Santrumpos: sandara ir sintaksinė vartosena

60 Languages and Culture | 84 RAMUNĖ VASKELAITĖ Lietuvos bankas saNtruMPos: saNDara and syntaXsINE use KEY WORDS: alphabetic abbreviations, syllable abbreviations, mixed abbreviations, abbreviations, syntactic relationship, explanatory word, symbolic name. INTRODUCTION Abbreviation of words and their combinations in written language is not a new phenomenon. The fact that a lot of abbreviations are used was already established three decades ago, when the second edition of the Lithuanian Spelling and Punctuation (hereinafter – lKrs) was published (lKrs 1992: 73). but this phenomenon has not been studied in detail in Lithuanian linguistics. Abbreviations of various kinds are usually mentioned in language encyclopedias, handbooks or advisory publications (lKŽin 1998; lKE 1999; KancKP 2000; Kniūkšta 2004), mainly as a spelling issue. This phenomenon has been looked at with a more problematic view, perhaps, only in the articles of Rūta Marcinkevičienė (2003), Gintautas Grigas (2007) and Asta Kazlauskienė (2008). They show that at least one type of abbreviation, the so-called alphabetic abbreviations, is used extensively, their variety has increased due to the influx of abbreviations from other languages into Lithuanian, and the existing norm is no longer sufficient in changing circumstances. The above issues are mainly raised by the aforementioned authors in 2008). The santrumpų rašybos, lietuvinimo, tarimo (Grigas 2007; Kazlauskienė 2008) arba klasifikacijos ir sampratos dalykai (Marcinkevičienė 2003; Kazlauskienė author of this article does not choose these things as the direct object of analysis. The article chooses to examine abbreviations in an almost unexplored aspect of Lithuanian linguistics – the structure and, it can be said, completely unexplored – syntactic usage. This choice is primarily explained by the aim of revealing the diversity of abbreviations in current usage and the laws of their functioning in a coherent text, but at the same time it is considered that a detailed, systematic analysis of the structure and syntactic usage could be a starting point for decisions on their spelling, adaptation or other norms. r. VasKElaItĖ. abbreviations: structure and syntactic usage 61 analysis is based on real usage, more specifically the language of the economic field. Selected texts of a special genre – comprehensive annual, quarterly or monthly reports, bulletins and announcements, including those translated from English, regularly published by the Bank of Lithuania and/or available on its website. All these publications have in common the fact that they review the development of economic and financial processes in Lithuania or other European Union countries over a certain period. Although the main focus is on the monetary, financial and banking sectors, as is appropriate for a central bank of a country, all areas of economic functioning are basically covered, thus reflecting a large part of the abbreviations used in economic language. The patterns of their use should not be alien to the use of other areas. Some texts are more, others less characterized by an analytical element, in places even approaching the scientific style, but basically their genre should be considered as an overview. For convenience, the selected sources of use of abbreviations are referred to in the article as economic reviews. When analyzing the peculiarities of the structure of abbreviations and their functioning in a coherent text, it is impossible to lose sight of their current norm, simply because it is one of the factors determining the peculiarities of usage. The approximation of consumption and norm is also important as an opportunity to reveal their adequacy. This analysis cannot be undertaken without identifying the phenomenon under consideration. and it is quite difficult to do this, and not only because abbreviations, which consist of the first letters of the elements of the word combination or other elements, are called differently in almost every work mentioning them. If all these terms were only synonyms, it would be enough to choose one which, unfortunately, in some works synonymous terms are used in others to designate certain types or subspecies of abbreviations. Thus, the choice of a term to describe the subject is a question of its boundaries. Thus, in order to solve the problem of naming the subject under consideration, to define its boundaries and to justified the choice of the term used in the article, before examining this linguistic phenomenon, it is necessary to at least briefly review the terminology that designates it in Lithuanian linguistics. TERMS AND CONDITIONS Abbreviations consisting of the first letters or other elements of words or their combinations, mainly representing various names, in Lithuanian literature of a descriptive, normative and scientific nature are called abbreviations. 62 Languages Culture | 84 mi alphabetical abbreviations of names, abbreviations, indicating the type of abbreviations (letter, syllable) or without mentioning it, acronyms, abbreviations, less often – abbreviations. These works show that the most problematic is the ratio of abbreviations and acronyms, abbreviations / abbreviations and acronyms. (Alphabetical) abbreviations and acronyms The Lithuanian terms abbreviations and acronyms used as synonyms for abbreviated names are used only in some works, for example, lKrs (1992: 73–74). such substitutions are herein referred to as both abbreviations and alphabetical abbreviations of names. However, other types of abbreviations (e.g., graphic) are not called abbreviations, they are named only as abbreviations, which would indicate that abbreviations tend to be distinguished as a specific type of abbreviations in lKrs. The KancKP attempts to establish the opposite relationship between part and whole: various other types of abbreviations are referred to as abbreviations in this publication (cf. symbolic abbreviations, graphic abbreviations), while those consisting of capital letters are referred to as abbreviations, or more precisely, alphabetical abbreviations of names (KancKP 2000: 277–279). In the Lithuanian language dictionary (hereinafter – lKŽin) abbreviations are called all kinds of abbreviations, and their types are indicated by indicative words: names of measures, persons, positions and degrees, various (lKŽin 1998: 340–346). The term abbreviations is also used when examining abbreviated versions of computer or other terms (Grigas 2007, 2011), but only alphabetically abbreviated terms are examined, so the relationship between abbreviations and abbreviations remains unclear. It is also difficult to determine it from the spelling and punctuation provisions approved by Decision No. 60 of the State Lithuanian Language Commission (hereinafter referred to as the VlKK), which establish the general rule of the use of non-Lithuanian abbreviations in the Lithuanian language, since only the term alphabetic abbreviation is used (VZ 1997a) and only examples of abbreviations formed in this way are given. Abbreviations made up of letters are also called letter abbreviations in the names of Pranas Kniūkšta’s Institutions, companies and organizations (Kniūkšta 2004: 17–19). The graphic or symbolic ways of abbreviating words and their combinations are not discussed in that publication, so the relationship between abbreviations and abbreviations of concepts is not evident even in it. only the concept of abbreviations is explained in the Lithuanian Language Encyclopedia (hereinafter – lKE), but there is still a certain boundary drawn that distinguishes abbreviations from abbreviations (lKE 1999: 553–554). These concepts are referred to in two r. VasKElaItĖ. abbreviations: structure and syntactic use 63 meanings: 1) “abbreviated substitutes for compound names (two or more words) made up of the first letters or syllables of words”; 