Sintaksės klaidos Vilniaus apskrities abiturientų rašiniuose

SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language SYNTACTIC ERRORS IN THE ESSAYS OF VILNIUS COUNTY GRADUATES KEYWORDS: syntax, cases, prepositions, postpositions, adverbial participles, sentence-structure errors. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS In recent years, much has been said about pupils and students writing increasingly poorly and about the failure of Lithuanian language and literature matura examination results to improve1. This makes it necessary to examine the examination papers from the state Lithuanian language and literature matura examination in individual counties of Lithuania in depth, to seek the reasons for this situation and find solutions for improving it. In 20152, after receiving from the National Examination Centre 2,000 essays written by candidates taking the 2014 state Lithuanian language and literature matura examination, a study was launched. The researchers classified the essays by Lithuania’s 10 counties. The essays (uncorrected copies, as submitted to the examiners) are currently being examined in terms of spelling, punctuation, syntax, and lexis. The article examines 238 essays by Vilnius County graduates who studied at schools with national-minority languages of instruction (119) and at Lithuanian-medium schools (119). The object of the study is the syntactic errors found in these essays. The aim of the article is to analyse the essays written on a freely chosen topic for the state Lithuanian language and literature matura examination, identify recurrent syntactic errors, determine the similarities and differences between syntactic errors in the Lithuanian language matura examination papers of students from national-minority and Lithuanian-medium schools, and attempt to establish the causes of these errors. The article uses descriptive statistical and comparative methods. 1 According to data from the National Examination Centre, approximately 10 percent of candidates failed this examination in 2014–2015. 2 See also Solvita Labanauskienė’s article “The Most Characteristic Syntactic Errors in the Essays of South Aukštaitija Graduates” in volume 88 of Bendrinė kalba. BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ. Sintaksės klaidos Vilniaus apskrities abiturientų rašiniuose | 2 RESEARCH DATA Studies of language correctness (in texts from the humanities, natural sciences, and exact sciences) are conducted continuously. The State Commission of the Lithuanian Language (hereafter, VLKK) examined the language of university textbooks published in 2010–2012. It was found that textbooks most often disregarded punctuation rules (35 percent of all errors). This indicates a lack of understanding of syntactic relations, which is why syntactic errors ranked second in frequency (24 percent). These include not only errors in the use of cases and prepositions, but also errors in linking sentence constituents and disregard for the theme–rheme structure (Urnėžiūtė 2015: 14–15). In master’s theses submitted to the VLKK for its 2013 study of university language, syntactic errors accounted for the largest share of violations of language norms (60 percent): incorrect use of cases, prepositions, participles, and gerunds, and incorrect formation of sentences and word combinations (Urnėžiūtė 2015: 18). The VLKK also evaluates the language of manuscripts for general education textbooks (since 2003) and vocational education and training textbooks (since 2007) (for more on the study, see www.vlkk.lt). It is worth noting that syntactic errors were also the most frequent here. In the journal Gimtosios kalbos, intended for editors, language professionals, lecturers and teachers, as well as representatives of other professions, the language of publications serving various purposes is evaluated and reviewed. Reviews reflect the most common grammatical errors, and syntax is one of the most widely discussed areas. These studies are complemented by the descriptive study of syntactic errors in essays by secondary-school graduates in Vilnius County presented here. In distinguishing correct from incorrect syntactic usage, the study draws on the assessment of variable syntactic phenomena presented in Kalbos patarimai (in this article, discouraged and unacceptable variants are treated as language errors), as well as on the 2014 language assessment guidelines for final theses. Essays by students from Vilnius County quoted in this article are identified by codes: VATM—essays by graduates of Vilnius County schools for national minorities, or non-native speakers; VA—essays by graduates of Lithuanian-language schools in Vilnius County, or native speakers3. In the examples quoted, only the errors under discussion have been corrected; other errors and stylistic shortcomings have not been corrected, and the sentences have been left authentic. Each essay averages three pages (500–600 words). It should be noted that, of the 238 essays, 16 were from schools for national minorities and 28 from Lithuanian-language schools 3 For the purposes of this study, the classification of these pupils as native and non-native speakers is provisional (schools teaching in Lithuanian are also attended by representatives of national minorities). BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ. Sintaksės klaidos Vilniaus apskrities abiturientų rašiniuose | 3 No syntactic errors were found in the students’ work. The syntactic errors identified fall into three types: errors in the use of cases, prepositions and postpositions, and sentence structure errors (see Table 1). TABLE 