air into the lungs (English non-pulmonic consonants). In the IPA set, the latter consonants are divided by manner of articulation into three classes: 1) consonants produced when excess air pressure builds up not in the lungs but in the vocal tract, in the larynx, with the glottis closed (English ejectives); 2) consonants generated at the palate and pronounced with a specific tongue click or smack (English clicks; see the subsection “Lithuanian IPA terms” for more); 3) consonants produced when an obstruction is overcome by a burst that directs the airflow inward rather than outward (English implosives). It was decided to name all these sounds, which are little known in Lithuanian linguistics, using Lithuanised international terms. The terms pulmonic and non-pulmonic (from Latin pulmonis ‘lung’), which are well known, for example, in medicine, were selected as the primary terms for the two largest consonant classes12. It was decided to avoid 10The concept of Lithuanisation of an international term is used in the article to describe both hybrids (e.g., uvular) and borrowings adapted to the grammatical system of Lithuanian (e.g., click). A broader term, Lithuanisation, was chosen, encompassing both phonetic and grammatical adaptation of international terms; cf. English fricative / Lithuanian fricative; English pharyngeal / Lithuanian pharyngeal. Other researchers also refer to this phenomenon as grammaticalisation (Drotvinas 2002: 20) or adaptation (Kalėdienė 2008: 50–60). 11 International words can be adapted to the Lithuanian system to varying degrees: 1) unadapted (indeclinable); 2) minimally adapted (only endings are added); 3) sufficiently adapted (with Lithuanian word-formational affixes) (Kalėdienė 2008: 52). In Lithuanising IPA phonetic terms, they were sufficiently adapted, that is, Lithuanian word-formational affixes were added. 12 Pulmonologija – mokslas, tiriantis plaučius ir jų ligas, žr. TŽŽ 2008: 617. 9 Lithuanian equivalents pulmonic and non-pulmonic were chosen to preserve the systematic nature of this group of terms. The classes assigned to non-pulmonic consonants have also been named with terms whose roots are of Latin origin; cf. ejective (from Latin jectio ‘expulsion; spitting out’) and implosive (from Latin implosio ‘striking in’) consonants13. Another IPA term, rhoticity, also describes an articulation that is not characteristic of Lithuanian speech sounds. However, Lithuanian linguistics has similar terms with the same root, derived from the name ro of the Greek letter ρ. Speech therapy specialists use the term rotacism (r-sound misarticulation), which describes one of the forms of dyslalia14: incorrect pronunciation of [r], [rʲ], in which these sounds are omitted, replaced by others ([l], [ʋ], [ʒ], [j]), or pronounced in a distorted way (a single-tap sound is produced instead of a trill, a palatal consonant instead of a vibratory one, etc.)15 (Garšvienė, Ivoškūvienė 1993; see also Böhme 2003)16. The IPA term rhoticity describes the pronunciation of vowels that acquire an [r]-colouring in pre-consonantal position (before the consonant [r]). In the IPA chart, they are marked by a diacritic—a hook [˞] placed after the letter (e.g., [ɑ˞], [ɜ˞], [ə˞]). This pronunciation is characteristic of Mandarin Chinese, as well as of the American variety of English, e.g., far ‘distant’ [fɑ˞], fur ‘coat’ [fɜ˞]17. When rhotic vowels are articulated, a narrowing occurs in the pharynx, the front part of the oral cavity widens, the back of the tongue retracts towards the larynx, and the tip of the tongue is raised. This tongue position is also called retroflex, and acoustically such vowels are characterized by a lower third formant (Trask 2006: 310). When considering the IPA chart, the Lithuanian equivalent virpėjimas (‘vibration’) was proposed for the term rhoticity. However, the broad paradigm of this term in English was taken into account: alongside rhoticity, linguistic terminology dictionaries also use rhotacism, rhotacization, rhotacized, rhotic (Trask 2006: 310–311; Matthews 2007: 347–348; Crystal 2011: 417). This implies that the term is likely to have wider currency in the Lithuanian context as well, so a broader derivational potential needed to be envisaged when creating an equivalent. This is best achieved by choosing a hybrid term-formation model in which the Lithuanian suffix –iškumas is added to the Greek-derived root rot-. This approach makes it possible to form a whole paradigm of related terms (cf. rotiškumas, rotinimas, rotizacija, rotinis, etc.). 