2) ‘simple graphic abbreviations of commonly used words (or groups of words) which do not have a distinct phonological form’ (lKE 1999: 553). synonym abbreviations is given only to the term used in the second meaning, i.e. abbreviations, unlike lKrs, are not considered a type of abbreviation. In the first sense, the term includes initial and syllable abbreviations, lKE is also synonymously referred to as a borrowed term abbreviation. The narrow and broad scope of the concept of acronym. Relationship to abbreviation One subspecies of abbreviations, namely initial abbreviations (i.e. abbreviations composed of letters), is also called an acronym by lKE (lKE 1999: 553). By distinguishing subspecies of initial and syllable abbreviations, abbreviations lKE are tried to differentiate according to structure. However, the term acronym chosen to name only one of the units of classification encourages Marcinkevičienė (2003) to object to the narrowing of the concept of acronym developed in English linguistic works, and as a result of such an objection, the broad coverage of the term acronym appears in Lithuanian linguistics. In this author’s work on English linguistics1, acronyms are considered to be those abbreviations of compound names that form acceptable syllables and can be pronounced as words (Marcinkevičienė 2003: 91). It is understandable, based on such a criterion, that it is difficult to draw a line between initial and syllable abbreviations: after all, some letters, like syllables, form acceptable syllables and can be pronounced as words. therefore the author of the article tends to destroy the boundary drawn with regard to the structure of lKE. However, in English linguistics, acronyms are not only “verbal” abbreviations, but also “non-verbal” abbreviations, which together are opposed to other types of abbreviations, i.e. abbreviations. Marcinkevičienė also suggests that the acronym should be understood broadly in Lithuanian linguistics. However, this extended concept corresponds fully to the abbreviations used in the 19th century, the alphabetical abbreviations of names, and the boundary drawn between acronyms and abbreviations corresponds to the boundary between abbreviations and abbreviations. therefore, the question arises, how the borrowed terms are more acceptable to Lithuanian linguists than Lithuanian ones. The concept of acronym developed by R. Marcinkevičienė highlights one important aspect of abbreviations and a possible criterion for their classification – the combination of letters 1 Katamba F. English Words, london and New York: routledge, 1994, 182–183. 64 Language Culture | 84 similarity to the word. It would be quite difficult to choose a criterion that would be suitable for both Lithuanian and non-Lithuanian abbreviations, because the characteristics of Lithuanian and non-Lithuanian words differ. For example, a sufficient characteristic of an English noun is the arrangement of sounds so that they can be pronounced phonetically, and of a Lithuanian noun – a change affix (except for invariant nouns). Thus, if the “verbal” criterion is chosen, many English abbreviations used in Lithuanian would not be included in the group of “verbal” abbreviations, and if the “phonetic” criterion is used, many abbreviations that do not have the characteristics of a Lithuanian word would be included. a. Kazlauskienė also bases the concept of acronym on the criterion of similarity to a word: she proposes to call acronyms those abbreviations that can be pronounced as words, regardless of how they are formed (Kazlauskienė 2008: 73). However, this concept, and at the same time the relationship of the term acronym to abbreviation, differs from that developed in the article by R. Marcinkevičienė – A. Kazlauskienė considers the acronym only as a certain type of abbreviation. This means that its scope is narrower. On the other hand, among the acronyms are not only such abbreviations as the names “Keltas”, “Interleksis”, “Erasmus”, “leonardo da Vinci” written in quotation marks, i.e. considered symbolic, but also the two-word abbreviation “Lithuanian Russians” of the project title “Russians in the Lithuanian Republic Society 1918–1940: Construction of a Historical Retrospective” (Kazlauskienė 2008: 73). Although it is not entirely clear whether the author considers such words and their combinations as acronyms herself, she nevertheless raises another aspect of acronymism, and at the same time – another possibility of classification of abbreviations. This is also relevant to Lithuanian linguistics classification of abbreviations according to whether they are derivatives, artificially formed in order to look like a word, so that they function in the language as shorter substitutes for real names, or conventionally formed summaries of names, used in the text for convenience2. The choice of term. After reviewing the terminology used to designate abbreviations composed of the first letters or other elements of the elements of the word combination, it is clear that in Lithuanian linguistic literature synonyms are considered to be the terms alphabetical names2 This aspect was also noted by R. Marcinkevičienė (2003), but she did not separate it from the other criteria of classification of abbreviations. r. VasKElaItĖ. abbreviations: structure and syntactic usage 65 is mainly determined by the increasingly pronounced tendency to use this one-word term to distinguish a certain type of mų sutrumpinimai ir (raidinės) santrumpos, akronimai ir santrumpos. Šiame straipsnyje pasirenkamas vartoti terminas santrumpos. tokį pasirinkimą bene abbreviations, as well as the suitability of the term for it. Of course, this type could also be distinguished by the term alphabetic (name) abbreviations, but the noun is more suitable for naming the effect of the abbreviation factor, in addition, the plural form of abstract verb nouns is not considered characteristic of the common Lithuanian language3. Abbreviations other than abbreviations can be referred to by other terms, such as symbols, graphic signs, graphic abbreviations or similar, and the noun abbreviation is perfectly suitable for general purposes. The terminological use of the word abbreviation is not widely established in Lithuanian linguistics, apparently due to the meaning given to this noun in Lithuanian dictionaries. In them, it is customary to associate an abbreviation with only one word – it is an abbreviated word (DlKŽ 2000: 860), an abbreviated, shrunk, reduced-volume word (lKŽe 2011). The examples given in those dictionaries would indicate that an abbreviation is the result of an abbreviation other than alphabetic or syllabic abbreviations – the most common word ending is abbreviated, for example, Marcė (from Marcelė), Gintas (from Gintautas). Nevertheless, the meaning given to this word in dictionaries is not a reason to avoid using it in other meanings – as a term that summarizes various types of abbreviations4 or as a choice between acronym and abbreviation, the term santrumpa is preferred because of its longer tradition of use and Lithuanianness. in general, the term acronym is considered insufficiently justified, unestablished in Lithuanian linguistics and it is not necessary to change abbreviations. r. Marcinkevičienė extended to a concept encompassing all alphabetical and syllabical abbreviations, it would allow to avoid the conditionality of bet kokio trumpinimo būdu gautą žodį5. Pastarąja reikšme jis vartojamas ir šiame straipsnyje. alphabetical abbreviations of names, alphabetical abbreviations (because to this group belongs VlKK consultation bank states that in common Lithuanian abstract nouns are usually used in the singular (service, voting, financing, registration), the plural form pardavimai is considered to have arisen due to the influence of English, therefore it is suggested to use the singular pardavimas (http://www.vlkk.lt/lit/2331). The plural of various abstracts (e.g.: statehoods, sales, inflammations) is also corrected in Language Tips (KP1 2002: 20). 