1. Statistics on errors made by non-native and native-speaking school-leavers Error type | Errors made by non-native speakers | Errors made by native speakers | Number of errors | Percentages | Number of errors | Percentages | 1. | Case errors | 107 | 56,3 | 79 | 60,8 | 2. | Preposition and postposition errors | 36 | 19 | 21 | 16,1 | 3. | Sentence structure errors | 47 | 24,7 | 30 | 23,1 | Total: | 190 | 130 Analysis of the statistical data revealed three findings: 1) non-native speakers make one-third more errors; 2) case errors are the most common (they account for about 56,3 percent (VATM) and approximately 60,8 percent (VA) of all syntactic errors); 3) the fewest errors were found in the use of prepositions and postpositions (about 19 percent and approximately 16,1 percent). The identified error groups are discussed below in order of frequency. 1. ERRORS IN THE USE OF CASES It was observed that students in schools for national minorities most often form word combinations incorrectly by choosing an inappropriate case. The case errors identified are further subdivided (see Table 2). BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ. Sintaksės klaidos Vilniaus apskrities abiturientų rašiniuose | 4 2 TABLE. Statistics on case errors made by non-native-speaking and native-speaking high school graduates Error subtype Errors made by non-native speakers Errors made by native speakers Example Number of errors Percentages Number of errors Percentages a) errors in the nominative case 1 0,9 – – gyvenimo kelyje pasirodo sunkumai b) errors in the dative case 4 3,7 – – thanks to her c) errors in the accusative case 19 17,8 1 1,3 would give as a gift honey from bees made d) errors in the instrumental case 19 17,8 2 2,5 one such character was e) locative case errors 26 24,3 32 40,5 in the final result what is noticeable is... f) errors involving double case marking 38 35,5 44 55,7 may feel noble Total: 107 79 Table 1 shows that in the essays written by graduates of both types of schools, errors involving double case marking are the most common; native speakers make more of these errors. Students also make errors, though less frequently, by using the locative case incorrectly. Here, too, this type of error is more common in the work of graduates from Lithuanian-language schools. Essays by graduates of national-minority schools contain many errors in the use of the instrumental and accusative cases, while nominative and dative errors account for the smallest proportion; these errors are entirely uncharacteristic of essays written by students from Lithuanian-language schools. 1.1. The research data show that one common problem among students is their inability to use double case marking: they choose an incorrect instrumental case instead of other cases. In essays, the instrumental case of adjectives and words used adjectivally to express a state BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ. Sintaksės klaidos Vilniaus apskrities abiturientų rašiniuose | 5 means that it is incorrectly used instead of the double case: a) nominative; b) genitive; c) dative; and d) accusative, e.g.: a) [A person in love wants to improve, create, rejoice, be happy (= happy) (VATM 29); <...> Sruoga became morally stronger (= stronger), which also helped him find personal freedom and create the remarkable work “The Forest of the Gods” (VATM 85); I think this work shows that not everyone knows how to remain noble (= noble) when in love (VATM 182); He believes that happy (= happy) will be only he, while Elena would meanwhile just mock him as she watched Garšva suffer epileptic seizures (VA 10); Similarly, the heroes of Lithuanian literature, wanting to be free (= be free), are forced to resist social norms and rebel against society (VA12); <...> Liudas Vasaris himself, not being overly religious (= religious), is pushed by his parents into entering the seminary (VA 71); b) Thus, this work once again clearly shows that love does not make a person either nobler or better (= either nobler or better) (VA 17); Thus, love often does not make a person noble (= noble), if it becomes “tainted” by jealousy, infidelity <...> (VA 28); c) For some it is the purpose of life; for others, a simple feeling that simply helps a person become happy (= happy) (VATM 182); The most important task is to become a better person, not to be indifferent (= indifferent) toward others (VATM 1525); After all, to be noble, to be virtuous and pure, and to inspire respect (= being noble means being virtuous and pure, and inspiring respect) (VA 10); To be happy (= happy), one must love and be loved (VA 13); Freedom means being independent and unconstrained (= independent and unconstrained) (VA 22); Love is warm and pleasant; it caresses the soul, helps one discover oneself, and feel stronger (= stronger) (VA 22); Thus, memories of our loved ones that live within us help us not feel lonely (= lonely) (VA 68); <...> love in particular becomes a firm support, enabling one not to give up and remain human (= human) even in the most absurd situations <...