13 These derivatives formed with the suffix –inis are considered hybrids; see footnote 7. 14 Dyslalia is a phonetic speech disorder characterized by persistent mispronunciation of speech sounds, most often consonants (see TB). 15 Rotacism is further divided into several types: 1) pararotacism, in which [l], [ʋ], [ʒ], [j] are pronounced instead of [r]; 2) a single-tap [ɾ] is pronounced instead of a trill [r]; 3) a labial [ʀ] is pronounced instead of an alveolar [r]; 4) a velar [ʁ] is pronounced instead of an alveolar [r]; 5) a lateral [l] is pronounced instead of a trill [r] (Juškienė 2008: 40). 16 Rotacism is also the name of a historical phonetic phenomenon characteristic, for example, of early Latin, in which the consonant [s] between vowels undergoes rhotacization, that is, it changes into [r]. For example, the genitive of the Latin noun genus ‘kind’ is generis < genesis (TŽŽ 2008: 652; cf. Trask 2006: 310; Matthews 2007: 347). 17 In the dialects of south-western England, the opposite phenomenon, rhoticity, occurs: [r] is retained where other dialects do not pronounce it, e.g., tower ‘tower’, turn ‘turn’ (Matthews 2007: 347–348). 10 It should be noted that most of the discussed Lithuanised international IPA terms are of Latin origin (cf. Gaivenis 2002: 58), which ensures their precision, systematicity, objectivity, and stylistic neutrality. As mentioned earlier, Lithuanised equivalents in the IPA are predominantly hybrid formations and are most often chosen to name consonants, e.g.: alveolinis (English alveolar), retrofleksinis (English retroflex), palatoalveolinis (English palatoalveolar), ejektyviniai (English ejectives). Lithuanian IPA terms are more frequent in the vowel and prosodic-unit sections (see the subsection “Lithuanian IPA Terms” for more detail). This distribution can be explained by the fact that consonant articulation is closely linked to the terminology of the vocal tract, which is dominated by terms of Latin origin that are also used in other fields of science (medicine, speech therapy, etc.). More characteristic features of TFA term formation The Lithuanian IPA set contains 125 non-repeating lexical units, of which primary words (at least, words considered primary from the perspective of the present-day language), together with derived forms, account for 21 percent. They most often occur as components of multi-word terms, e.g.: middle palate, downward glide, word stress, and so on. Among the more frequent derived forms are pronominal adjectives—most often, established terms for the articulatory properties of vowels and consonants, e.g.: long, continuant, voiceless. An exception is formed by simple adjectives used in combinations with the adverb very, which in itself indicates an exceptional degree of the property expressed by the adjective, e.g.: very short, very high. Several comparative adverbs are also proposed as terms, e.g.: more rounded / less rounded, more pharyngeal. Participial forms constitute a large group; as components of IPA terms, they occur in various types and tenses, e.g.: active present participles—rising, falling, creaking; active past simple participles—devoiced, retracted, rounded (see below on prefixes); passive present participles (usually pronominal)—plosive, trilled, fricative, inaudible; passive past simple participles—centralized, palatalized, pharyngealized, velarized (see below on the suffix –uoti). Among Lithuanised international IPA terms there are also words without clear derivational formants, to which only a Lithuanian ending has been added in the process of Lithuanisation, e.g.: phrase, tone (see also the subsection “Lithuanised