4 as it is used in Kazlauskienės (2008) article. 5 such usage can be seen, for example, in KancKP (2000: 277). 66 Languages Culture | 84 Abbreviations (abbreviated and syllabic abbreviations), but little would fit to terms naming or generalizing other abbreviations – (symbolic abbreviations (abbreviations), graphic abbreviations (abbreviations), unless they are replaced by also borrowed term abbreviations. Included in the general classification as a term denoting a subspecies of abbreviations (see lKE 1999; Kazlauskienė 2008), the acronym would be a means of revealing certain aspects of abbreviations, but the scope of this concept, compared to that presented in foreign linguistic works, would of course be considerably narrowed. The main concept of the article abbreviations includes a group of structures of heterogeneous structure. Despite such differences, in some works the terms alphabetic abbreviations, alphabetic abbreviations of names are used to designate abbreviations not only in alphabetical but also in other ways. Of course, they are conditional. the term abbreviation is also useful in that it allows to avoid such conditionality. The differences in the phenomenon that he wants to reveal can be identified by certain signs. For example, differences in the structure of abbreviations can be described by such compound terms as alphabetic abbreviations, syllable abbreviations, mixed abbreviations, etc. The basic principles of the composition of abbreviations The composition of Lithuanian abbreviations is provided for in the normative publication – Lithuanian spelling and punctuation. In 2006, the VlKK changed only the rules of division formulated therein, and the part of the publication “spelling”, which discusses abbreviations, was decided to continue to be considered normative (VZ 2006a, b, c). Of the other decisions adopted by the VlKK, only the one adopted on October 26, 2000, which legalizes several abbreviations to be used in Lithuanian texts (VŽ 2000), directly prevents the use of Lithuanian abbreviations. The structure of these abbreviations fully complies with the normative principles of their formation. These principles are apparently quite simple: when abbreviating short-word names, the first capital letters of all independent words are taken (SNO – United Nations Organization), sometimes – the alphabetical name of the first letter of the first word (ELTA – Lithuanian Telegraph Agency), official words are omitted (TVR – Justice and Internal Affairs Ministry). abbreviations: structure and syntactic usage 67 kalai); can be taken two or three letters from the beginning of the words or the first syllables (Elfa – electric factory), in the latter case the abbreviation should be written as a real word – capital only the first letter (lKrs 1992: 73–74). It remains to be added that when abbreviating compound and prefix words, the first point or prefix of which is not Lithuanian and is not used separately, the first capital letters of both elements are taken (HE – hidroelektrinė), and all the possibilities of forming Lithuanian abbreviations provided for in lKrs will be covered. such principles of their composition are repeated in publications of a linguistic practice or encyclopedic nature (lKŽin 1998; lKE 1999; KancKP 2000). The example given by KancKP VšĮ (public institution) points out that the abbreviation may not only consist of the first letters of the words, but may also include lowercase letters (KancKP 2000: 277). Summarizing the principles of abbreviation formation presented in normative and linguistic practice works, it can be concluded that they provide for three-fold structure Lithuanian abbreviations: 1) consisting of the first letters of words (or their elements); 2) consisting of the initial parts of words; 3) consisting of the first letters of words, inserting others. In fact, the structure of abbreviations can be much more diverse. For example, they may include indexes for different years of the year. (DŽ1, DŽ2, DŽ3 – Contemporary Lithuanian Language Dictionary), abbreviations can be composed of both syllables and letters (K.Gaivlt – K. Gaivenis. Lithuanian Terminology) and others (KK 2008: 139). This would lead to the assumption that only the abbreviations of commonly used titles are established, leaving the structure of the others to the author or publisher. This is confirmed by the statement that special literature may have its own specific abbreviations (lKrs 1992: 73). However, in publications discussing the classification of abbreviations, the place and status of such abbreviations should be highlighted. The abbreviations used in the sources selected for the analysis of alphabetic abbreviations partially correspond to the normative principles of their formation. Lithuanian names and economic terms of Lithuanian or international institutions, enterprises, organizations, offices, systems, territorial and other entities, documents, indicators are abbreviated in a simple alphabetical manner, i.e. by taking the first letters of the word combinations, e.g. : ECB – European Central Bank, ESCB – European System of 68 Languages and Culture | 84 EEA – European Economic Area, EFSF – European Financial Stability Facility, FARK – Federal Open Market Committee, LCKU – Lithuanian Central Credit Union, IMF – International Monetary Fund, VPK – Securities and Exchange Commission; ECRIS – Classification of Economic Activities, CRD – Capital Requirements Directive; ESD – current account deficit, VAT – value added tax, HICP – harmonised index of consumer prices, FDI – foreign direct investment, ERM – exchange rate mechanism. when abbreviating compounds containing service words, they are omitted, e.g. : OECD – Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, EMU – Economic and Monetary Union, EBRD – European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, IMFC – International Monetary and Financial Committee. However, not only Lithuanian, but also non-Lithuanian alphabetically formed abbreviations are used, since their use is authorized by the spelling and punctuation provisions approved by the VlKK resolution (VZ 1997a). The concept of non-Lithuanian abbreviation is not defined in those provisions. In the case of Lithuanian texts, these abbreviations should be written as in the original language, but the non-Latin characters should be transliterated into Lithuanian, and the term non-Lithuanian should be accompanied by the word international in parentheses. This interpretation can be interpreted in two ways: 1) international abbreviations are part of non-Lithuanian abbreviations, so only international abbreviations should be transliterated in the specified way; 2) the terms non-Lithuanian abbreviations and international abbreviations are synonyms, so all non-Lithuanian abbreviations must be transliterated in the specified way. The second interpretation is reinforced by the fact that only English examples are given from Latin-based languages, e.g. : BBC – british broadcasting Corporation, FAO – Food and agriculture organization, NATO – North atlantic treaty organization. Such an interpretation would give a great deal of freedom in terms of use – all non-Lithuanian names with a direct meaning, including English ones, could be used in abbreviated form without restriction. It is therefore more likely that the method of translating the abbreviation into Lithuanian is not proposed for all non-Lithuanian abbreviations, but only for those that denote the names of international bodies, organizations or other entities. Central Banks, this is the tendency seen in the researched usage. The full English versions of the abbreviations (or the accompanying dictionaries) indicate that most of them are common to the European Union, the euro area or even wider, e.g. : CEBS – Committee of European