> (VA 87); d) In my opinion, Mykoliukas's love for Severiute used to make the young man's day bright and happy (= bright and happy) (VATM 32); Love can change every person; it can make a person better, gentler, nobler (= better, gentler, nobler) (VATM 50); This warm feeling changes a person, making them better (= better) (VA 1); Good deeds, performed thanks to the most wonderful feeling, make people better (= make people better) (VA 6); Look at those people who feel happy in everyday life: what is it that, in their daily lives, makes them happy (= make them happy)? (VA 8). BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ. Sintaksės klaidos Vilniaus apskrities abiturientų rašiniuose | 6 Of all the double cases, students in national-minority schools use the genitive least often. The instrumental of adjectives and words used adjectivally is most often incorrectly used instead of the nominative (see Fig. 1). FIG. 1. Frequency of double-case errors (in percentages) in the essays of graduates of national-minority schools Examples of language use by students in native-language schools show that, unlike in national-minority schools, the instrumental is most often used incorrectly instead of the dative (see Fig. 2). FIG. 2. Frequency of double-case errors (in percentages) in the essays of students at Lithuanian-language schools BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ. Sintaksės klaidos Vilniaus apskrities abiturientų rašiniuose | 7 1.2. A considerable proportion of the syntax errors identified consists of incorrect uses of the locative modeled on Russian. The Russian locative has more meanings than the Lithuanian locative; its two main meanings are place and time (Šukys 1998b: 43). Locatives with a temporal meaning are fairly frequent errors in the essays, e.g.: But over time (= eventually) the relatives' feelings cooled (VATM 78); Thus, the problems depicted in B. Sruoga's novella “The Forest of the Gods” were very relevant during that period (= at that time) (VATM 76); After all, the protagonist Juozapota, for love of Petriukas, whom we learn in the course of the work (= as we read the work) commits suicide and goes mad (VATM 50). Graduates of Lithuanian-language schools much less often incorrectly use the temporal locative, e.g.: Love for one's neighbor, support and sympathy from those around one (= compassion), and appreciation of personal growth or creation over the course of life (= in life) should bring a sense of fulfillment (VA 2). In several Lithuanian-language graduates' Lithuanian language and literature examination essays, nonstandard Lithuanian locatives were found, used to express a) the existence (state) or manner of an object; b) a reason, e.g.: a) <...> in theatrical costume (= wearing theatrical clothes) the character in the work feels like a character from a J. Strauss operetta (VA 116); In the work “The White Shroud,” the author seeks to convey personal freedom in various postures (= seeks to convey human personal freedom in various ways) (VA 53); <...> constantly dwelling on old memories is not good, because if we lived in good conditions (= under good conditions), but now are not living particularly well, we need to think ahead <...> (VATM 124); b) First of all, an image one has seen remains in one's memory, and as a result (= therefore) a feeling also arises, attesting to the reality of the event (VA 60); Liudas Vasaris greatly respected his parents and their opinion, but as a result of that (= because of that) a person loses true personal freedom (VA 71); Severija can be viewed as a selfish person, because ultimately (= in the end) it becomes apparent that she fell in love with Mykoliukas out of pity (VATM 286). Sentences were found in which the locative of verbal nouns is used incorrectly. According to Jonas Šukys, locatives of abstract nouns, especially those with the suffix -imas (-ymas), are unsuitable—they should be replaced by a half-participle, a gerund, or a subordinate clause (see Šukys 1998a: 297), e.g.: Thus, Agnė's nobility is revealed in her reconciliation and not fighting (= as she reconciles and does not fight) (VA 74); This is also revealed by his change of name (= when his name changed) from Mykoliukas to Dzidorius the Ploughman, who is respected in society (VA 87). BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ. Sintaksės klaidos Vilniaus apskrities abiturientų rašiniuose | 8 Translated expressions of this kind are also used incorrectly when there is no locative meaning; more such cases were found in the essays of pupils from schools for national minorities, for example: And who could help him in that (= in such a case) more than love (VATM 80); The plot lies in that (= that), that one day, as they walked past the post office, a woman and a man met (VATM 192); <...> cigarettes and alcohol can unequivocally help him in that (= in such a case) (VATM 386); In this work, nobility lies in that (= shows), that love is a very powerful force <...> (VA 43). A frequent error in the essays of pupils from Vilnius County is the use of the directional internal locative (illative) vardan, which became especially widespread under the influence of Russian and should be used only in special expressions, for example: Very often, people forget their personal wishes and for the sake of (= for) others’ happiness give up making their own choices (VATM 46); Only a strong feeling such as love makes a person see the world differently, do for the sake of (= for) it what one would never allow oneself to do (VATM 80); This work vividly reflects exploitation and deception for the sake of (= for) love (VA17); It is hard to rejoice in our own happiness when we make others unhappy for the sake of (= for) our goals (VA 92); Despite these circumstances, Mykoliukas preserves his humility and does not rebel for the sake of (= for) his own ego (VA 119). 1.3. There are errors in the use of the accusative. When an accusative-governing verb is negated with ne-, the so-called genitive of negation is used, a feature of Lithuanian (see Šukys 1998a: 107); however, pupils whose native language is not Lithuanian sometimes express negation relations incorrectly, for example: Memory is a unique feeling that helps us not to forget most (= most of) things <...