International IPA Terms”). The IPA set is dominated by suffixal derivatives from various parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs); together with terms containing foreign-origin suffixes, they account for 61 percent of all lexical units. Most are adjectives formed with the highly productive suffix -inis, which has a range of meanings and is particularly characteristic of terms (see in more detail: Kniūkšta 1976; DLKG 2005: 210–216); they make up as much as 68 percent of suffixal derivatives. Most derivatives with the suffix -inis occur among competing Lithuanised international and Lithuanian synonyms. This suffix is the most common affix added to Lithuanised international terms. In the set, it is attached both to foreign-origin words with a single root, e.g.: alveolar 11 (Latin alveolus ‘a small trough, hollow’), palatalinis (Latin palatum ‘palate’); as well as those with foreign-origin prefixes (probably derived from prepositions), e.g.: postalveolinis (Latin post ‘after, behind, later’ + alveolus), epiglotlalinis (Greek epí ‘on, above, beside’ + glóttis ‘glottis’); and also words with two international roots, e.g.: palatoalveolinis (Latin palatum + alveolus), labioveliarinis (Latin labium ‘lip’ + velum ‘soft palate’), etc. Although word formation of the latter type (compound stem + –inis) is not very characteristic of Lithuanian (for such Lithuanian IPA terms, see below), given the prevalence of international labels in scientific-style texts, some were nevertheless selected as the sole recommended variants because they are widely used in linguistic works and in some cases have no Lithuanian equivalent, for example, retrofleksinis. Other labels of this kind occur rarely in the works of Lithuanian phoneticians, and the sound features they describe are not characteristic of Lithuanian, e.g.: linguolabilinis, alveololateralinis. In such cases, too, it was decided to give preference to international terms, since their Lithuanian equivalents would often be more cumbersome and compound, and in some cases would inevitably repeat the same international words within the Lithuanian term, e.g.: labiopalatalinis (cf. lip-palatal), alveolopalatalinis (cf. alveolar palatal), and so on. Lithuanian IPA terms also include a great many derivatives with the suffix -inis. Most are derivatives of primary nouns that have become established and clear phonetic terms, e.g.: labial, dental, nasal, etc. The collection does not recommend as primary variants prefixed derivatives with the suffix -inis, such as postalveolar, epiglottal18. There are only a few derivatives from other parts of speech and with other suffixes in the IPA collection. Term formation is characterized by an abundance of derivatives with abstract meanings (for more detail, see Keinys 1975: 9–14), and therefore a relatively large group among the IPA terms consists of verbal abstracts with the suffix -imas, such as clicking, assimilation, absence, rising, falling, explosion; and a single adjectival abstract, the derivative rhoticity formed with the suffix -umas, whose expression was discussed during compilation of the collection (see the subsection “Lithuanised International IPA Terms”). The derivational base of the latter term is also the suffixed adjective rhotic, which has so far been rare in Lithuanian linguistic works; however, there are many phonetic-science terms formed with the suffixes -iškas > -iškumas, cf.: monophthongal / monophthongous > monophthongality / monophthongousness, diphthongal / diphthongous > diphthongality / diphthongousness, etc. Thus, the term does not conflict with the word-formation system of Lithuanian; it is based on productive suffixes, and its base adjective has a clearly expressed derivational meaning, ‘resembling the thing denoted by the base word’ (DLKG 2005: 207). The collection contains adverbs formed with the suffixes –(i)ai that occur in multiword terms, e.g.: rising sharply / rising weakly; and with –yn, which indicates direction (for more detail, see DLKG 2005: 429–431), e.g.: a downward jump / an upward jump. 18 Although some terms from other fields formed in this way have become established in usage, most of them contain the prefixes iki- and prieš-, cf.: preschool, antiaircraft, etc. (see TB). 