banking supervisors, CESR – Committee of European securities regulators r. VasKElaItĖ. abbreviations: structure and syntactic usage 75 When discussing the spelling of Lithuanian abbreviations, those that include numbers are not mentioned at all, and there are many different abbreviations used. Part of the consumers – so-called international, consisting of letters and numbers, e.g. : CCBM2 – Collateral Central bank Management 2; CIS2006 – Community Innovation survey 2006; CESAME II – Clearing and settlement advisory and Monitoring Experts Group 2; G7 – Group 7; G10 – Group 10, or from syllable abbreviation and number: LITIN-10 – Lithuanian stock Exchange Index. Similar structures and Lithuanian abbreviations are used, e.g. : ERM II – the second exchange rate mechanism; ‘ESA’95’ means the European System of Accounts 1995; ‘IAS 39’ or ‘IAS 39’ means International Accounting Standard 39; CPS4 – the 4th quantitative impact study; ECB/2001/13 – Regulation No 13 of 2011 of the European Central Bank, EU15, EU-15 – 15 Member States of the European Union). The spelling of these abbreviations varies considerably: the digits are written in Roman (ERM II) or Arabic (IAS 39, CPS4); they are separated by a hyphen (EU-15) in some cases, by an apostrophe (ESA’95) or other punctuation (ECB/2011/13) in others; space is left (ERM II, IAS 39) or not (CPS4, EU15); the number is written either before the alphabetical part (IAS 39) or after it (IAS 39). The spelling of the abbreviations VKM II, CESAME II with Roman numerals would suggest a tendency to shorten word combinations containing decimal numbers in this way, but the spelling of the abbreviations 39 TAS, TAS 39, KPS4 contradicts such insights. Although abbreviations with numbers as a separate group of Lithuanian language abbreviations are not included in the classification, the standardization of other spelling matters would lead to the conclusion that they are not considered unpresentable. for example, lKrs among the serial brand names are mentioned abbreviations Tu-104, Il-154, 3 RK (lKrs 1992: 70). These examples alone show that spelling can be quite diverse. The assumption about possible spelling diversity is confirmed by the regulation enacted by the VlKK resolution of 26 September 1991 (Resolution 1991) to translate non-Lithuanian abbreviations formed with numerals, denoting materials, products and normative documents, from the original language: those whose alphabetic part consists of characters of the Latin alphabet, should be written as in the original language (recorder Sony CFS-W304), and the alphabetic part of marks formed with non-Latin characters, in public language and popular literature transliterated (tachometer TČ-10R, standard GOST 6920-89). in the original language such abbreviations can be written differently, that is, this variety 76 Languages Culture | 84 nims spelling, but it would be advisable to formulate general principles of their writing, which would help to determine the perkeliama ir į lietuvių kalbą. Galiojant tokiai rašybos variantiškumą įteisinančiai normai, būtų sunku reguliuoti ir lietuviškų santrumpų su skaitmesuitability of, for example, ERM II and ERM 2, EU15 and EU-15. otherwise, even those abbreviations whose alphabetical part is translated will be written in the original spelling. Some of the abbreviations that are proposed to be considered as quotations also include abbreviations that also contain a symbol, for example, S&P 500. Of course, it is possible to assume that they are single cases of use, but they are by no means abbreviations, which include not only numbers, but also words, e.g. : Euro MTS, SWIFTNet FIN. If their spelling is governed only by the principle of translating non-Lithuanian abbreviations into Lithuanian as quotations, such spelling will inevitably have an effect on the structure of Lithuanian abbreviations as well. That this effect already exists is revealed by the ways in which the abbreviations for payment and remittance systems are formed. It is worth considering them in more detail. TARGET2 is the international abbreviation for the Trans-European Automated Real-time Gross Settlement Express Transfer 2 (TARGET2), a second-generation express transfer system developed by the European Central Bank and the central banks of the euro area. is an alphabetic abbreviation that includes a digit. This system is called a composite system. centrinio banko gairėse numatyta, kad jos sudedamųjų dalių (vadinamųjų tarGEt2 komponento sistemų) pavadinimai būtų sudaromi prie sanEuropean abbreviation for TARGET2, with other abbreviations or words representing the names of Eurosystem central banks or Member States (ECb 2007: 4). The European Central Bank itself named the system by including the abbreviation of its name: TARGET2-ECB. The name of the system component of the Lithuanian Central Bank is formed by adding the name of the bank to the abbreviation: TARGET2-LIETUVOS BANKAS. so the abbreviation extends to the whole word combination. The effect on the Lithuanian name in this case can be considered direct – the name structure is determined by an international body. However, the Bank of Lithuania also develops its own systems, the names of which are not regulated by international institutions and their legislation. As mentioned, one of the first payment systems created by him (LITAS) was named using a simple alphabetic abbreviation. The names of the systems in operation since 2007, apparently, taking into account some similar international payments. Vaskelaita. abbreviations: structure and syntactic usage 77 The abbreviations of the payment and settlement systems are already formed by adding other elements with a hyphen, in this case another abbreviation: the real-time payment system is called LITAS-RLS, the retail payment system – LITAS-MMS, for euro settlements before the transition to TARGET2 – LITAS-PHA. Similarly, the abbreviations for payment and settlement systems in many countries, e.g. : SORBNETEURO, BI-REL. therefore, the effect of Lithuanian abbreviations on the structure of names can be considered indirect in this case. On the other hand, there are no Lithuanian language rules contradicting this structure. According to the rules for making symbolic names currently in force (see VŽ 2004), it is possible to make symbolic names from abbreviations whose ending corresponds to the Lithuanian ending („Eksma“, „Sodra“), but they are applicable only to the names of institutions, companies and organizations. Moreover, the names of the systems LITAS-RLS, LITAS-MMS, LITAS-PHA are not true symbols – they are combinations of abbreviations, although the word LITAS with a Lithuanian ending blurs the boundary between an abbreviation and a symbolic name. The name structure of the interest rate indicator VILIBOR calculated by the Bank of Lithuania (VILIBID calculated until 1995) can also be considered an example of the indirect effect of non-Lithuanian abbreviations on Lithuanian ones. The name of this indicator did not have to comply with the requirements of international legislation, but it had to be adapted to the analogue EURIBOR (and EURIBID) and to the laws of the names of the corresponding indicators calculated in other countries. The peculiarities of the structure of abbreviations discussed would show that alphabetic and syllabic abbreviations of conventional terms, even excluding the so-called international abbreviations, are no longer sufficient to describe the diversity of the structure of abbreviations used in Lithuanian texts, because their composition includes digits, abbreviations, words or combinations of words are written after the hyphen. Of course, a name such as TARGET2-LIETUVOS BANKAS is not an extended abbreviation, but rather a symbolic name composed of an abbreviation. However, the alphabetically formed names of payment systems LITAS-RLS, LITAS-MMS, LITAS-PHA may be considered both as symbolic names and as abbreviations. Therefore, when presenting the classification of abbreviations, it is appropriate to distinguish, from a structural point of view, between groups of alphabetical, syllabical and mixed abbreviations, while mixed abbreviations can be classified even more detailedly, taking into account also the ways of their formation prevailing in other fields of usage. 