12 In the group of Lithuanised international terms, many nouns have suffixes of foreign origin, e.g.: -antas: vibrantas, aproksimantas; –yuas: frikatyvas, ejektyvas; –entas: elementas; –ūras: kontūras. Lithuanised international participial forms should be mentioned separately; their source verbs are formed with the suffix –uoti, which gives the meaning ‘to make or render what is denoted by the base word’ (for more detail, see DLKG 2005: 387–388), e.g.: aspirated, centred, velarised. In this group, in two cases involving synonymous variants, preference was given to the international terms, e.g.: palatalizuotas (English palatalized), cf. the corresponding Lithuanian word softened, and veliarizuotas (English velarized), cf. hardened. The Lithuanian equivalents of these terms, like the words soft, hard, which denote the main characteristics of sounds, are metaphorical and indirectly describe the articulation of the sounds they denote, whereas the international terms are more precise because they indicate palatal articulation of one kind or another (see also the section “IPA Terminology in Earlier Lithuanian Phonetics Works”). Prefixed derivatives make up 12 per cent of all lexical items in the IPA collection. Most of these are participial forms (usually active past simple participles) whose source verbs are formed with the prefix pa-, which has the derivational meaning ‘to perform an action to a lesser or weaker degree than the action denoted by the base word’ (DLKG 2005: 405). All participles of this type are terms describing diacritics; thus, they denote only an additional, partial sound feature acquired through coarticulation, prosody and/or other factors, differing in lesser intensity from the inherent properties of the sound, which are usually named with words (most often (non-)pronominal adjectives) without prefixes. Most such terms in the collection are Lithuanian equivalents of English words, and no international terms are available, e.g.: partially devoiced (English voiceless), cf. voiceless¹⁹; partially voiced (English voiced), cf. voiced; advanced (English advanced), cf. front; retracted (English retracted), cf. back; raised (English raised), cf. high; lowered (English lowered), cf. low. The IPA collection contains three Lithuanian terms with the prefix su-: rounded, labialised and nasalised. The prefix su- in these terms marks the endpoint or completion of an action; verbs formed in this way usually convey intensification of the action and movement towards a particular result, cf.: become round: become fully rounded, make labial: labialise, nasalise: become nasalised (for more detail, see DLKG 2005: 402). It was decided to use the Lithuanian equivalents more rounded / less rounded for the English terms more rounded / less rounded. However, there was considerable discussion about the Lithuanian participial form, and other possible variants were also considered: rounded / labialised / labialized. English terminology includes two terms describing lip activity in the primary or secondary sound articulation (coarticulation), namely rounded and labialized. Their meanings are not 19 In some cases, English terms denoting both the primary and secondary sound feature sound alike, e.g.: English voiced ‘voiced’, ‘assimilated to voiced’ (fully assimilated, when a change in distinctive features occurs), and ‘partially voiced’ (having acquired only some voicing features, but with no phonemic change); correspondingly, English voiceless ‘voiceless’, ‘assimilated to voiceless’ and ‘partially devoiced’. 