78 Language Culture | 84 sINtaXsINĖ saNtrumpų VartosENa Differences in the inclusion in the sentence structure abbreviations – alphabetic, syllabic or other derivatives without lexical meaning – are not isolated elements in the sentence. They have a certain connection with the other words of the sentence, they are part of its structure. The norm provides for the inclusion of the abbreviation into the sentence structure in the same way as its grammatical form – the addition of Lithuanian endings indicating the syllable, number and gender. After receiving an ending, the invariant element becomes a sentence element with the formal characteristics of a word and can indicate a connection with other sentence words. However, in the usage in question, neither alphabetical nor syllabical nor mixed abbreviations are grammatically formalized. How are they then included in the sentence and how is their relationship with other words shown? such an indicator is usually an adjective or adjective in abbreviation, which inherits the morphological categories of the indicator of combination, i.e. the word with which it is combined. The gender form of adjectives and adjective words used with Lithuanian alphabetic abbreviations reveals a simple law of its choice – abbreviations, whose unabbreviated equivalents, i.e. word combinations, the main focus is a masculine noun, give adjectives or adjective words the masculine gender, feminine noun – the feminine, e.g. : The ECB [European Central Bank] was the first of the world’s major central banks to raise interest rates (Report 2011: 05); Finally, without prejudice to the objective of price stability, the ESCB supports the general objectives of the EU, including financial integration (Ma 2006: 13); In the ECB’s accounts, this item represents the net claim or liability of each NCB to the ESCB as a whole (Ma 2005: 98); A multilateral link is a contractual and technical framework that allows two non-directly linked SSSs to settle a transaction through a third SSS (Ma 2006: 97). Since they do not have Lithuanian endings, abbreviations do not have indicators of number, but adjectives and adjective words used with them acquire the singular or plural form and thus in the sentence indicate the syntactic connection between them and the abbreviation, e.g. : The yields on Eurobonds were 0,2 to 0,7 percentage points higher at the end of 2002 and 0,1 to 0,4 percentage points higher at the end of 2003 than those of the corresponding underlying (most reliable) euro area GSP [Government securities] (Ma 2004: 45); Konr. Vaskelaita. abbreviations: structure and syntactic usage 79 krečiai speaking, first 12 months The TLTRO [longer-term refinancing operations], settled on 24 June 2009, allocated a record amount of EUR 442 billion to the euro area banking system (Ma 2010: 20). However, in some cases, the combination by number is conditional, because the abbreviation is introduced by shortening the singular form of the noun that is the main focus of the word combination, but it is also used to indicate the plural, e.g. : More specifically, December 2009 The Governing Council decided that the 12-month longer-term refinancing operation (LTRO) of that month would be the last of its kind and that only one further 6-month operation would be settled in March 2010. TLTRO and additional 3 months The TLTROs should be discontinued (Ma 2011: 17). The basis of the combination of gender and number with Lithuanian abbreviations, as it appears, is the gender and number of the word that is the main focus of the aggregate word combination. The main focus of such compounds, at least those used in economic reviews, is always the noun. abbreviations are nouns consisting of a noun and an adjective (NB = national budget, NT = real estate) or nouns (WB = World Bank, CPI = consumer price index, BCBS = Basel Committee on Banking Supervision). The latter elements may have adjective dependent elements (ESD – current account deficit, IMF – International Monetary Fund, VAT – value added tax, ICSID – International Centre for the Prevention of Counterfeiting), less often the dependent elements are words of other parts of the language (SSMS – systemically important payment systems). Dependent elements can also be linked by a conjunctive (OECD – Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, EBRD – European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, SMEs – small and medium-sized enterprises), but the main element of the word combination is the noun. with abbreviations that replace word combinations in the sentence, as shown in the examples, the adjective or adjective word is combined not only by gender and number, but also by syllable. therefore, the matching is complete, except for the aforementioned number mismatch cases. When abbreviating a combination of words containing a transitive noun, as can be seen from the examples of abbreviations given above, it changes its position – it is usually not before the main element in the abbreviation, but after it (ERM II, IAS 39, CPS4, CPS5) and apparently becomes quantitative. The position of quantitative nouns in the unabbreviated word combination also changes – they 80 Languages Culture | 84 are usually put after nouns, e.g. : ES-15, ESS95, ESS ' 95. With what is the adjective or adjective combined in such cases? The texts of economic reviews show that it is still used in combination with the noun that is the main focus of the word combination, e.g. : The ECB assists Eurostat in the revision of the ESA95 [European System of Accounts 1995], which provides recommendations for many decisions at European level (Ma 2009: 125). However, the combination by gender, number and syllable is only possible in cases where the word combination being abbreviated is Lithuanian. It is difficult to determine the gender of a non-Lithuanian noun, but adjectives and adjective words used with non-Lithuanian abbreviations still have gender indicators. How do they acquire one or another form of kinship? Some cases of usage would indicate that the basis for combining with non-Lithuanian abbreviations is the gender, the syllable and the number of the main element of the word combination translated into Lithuanian, e.g. : SWIFT [Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial telecommunication] should be transparent (Ma 2008: 158); SWIFT is important for financial stability as it provides secure messaging services to the financial community in more than 210 countries worldwide (Ma 2010: 143); The SMP [Securities Markets Programme] is intended to restore precisely this concept of liquidity, commonly referred to as the liquidity of financial markets (Mb 2010 06: 24). The main focus of the English unabbreviated word combination society is translated into Lithuanian as bendrija, draugija, and the word program – as programa, so the feminine gender of the adjective is used in these cases according to the Lithuanian equivalent. When the letter combination SWIFT is expanded and the main focus of the combination becomes the noun net, which is translated into Lithuanian as net, the genus of the adjective used with this abbreviation changes, e.g. : The SWIFT oversight focused on SWIFT’s resilience in emergency situations, internal risk management processes and the replacement of the old SWIFT messaging network with the new SWIFTNet, a web-based infrastructure (Ma 2005: 119). However, this rule is not always observed. For example, the main point of the English name Euro Overnight Index Average, which is also abbreviated