13 are not entirely identical: the first describes the protrusion of the lips and specifically their rounding (this is most characteristic of vowels and the labialized consonants adjacent to them, e.g., [²'tupʼe] ~ tūpė), while the second can also be used with the same meaning as the first, but denotes any activity of the lips, not necessarily their rounding. For example, vowels adjacent to bilabial consonants [p], [b] are somewhat labialized, but the lips are not rounded: [²'pɑːdɛs] ~ pādas, [²'bɑːdɛs] ~ bādas. Thus, it was decided to choose rounded as the equivalent of the English term rounded, which describes an additional sound feature21 indicated by a diacritic (the active participle form was chosen to match the other Lithuanian equivalents; compare the forms already mentioned, raised, lowered, fronted, backed). The prefix su-, rather than pa-, as in other similar terms for diacritic groups, was chosen because the term is compound and consists of two words, and because the adverbs more and less, which indicate the degree of rounding, occur alongside it. In this case, the variant more slightly rounded / less slightly rounded would be semantically unsuitable, since pa-, as noted, already itself indicates a weaker action. There are very few suffixal derivatives in the IPA list of terms (6 percent of all lexical units); only a few terms qualify, formed from verbs, as is usual for words created by this method (for more, see Keinys 1979: 155–183), and most often occurring in multiword complex terms, e.g.: end of internal phrase, absence of interruption, etc. Among the Lithuanian terms under discussion, we also find just a few words (3 percent of all lexical units) formed by compounding. As is usual with compounds, an additional derivational affix—an ending—is most often added. These include relatively well-established phonetic terms such as bilabial, single-tap, and half-long. The first of these merits somewhat more extensive comment. For the English term bilabial, which describes the labial articulation of consonants and is more widespread in usage, a Lithuanian equivalent was proposed, but its derivational form—abilūpis or abilūpinis—was debated. The suffixed form, abilūpinis, is presented in A. Kazlauskienė’s phonetics textbook (2018: 50)22, whereas A. Pakeris’s phonetics textbook (2003: 73) describes these consonants as bilabial (labial), and A. Girdenis’s phonology monograph (2003: 89) describes them only as labial. Taking into account recommendations on forming derivatives with the suffix -inis—that such forms are not generally derived from two-stem words in standard language, while the ending is considered an additional derivational device for compounds—the form without the suffix, abilūpis, was selected; compare everyday, multifaceted, New Year’s, etc. 20 For transcription using IPA characters, see VLKK K-25. 21 The primary (voiced) labial articulation of a sound, marked not by a diacritic but by a different symbol, is also described as rounded in the English IPA version; compare the English Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel. In Lithuanian linguistic tradition, the term labial, labial vowels is universally used in this case (and correspondingly non-labial, non-labial vowels) (see Girdenis 2003: 200; Pakerys 2003: 24; Kazlauskienė 2018: 37, etc.). Thus, the aforementioned phrase was translated as follows: When symbols are presented in pairs, the one on the right represents a labial vowel. 22 The textbook’s author supported the suffixed form when considering the set. 14 CONCLUSIONS The IPA term set discussed here consists of Lithuanianized international terms and Lithuanian terms, most of which (64 percent) are used synonymously. These synonyms have no differences in meaning and can be interpreted as doublets. Such synonymy is not to be avoided; it is characteristic of other fields of science as well. Structurally, the IPA set consists mostly of single-word terms (57 percent), while by origin it contains equal numbers of Lithuanian and international terms. The list of main recommended terms presented here is dominated by single-word (58 percent) and Lithuanian (65 percent) terms. Lithuanian terms without Lithuanianized international equivalents predominate in the sections of the IPA set covering vowels and suprasegmental elements. Most of them are already widespread and firmly established in Lithuanian phonetics scholarship. The IPA set also provides several Lithuanian equivalents for English terms. In the IPA set, Lithuanianized international terms most often describe concepts defining phonetic features that are atypical or very rare in Lithuanian. In adapting international IPA terms into Lithuanian, the hybrid derivational model was most often used: a Lithuanian suffix is added to a borrowed international root. In the IPA set, hybrid formation ensures the stylistic neutrality of terms and helps avoid the metaphorical quality sometimes characteristic of Lithuanian terms. From the perspective of term formation, the IPA set under discussion is not complex: it contains a smaller proportion of simplex words (21 percent of all lexical units), most often occurring in complex terms, and a considerably larger proportion (79 percent of all lexical units) of derived forms, among which derivatives with the most versatile suffix –inis predominate (68 percent of all suffixal derivatives). Derivatives formed with other suffixes and terms formed by other methods are relatively few (of all lexical units, 12 percent are prefixal derivatives, 6 percent are suffixal derivatives, and 3 percent are compounds). The more important problematic aspects of preparing the IPA set can be identified as follows: 1) selecting between synonymous international and Lithuanian terms for the main recommended variant (the criterion of established usage was applied, with preference given to the more widespread term); 2) the absence of Lithuanian equivalents for less common English terms (lexical items from general language were terminologized; international terms were Lithuanianized); 3) variation in Lithuanian phonetic terms in linguistic scholarship (usage prevalence and the principles of clarity, precision, and economy of terms were taken into account); 4) variation in the forms used to create phonetic terms (derivational models were selected that best fit the Lithuanian word-formation system and increase the derivational potential of terms, allowing a broad paradigm of terms to be created). To sum up the analysis, it should be emphasized that the Lithuanian IPA set includes a substantial number of new terms describing less common phonetic phenomena; it is therefore likely to be refined in the future in light of the latest research in Lithuanian and international phonetics. 15 LITERATŪRA Albright Robert W. 1958: The International Phonetic Alphabet: Its Backgrounds and Development, Indiana University Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics, publication 7, Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Ambrazevičius Rytis 2011: Kalbos akustika glaustai [Language Acoustics Concisely], Kaunas: Technologija. Ambrazevičius Rytis, Leskauskaitė Asta 2014: Priebalsių akustinės ypatybės: palatalizacija ir balsingumas [Acoustic Characteristics of Consonants: Palatalization and Voicing], Kaunas: Technologija. Auksoriūtė Albina, Gaivenytė-Butler Jolanta, Labanauskienė Solvita, Mitkevičienė Asta, Stunžinas Robertas, Umbrasas Alvydas, Zemlevičiūtė Palmira 2018: Lietuviškos informatikos ir kompiuterijos terminijos tyrimai [Research into Lithuanian Terminology of Informatics and Computing], Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Bacevičiūtė Rima 2008: Fonet ikos terminai: Žodynėlis ir mokomosios užduotys [Phonetic Terms: Glossary and Educational Tasks], Vilnius: Vilniaus pedagoginio universiteto leidykla. Bakšienė Rima 2011: Fonologijos terminai: žodynėlis ir mokomosios užduotys [Phonology Terms: Glossary and Educational Tasks], Vilnius: Edukologija. Bakšienė Rima, Čepaitienė Agnė 2017: Tarptautinės fonetinės abėcėlės taikymo lietuvių tarmių garsams galimybės [Opportunities for International Phonetic Alphabet Application to the Sounds of Lithuanian Dialects]. – Baltistica 52(1), 105–135. Bakšienė Rima, Čepaitienė Agnė 2024: Tarptautinės fonetinės abėcėlės rašmenys lietuvių tarmėtyroje [International Phonetic Alphabet Characters in Lithuanian Dialectology], Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Prieiga internete: https://doi.org/10.35321/e-pub.135.tfa-lietuviu-tarmetyroje. Bakšienė