alphabetically, is that the word average should be translated into Lithuanian as average, so with the abbreviation as if a masculine adjective should be used, but the feminine gender is chosen, e.g. : With only a few exceptions, EONIA remained lower than that of the Eurosystem’s main refinancing operations and longer-term refinancing operations in a context of high surplus liquidity. r. VasKElaItĖ. Abbreviations: structure and syntactic usage 81 The phonetics of the end of the abbreviation does not determine the gender form of the savimo operacijų fiksuotoji palūkanų norma, bet artima palūkanų normai už naudojimąsi indėlių galimybe (Ma 2011: 36). adjective in this case, because, as already discussed, these abbreviations are not grammatically formalized in economic reviews and the similarity of their endings to Lithuanian endings is ignored. any assumption that it could be combined with a supposedly feminine noun is refuted by the fact that in the same texts the masculine gender is also used with this abbreviation, e.g. : As regards the assessment of very short money market interest rates, it should be noted that EONIA mainly involves large amounts of liquidity; Thirdly, due to constant fluctuations in the excess liquidity in the system, EONIA remained highly volatile (Ma 2010: 40). The real reason for this variation is revealed by the tendency to use certain explanatory words, which can be both masculine and feminine, with this and other abbreviations for interest rate indicators, such as index, rate, for example: at the beginning of 2011, the EONIA index continued to fluctuate (Ma 2011: 36). 12 months of the second quarter of 2005 The EURIBOR rate began to fall and reached the same level by the end of June (Ma 2006: 33). explanatory words may be more or less extensive, for example, not only rate but also interest rate, not only indicator but also interest rate indicator, e.g. 3 months. The VILIBOR interest rate is the constant interbank market index buvo didesnė už EURIBOR (lbMa 2006: 44); Tarpbankinio litų skolinimo palūkanų normų rodiklis VILIBOR, kaip ir analogiškas euro tarptautinės EURIBOR, calculated every working day on the basis of bank quotes (Report 2010: 24). Some of the explanatory words coincide with the main element of the word combination that goes through the abbreviation – the last letter of the abbreviations VILIBOR, EURIBOR denotes the abbreviated English word rate (interest rate). The last letter of the abbreviations LITAS, KUBAS is an abbreviation of the word system, but with these abbreviations, including their extended variants, the explanatory word system or compounds formed with it are usually used, e.g. : In carrying out the function of oversight of payment and securities settlement systems, the Bank of Lithuania monitored the LITAS payment system, the LCVPD securities settlement system and the LCKU payment system KUBAS (lbMa 2007: 68); The LITAS-PHA system was developed and operated by the Bank of Lithuania (Report 2009: 41); In 2006, the Bank of Lithuania managed the LITAS payment system and performed its operator function (lbMa 2007: 68). 82 Languages and Culture | 84 This means that the combinations of capital letters used in the sentence are no longer considered abbreviations. This is clearly shown by the case where the explanatory word combination is almost the entire abbreviated word combination, e.g. : The interbank litas lending interest rate indicator VILIBOR, as well as the analogous indicator of the euro international interbank market EURIBOR, is calculated every working day according to the quotes published by banks, on the basis of which they wish to lend funds to other banks (Report 2011: 24); The Bank of Lithuania operates the LITAS-RLS real-time single settlement system and the LITAS-MMS fixed-time retail payment system and performs the function of operator of these systems (Report 2009: 40). It is therefore possible to assume that these abbreviations function in the sentence not as abbreviations of direct nouns directly connected to the adjective, but rather as symbolic names. Of course, they are also used without explanatory words, but symbolic names can also be used without relative or nomenclatural words. When the word or combination of words explaining the abbreviation is omitted, the adjective or adjective word is combined with the implied explanatory word or the principal element of the explanatory combination. This leads to a variety of gender (and number) forms of adjectives and adjective words. However, with some abbreviations, the explanatory words are almost never omitted, namely with those naming various systems, e.g. : Systemically important and significant retail payment systems are assessed against oversight standards by the respective national central banks, while the ECB is responsible for the assessment of the EBA framework TEAP 2 (Ma 2005: 120); In 2004, the mandatory changes necessary for the migration to the new messaging system SWIFTNet FIN continued and all TARGET components successfully implemented the changes (Ma 2005: 88). with the abbreviation TARGET, TARGET2, the explanatory word system is an essential part of the abbreviation, e.g. : TARGET started operating on 4 January 1999 with the introduction of the euro. Initially, it consisted of 15 national real-time discrete settlement (RTDS) systems and the ECB’s payment mechanism (EMS). Despite its success, TARGET has had several shortcomings resulting from its heterogeneous technical design and decentralised structure. In order to address these weaknesses and to adapt to developments such as the further expansion of the euro area, in October 2002 the ECB adopted a new framework for the euro. The Eurosystem launched the TARGET2 project. The Eurosystem's objective in developing sisr. Vaskelaita. abbreviations: structure and syntax 83 The objective of TARGET2 was to create a modernized version of the previous TARGET system that would better meet the needs of users by offering a consistent level of service, harmonised pricing and cost-effectiveness (Ma 2009: 112). These and other abbreviations refer not only to the word system, but also to combinations of words with a more specific meaning, e.g. : The ECB, together with the national central banks, assessed the compliance of the future Eurosystem payment system TARGET2 with the Framework for Systemically Important Payment Systems (Ma 2007: 29); Over the past few years, it has been improved and work is underway on the development of the second-generation system, TARGET2 (Ma 2006: 93). Such a necessary word system may be due to the way in which the English abbreviation TARGET is constructed: the last word of the word combination commonly used in English as the literal name Trans-European Automated Real-time Gross Settlement Express Transfer System7 is not included in the abbreviation and therefore tends to be used as an integral part of the abbreviation or as a certain nomenclatural word. but what to explain why it goes before the capitalized abbreviation. After all, related words can be used after the name – in those cases where the related word is an essential and integral part of the name of direct meaning (VZ 1997b, 2004, 2007). The fact that the word system is put before the abbreviations would most likely indicate a tendency to treat certain abbreviations in the text as symbolic names. Although the postposition of related words after non-Lithuanian symbolic names has been tried to be linked to the influence of the English language (see Vaicekauskienė 1997), it is also believed that such postposition may be a copying of the noble position characteristic of the changing Lithuanian symbolic names (see Vaskelaitė 2001). As can be seen from the examples of abbreviations for interest rates given, the explanatory word or combination of words is used both before and after the abbreviation. Thus, both the tendency to place some explanatory words before abbreviations and the variation in their position may be an indication of the similarity of some abbreviations to symbolic names. with non-Lithuanian symbolic names, non-Lithuanian abbreviations are associated in an unchanged form. Even those abbreviations are unchanged, which have a Lithuanian ending corresponding to 7 Lithuanian equivalent of this name is not yet established. In the publications of the Bank of Lithuania it is usually translated as Trans-European Automated Real-Time Single Settlement Express Transfer System, in the dictionary of international abbreviations the translation is provided as automated large-volume inter-European real-time settlement system (buračas 2010: 554). 