Rima, Čepaitienė Agnė, Jaroslavienė Jurgita, Urbanavičienė Jolita 2023: Standard Lithuanian. – Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 1–31. Available at: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-phonetic-association/article/abs/standard-lithuanian/eC7F33eC51FCe-8F7142a63D99C38199D. Bielinskienė Agnė, Kazlauskienė Asta, Rimkutė Erika, Tamošiūnaitė Aurelija 2014: Lietuvių bendrinė kalba: normos ir vartosena [Standard Lithuanian Language: Language Norms and Usage], Kaunas: Versus aureus. Böhme Gerhard 2003: Sprach-, Sprech-, Stimm- und Schluckstörungen 1: Klinik [Language, Speech, Voice and Swallowing Disorders 1: Clinic], Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag. 16 Būga Kazimieras 1958–1961: Rinktiniai raštai 1–3 [Selected Works 1–3], sudarė Z. Zinkevičius, Vilnius: Valstybinė politinės ir mokslinės literatūros leidykla. Celiėšienė Vilija 2011: Įvairiakilmė sinonimija – dėsningas lietuviškos kompiuterijos terminijos norminimo etapas [Heterogeneous Synonymy: A Regular Stage in the Process of Standardisation of Lithuanian Computer Science Terminology]. – Santalka: Filologija, Edukologija 19(1), 25–30. Crystal David 2011: A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, 6th edition, Malden: Blackwell Publishing. Degėsys Gediminas 2012: Zulų kalba – kaip Afrikos paukščių čiulbėjimas [The Zulu Language – Like the Chirping of African Birds]. – Spectrum 2(17), 38–41. DLKG 2005: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika [Grammar of Modern Lithuanian], red. V. Ambrazas, 4-asis papildytas leidimas, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. Drotvinas Vincentas 2002: Ar lietuviški leksikologijos terminai? [Are the Lexicology Terms Lithuanian?]. – Žmogus ir žodis I, 18–21. Durys Mykolas 1929: Kalbos mokslo pagrindai [Fundamentals of Linguistics], Kaunas: Švyturys. E. kalba: Lietuvių kalbos išteklių informacinė sistema „E. kalba“ [Lithuanian Language Resources Information System E-Language]. Prieiga internete: https://ekalba.lt/ [žiūrėta 2025-05-25]. Ekblom Richard 1922: Manuel phonétique de la langue Lithuanienne [Phonetic Guide to the Lithuanian Language]. – Archives d’études orientales 19, Stockholm: Norstedt. Gaivenis Kazimieras 2002: Lietuvių terminologija: teorijos ir tvarkybos metmenys [Lithuanian Terminology: Outline of Theory and Normalisation], Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla. Gaivenis Kazimieras 2014: Rinktiniai raštai [Selected Works], Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. 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Kazlauskienė Asta 2018: Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos fonetikos ir fonologijos pagrindai [Foundations of Standard Lithuanian Phonetics and Phonology], Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas. Prieiga internete: https://portalcris.vdu.lt/server/api/core/bitstreams/b558511b-6c9b-47f7-ba28-7e488e8d0a55/content. Kazlauskienė Asta 2023: Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos skiemuo [The Syllable in the Standard Lithuanian Language], Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas. Kazlauskienė Asta, Dereškevičiūtė Sigita, Sabonytė Regina 2023: Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos intonacija: frazės centras, ribos ir žymėjimas [Standard Lithuanian Intonation: Phrase Centre, Boundaries and Marking], Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas. Prieiga internete: https://ebooks.vdu.lt/eb/3160/bendrines-lietuviu-kalbos-intonacija-frazes-centras-ribos-ir-zymejimas/. 