84 Languages Culture | 84 diploma, e.g. : The number and value of transactions performed by LITAS-MMS increased (Report 2011: 45); The active use of TARGET2-LIETUVOS BANKAS services led to the system overtaking LITAS-RLS in terms of transaction value (Report 2010: 43). These abbreviations cannot be changed because of their alphabetical nature – changing a word with a Lithuanian ending would not correspond to the actual name. in general, the line between an abbreviation and a symbolic name is sometimes quite difficult to draw. For example, the aforementioned abbreviation LITAS should be regarded as an abbreviation, and the name of a non-Lithuanian currency chosen to name another system, euro, is a word, thus a symbolic name. Apparently, this is why both abbreviations and some symbolic names are formalized in the same way, e.g. : The EURO 1 system is a large-value fixed-term settlement system in euro owned and operated by a private person (Ma 2006: 127). Thus, the syntactical environment of the abbreviations used in economic reviews reveals a twofold nature of their inclusion in the sentence structure: one is inclined to include through an adjective or adjective word, i.e. a sign, and the other – through an explanatory word, to be treated as a prefix in relation to the parts of the sentence. Some abbreviations are characterized by syntactic matching8, others by correlation9. The combination is characteristic of alphabetically formed abbreviations of names or terms of direct meaning, and the so-called syllabic abbreviations correlate with nouns – explanatory words or the main elements of word combinations. However, the syntactic usage of the alphabetically formed abbreviations EONIA, LIBOR, LITAS, LITAS-RLS, LITAS-MMS, LITAS-PHA, TARGET is almost identical to that of the syllabic abbreviations, which would also indicate the similarity of these abbreviations to syllabic abbreviations. They are not linked by the formal way of forming an abbreviation, but by the possibility of splitting the structure into syllables, thus – its similarity to a word. The graphical representation of all abbreviations in the usage under consideration is the same (all of them are written in capital letters), but the integration into the wider structure – the text, as well as the inclusion in the sentence structure, differ. There are 8 syntactic relations concepts and various in Lithuanian linguistics. In one case, the alignment is considered a syntactic relationship, in another, it is only an indicator of a syntactic relationship. For more details see. Vaskelaitė r. Models of syntactic relations in Lithuanian language syntax. PhD thesis, 2009, Vilnius. 9 This syntactic relationship is treated and named very differently in Lithuanian linguistics: it is considered a separate case of syntactic relationships or a subspecies of coordination, called correlation of forms, coordination of word forms, etc. (see Vaskelaitė 2009: 93–99). r. VasKElaItĖ. abbreviations: structure and syntactic usage 91 In the regulations governing their formation, they are usually associated only with names of enterprises, institutions and organizations of figurative meaning (Kniūkšta 1996, 1997; 2004; VŽ 1995, 2002, 2004). The examples given in the VlKK resolution “On the spelling of symbolic names” (the “Hedgehog” card, the “Palemonas” font, the “Zebras” internet plan) reveal that the scope of the concept is broader, but among the examples there is no non-Lithuanian symbolic name that would be an abbreviation (VŽ 2007). As mentioned above, the rules for making Lithuanian symbolic names do not allow making symbolic names from unchangeable alphabetic abbreviations, therefore their spelling is not defined. In any case, the boundary drawn by the norm between the spelling of symbolic names and abbreviations raises certain contradictions, and they are revealed by those cases of use where the name consists of both an abbreviation and a symbolic name. The abbreviation should be written in capital letters and the adjacent word part of the name in quotation marks, but the abbreviation and that word part form an indivisible construct in terms of meaning. In the attempt to harmonize the differences in the writing of abbreviations and symbolic names established by the norm, there is a good variation in usage. Sometimes the preposition of the abbreviation overpowers, so the entire name is not separated by a different font or quotes, e.g. : Parliament also considers that the TARGET-Securities project can contribute to the integration of the European securities settlement infrastructure (Ma 2008: 176); OMX Vilnius index grew by 13 percent in the quarter (Report 2011: 22). In other cases, both the abbreviation and the word part of the name are separated by italics10, e.g.: Dow Jones EURo SToXX price index rose by about 20 % in the year compared to the end of 2005 (Ma 2007: 38); The Dow Jones EURo SToXX index rose by about 10 % at the end of the year compared to the end of the previous year (Ma 2005: 34). There are also cases where both spelling rules are attempted to be combined: the abbreviation is written in capital letters and the word part of the name, as a symbolic name, is given in italics replacing the quotes, for example: The forecast annual growth rate of earnings per share of the Dow Jones EURO STOXX index shares over the next 12 months reached its historically lowest (–4%) limit in the spring (Ma 2010: 45). The objective of this project, called TARGET2-Securities … is to harmonise the settlement of transactions in the euro area. Red. note. 92 Languages Culture | 84 mi foreign elements, so it may be that such names are treated both as symbolic and as non-Lithuanian. therefore, it is worth eurais už vertybinius popierius centrinio banko pinigais (Ma 2007: 12). beje, nagrinėjamoje vartosenoje pasvirosiomis raidėmis išskiriami tekste vartojaconsidering the spelling of abbreviations, which function in the text as names of symbolic significance. If it is decided to reduce the threshold between them and symbolic names, this could be done in at least two ways. One of them is to clarify the spelling norm of symbolic names, i.e. to recognize that in a coherent text such names can be written not only in quotation marks, but also in capital letters. The current rule of their writing (in quotation marks) for abbreviated names, most of which are legalized by various legislative acts as capitalized, is not acceptable for the use that meets the requirements of the official subjective style. Another way of reducing the boundary between symbolic and symbolically used names is to legalize the writing of these names together in capital letters and in quotation marks, taking into account the artificially created Lithuanian and non-Lithuanian names that are widespread in usage. IŠVaDos 1. Abbreviations formed from the first letters or other elements of word combinations are almost not analyzed in Lithuanian linguistic works, and in language practice and normative works are usually discussed only in the kaip rašybos dalykas. santrumpų sandaros ir funkcionavimo rišliame tekste analizė, pagrįsta ekonomikos srities tekstais, atskleidžia, kad šis reiškinys context of the abbreviations. 