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Tarptautinės fonetinės abėcėlės (TFA) terminų lietuviškų atitikmenų sąrašas Originalus TFA (IPA) terminas Sulietuvintas tarptautinis terminas Lietuviškas terminas CONSONANTS (PULMONIC) PRIEBALSAI (PULMONINIAI) PRIEBALSAI (PLAUTINIAI) bilabial bilabialinis abilūpis labiodental labiodentalinis lūpinis dantinis dental dentalinis dantinis alveolar alveolinis postalveolar postalveolinis užalveolinis retroflex retrofleksinis palatal palatalinis gomurio vidurinis velar veliarinis gomurio užpakalinis uvular uvuliarinis liežuvėlinis pharyngeal faringalinis ryklinis glottal glotalinis gerklinis plosive eksplozinis sprogstamasis nasal nazalinis nosinis trill vibrantas virpamasis tap or flap viendūžis fricative frikatyvas pučiamasis lateral fricative lateralinis frikatyvas šoninis pučiamasis approximant aproksimantas sklandusis lateral approximant lateralinis aproksimantas šoninis aproksimantas CONSONANTS (NON-PULMONIC) PRIEBALSAI (NEPULMONINIAI) PRIEBALSAI (NEPLAUTINIAI) clicks spragtelėjimai bilabial bilabialinis abilūpis dental dentalinis dantinis (post)alveolar (post)alveolinis (už)alveolinis palatoalveolar palatoalveolinis alveolar lateral alveolinis lateralinis alveolinis šoninis voiced implosives skardieji imploziniai bilabial bilabialinis abilūpis dental/alveolar dentalinis / alveolinis dantinis / alveolinis palatal palatalinis gomurio vidurinis velar veliarinis gomurio užpakalinis uvular uvuliarinis liežuvėlinis ejectives ejektyviniai bilabial bilabialinis abilūpis dental/alveolar dentalinis / alveolinis dantinis / alveolinis velar veliarinis gomurio užpakalinis alveolar fricative alveolinis frikatyvas alveolinis pučiamasis OTHER SYMBOLS KITI ŽENKLAI 24 voiceless labial-velar fricative duslusis labioveliarinis pučiamasis duslusis lūpinis gomurinis pučiamasis voiced labial-velar approximant skardusis labioveliarinis aproksimantas skardusis lūpinis gomurinis sklandusis voiced labial-palatal approximant skardusis labiopalatalinis aproksimantas skardusis lūpinis palatalinis sklandusis voiceless epiglottal fricative duslusis epiglot alinis pučiamasis duslusis antgerklinis pučiamasis voiced epiglottal fricative skardusis epiglot alinis pučiamasis skardusis antgerklinis pučiamasis epiglottal plosive epiglot alinis sprogstamasis antgerklinis sprogstamasis alveolo-palatal fricatives alveolopalatalinis pučiamasis alveolinis palatalinis pučiamasis voiced alveolar lateral flap skardusis alveololateralinis viendūžis skardusis alveolinis šoninis viendūžis simultaneous ʃ and x simultaninis VOWELS BALSAI close uždarasis close-mid vidutinis uždaresnysis open-mid vidutinis atviresnysis open atvirasis front priešakinis central centrinis vidurinis back užpakalinis SUPRASEGMENTALS SUPERSEGMENTINIAI ELEMENTAI primary stress pagrindinis kirtis secondary stress šalutinis kirtis long ilgasis half-long pusilgis extra-short labai trumpas minor (foot) group vidinės frazės pabaiga major (intonation) group intonacinės frazės pabaiga syllable break skiemens riba linking (absence of a break) šliejimas (pertrūkio nebuvimas) tones and word accents tonai ir žodžio kirčiai level lygis contour kontūras extra high labai aukštas high aukštas mid vidutinis low žemas extra low labai žemas downstep šuolis aukštyn upstep šuolis žemyn rising kylantis 25 falling krintantis high rising ryškiai kylantis low rising silpnai kylantis rising-falling kylantis-krintantis global rise bendrasis kilimas global fall bendrasis kritimas DIACRITICS DIAKRITIKAI voiceless paduslėjės voiced paskardėjės aspirated aspiruotas more rounded daugiau suapvalėjęs less rounded mažiau suapvalėjęs advanced papriešakėjęs retracted paužpakalėjęs centralized centruotas mid-centralized vidutinis centruotas syllabic silabinis skiemeninis non-syllabic nesilabinis neskiemeninis rhoticity rotiškumas breathy voiced kimus skardusis creaky voiced gergždžiantis skardusis linguolabial lingvolabialinis liežuvio lūpinis labialized labializuotas sulūpintas palatalized palatalizuotas paminkštėjęs velarized veliarizuotas pakietėjęs pharyngealized faringalizuotas labiau ryklinis dental dentalinis dantinis apical apikalinis liežuvio galo priešakinis laminal laminalinis liežuvio priešakinis nasalized nazalizuotas sunosintas nasal release nazalinis sprogimas nosinis sprogimas lateral release lateralinis sprogimas šoninis sprogimas no audible release negirdimas sprogimas velarized or pharyngealized veliarizuotas ar faringalizuotas labiau gomurinis ar labiau ryklinis raised paaukštėjęs lowered pažemėjęs advanced tongue root papriešakėjęsi liežuvio šaknis retracted tongue root paužpakalėjusi liežuvio šaknis 26