2. Abbreviations formed from the first letters or other elements of word combinations are analyzed in Lithuanian linguistic works, and in language practice and normative works are usually discussed only in the context of the abbreviations. 2. only a part of the abbreviations used in the economic surveys in question correspond to the concept of a typical alphabetic abbreviation, which is, moreover, inaccurate and contradictory. Most non-Lithuanian abbreviations are composed not only of letters, but also of syllables or parts of words that do not coincide with syllables, which encourages the clarification of the concept of syllable abbreviation. Based on the usage data of non-Lithuanian abbreviations in Lithuanian texts, it is more accurate to consider as syllabic abbreviations that are not composed of syllables, but that can be divided into syllables. r. VasKElaItĖ. abbreviations: structure and syntactic use 93 3. in addition to alphabetic and syllable abbreviations, there are also many abbreviations that are not mentioned in Lithuanian language practice works at all – these are abbreviations that include both numbers and words or combinations of words. They are commonly referred to as mixed abbreviations. The spelling of such abbreviations is governed only by the general principle – to translate non-Lithuanian abbreviations into Lithuanian as quotations, but such a principle inevitably determines the variability of the spelling of Lithuanian analogous abbreviations. It could be reduced by general principles of writing abbreviations of atypical structure. 4.The concept of non-Lithuanian abbreviation is not defined in Lithuanian linguistics, and the norm of their grammatical form is rather unclear. The ambiguity of the norm is one of the factors that such abbreviations tend to be used as unchangeable in the usage under consideration. 5. the syntactic use of abbreviations, namely the tendency to include them in the sentence and text, reveals considerable differences not discussed in any work presenting the classification of abbreviations: some abbreviations function in a coherent text as abbreviations of names of literal meaning, included in the text as a means of language economy, others – rather as already formed symbolic names. Since such artificially formed names require a certain explanation in the text, and that explanation often coincides with the word or even the whole word combination being abbreviated, such abbreviations are a kind of excessive use. 6. it is obvious that the uniform presentation of abbreviations of different kinds in usage, in addition to certain style and genre requirements, is largely determined by the spelling norms of abbreviations and symbolic names, as well as the current concept of symbolic name. The boundary between a symbolic name and abbreviations that tend to symbolic use should be further considered and defined more clearly or removed altogether. ŠaltINIaI ECb 2007: Europos centrinio banko gairės 2007 m. balandžio 26 d. (ECb/ 2007/2). lbMa 2004: lietuvos bankas. Metų ataskaita, 2003. lbMa 2006: lietuvos bankas. Metų ataskaita, 2005. lbMa 2007: Lietuvos banko metų ataskaita, 2006. Ma 2004: Europos centrinis bankas. Metų ataskaita, 2003. Ma 2005: Europos centrinis bankas. 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VŽ 1995: Valstybinės lietuvių kalbos komisijos nutarimas „Dėl firmų pavadinimų gimininių žodžių vartojimo ir rašymo“ (1995 m. gegužės 25 d., Nr. 50). VŽ 1997a: Valstybinės lietuvių kalbos komisijos nutarimas „Dėl lietuvių kalbos rašybos ir skyrybos“ (1997 m. birželio 19 d., Nr. 60). – Valstybės žinios, 1997, Nr. 631490. VŽ 1997b: Valstybinės lietuvių kalbos komisijos nutarimas dėl „Dėl Valstybinės lietuvių kalbos komisijos prie lietuvos respublikos seimo 1995 m. gegužės 25 d. nutarimo Nr. 50 „Dėl firmų pavadinimų gimininių žodžių vartojimo ir rašymo“ pakeitimo“ (1997 m. lapkričio 13 d., Nr. 65). – Valstybės žinios, 1997, Nr.1072712. VŽ 2000: Valstybinės lietuvių kalbos komisijos nutarimas „Dėl Europos bendrijų pavadinimų ir valstybių Europos sąjungos narių bendradarbiavimo sričių pavadinimų santrumpų“ (2000 m. spalio 26 d., Nr. 2 (76)). – Valstybės žinios, 2000, Nr. 932912. VŽ 2002: Valstybinės lietuvių kalbos komisijos nutarimas „Dėl valstybinės lietuvių kalbos komisijos prie lietuvos respublikos seimo 1992 m. balan- 96 Kalbos Kultūra | 84 džio 30 d. nutarimo Nr. 35 „Dėl firmų vardų“ pakeitimo“ (2002 m. birželio 27 d., Nr. 3 (83). – Valstybės žinios, 2002, Nr. 702955. VŽ 2004: Valstybinės lietuvių kalbos komisijos nutarimas „Dėl įmonių, įstaigų ir organizacijų simbolinių pavadinimų darymo taisyklių patvirtinimo“. – Valstybės žinios, 2004, Nr. 27867. VŽ 2006a: Valstybinės lietuvių kalbos komisijos nutarimas dėl privalomosios skyrybos taisyklių (2006 m. rugsėjo 28 d., Nr. N2 (103)). – Valstybės žinios, 2006, Nr. 1074084. VŽ 2006b: Valstybinės lietuvių kalbos komisijos nutarimas dėl pasirenkamosios skyrybos taisyklių (2006 m. rugsėjo 28 d., Nr. N3 (104)). – Valstybės žinios, 2006, Nr. 1074085. 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Gauta 2011 11 02 sHortENINGs: StruCturE aND sYNtaCtIC PattErNs oF usaGE Summary the paper sets out to examine shortenings in written language, which seems to be gaining importance but so far has hardly been researched. the notion is problematic; it tends to compete and overlap with similar terms, such as abbreviations, alphabetical shortenings, alphabetisms of titles and names, acronyms etc. In the present paper preference is given to shortenings, a largely acknowledged term by lithuanian linguists. the notion includes three varieties: alphabetical shortenings, syllabic shortenings and mixed shortenings. the choice has been determined by the current usage patterns of shortenings, more precisely, by the tendencies identified in the language of economics. the paper aims at identifying the structure and syntactic patterns of shortenings used in economic reviews published by the National bank of the republic of lithuania. When analysing a large variety of shortenings in presentday lithuanian and variation in their usage in sentences and longer texts, a number of r. VasKElaItĖ. santrumpos: sandara ir sintaksinė vartosena 97 from this point of view, a number of shortenings which seem to be spreading in actual usage have not specific cases have been identified. they are not included in publications dealing with the language norm and should be discussed in reference to the norm. From been given sufficient evaluation yet. they include numbers, words or even symbols; from the structural point of view, they should make a separate category of shortenings. the analysis of alphabetical or syllabic shortenings, the usage of which is mainly regulated by the language norm, has revealed that the issue has become rather problematic due to a rapid spread of non lithuanian shortenings. the socalled international shortenings, which are fairly difficult to categorise either as purely alphabetical or syllabic shortenings, reopen the discussion of the notions of alphabetical or syllabic shortenings and their boundaries. the above international shortenings also reveal important differences in their functioning in the text. a syntactic approach helps identify two varieties of shortenings: those which tend to be used with other words which grammatically agree with the shortening and those which require explanatory words. the latter type seems to be much closer to symbolic names than to alphabetical shortenings, which are introduced into the text for the purposes of language economy. the paper also discusses a possibility to introduce grammatical markers, which help discriminate between the two varieties of shortenings. KEy woRdS: alphabetical shortenings, syllabic shortenings, mixed shortenings, abbreviations, syntactic relationship, explanatory word, symbolic name. raMuNĖ VasKElaItĖ Lietuvos bankas Gedimino pr. 6, lt01103 Vilnius [email protected]