> (VATM 94); Thus we see that love lends nobility to a person’s everyday life; although rejected, the person in love still does not give up (= does not lower his hands) <...> (VATM 131). Lietuviškų mokyklų abiturientų rašiniuose rastas tik vienas sakinys, kuriame netaisyklingai vartojamas neiginio kilmininkas: Tačiau nepripažinus savo kaltės (= kaltės)⁴ sąžinės balsas gali persekioti ir visą gyvenimą (VA 16). Occasionally, graduates use the accusative incorrectly with certain verbs, because those verbs govern a different case, for example: Laisvės temą atstovauja (= temai atstovauja) autoriai Balys Sruoga, Antanas Škėma savo literatūroje parodo, kokia yra laisvės vertė ir reikšmė (VA 53). 4 This may also be a spelling error: e was written instead of ė. BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ. Sintaksės klaidos Vilniaus apskrities abiturientų rašiniuose | 9 In the essays of students whose native language was not Lithuanian, about 21 percent of sentences contained accusative-case errors, compared with only 6 percent in those of native Lithuanian speakers. 1.4. In some cases, in VATM essays the instrumental case of a noun is used with forms of the verb būti (to be); this usage should be avoided to express a permanent or unchanging state, for example: <...> also we are not always makers of our own destiny makers (– makers) <...> (VATM 446); The object of his inspiration object (– object) was Severiutė (VATM 447); The 20th century was a difficult period (– difficult period), since the Second World War took place from 1939 to 1945 (VATM 448); This short story is a good example (– good example) of the fact that whatever the power of love, much depends on a person's choice (VATM 449); <...> although there are some people who are volunteers and egoists (– volunteers and egoists) <...> (VATM 506). When using the instrumental case, graduates of national-minority schools sometimes make errors by unnecessarily choosing this case to express an object with verbs denoting completion that have the prefix pri-, for example: Love is a feeling that fills the heart with warm feelings (= warm feelings) (VATM 1191). In essays by graduates of Lithuanian-language schools, there was one instance in which the instrumental case was used with a verb instead of the dative case required by that verb: For two years, the surroundings of Balys Sruoga were repellent, and people were compared to animals (= to animals) <...> (VA 21). The examples show that graduates whose native language was not Lithuanian make instrumental-case errors more often. 1.5. Several dative-case errors were found in the work of students from national-minority schools. Less frequently, the dative case of verbal nouns is used incorrectly to express purpose or intended use, for example: Love gives strength and willpower to strive for a noble goal (= to strive for a noble goal) (VATM 550). In one sentence, the dative case was used inappropriately to express time, for example: And specifically, in the inner self one can observe whether love truly grants nobility to the individual for each day (= each day / every day) (VATM 1522). In conclusion, essays by students whose native language was not Lithuanian contain various dative-case errors, whereas none were found in the work of native Lithuanian-speaking graduates. BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ. Sintaksės klaidos Vilniaus apskrities abiturientų rašiniuose | 10 1.6. The rarest nominative errors in essays occur, for example, when the nominative is incorrectly used instead of the partitive genitive with the verb to appear: When difficulties appear on life’s journey (= difficulties), people often fall <...> (VATM 283). No nominative errors were found in the essays of students from Lithuanian-language schools. The frequency of case errors made by graduates of national-minority schools is shown in Fig. 3: the more frequent errors are those involving the double case (33%), the locative (24%), the accusative (21%), and the instrumental (18%), while errors involving the dative (3%) and nominative (1%) are rare. FIG. 3. Frequency of case errors (percentages) in VATM Students from Lithuanian-language schools make fewer syntactic errors than students from national-minority schools. The frequency of syntactic errors made by native-speaking students is shown in Fig. 4; it is evident that errors involving the double case (53%) and the locative (39%) are especially numerous. Errors involving the accusative (6%) and instrumental (2%) occur rarely. BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ. Sintaksės klaidos Vilniaus apskrities abiturientų rašiniuose | 11 FIG. 4. Frequency of case errors (percentages) in VA 2. ERRORS IN SENTENCE STRUCTURE The data in Table 3 show that students from national-minority schools do not know how to correctly join sentences or sentence parts, but rarely make mistakes in choosing word order. No errors in the use of participles were found in the essays of graduates whose native language is not Lithuanian. BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ. Sintaksės klaidos Vilniaus apskrities abiturientų rašiniuose | 12 3 TABLE. Statistics on errors made by non-native and native-speaking high school graduates Error subtype Errors made by non-native speakers Errors made by native speakers Example Number of errors Percentages Number of errors Percentages a) participle errors - - 1 3,3 determined <...> did not hesitate to sacrifice themselves b) gerund errors 20 42,6 20 66,7 in conclusion I want to remind you c) half-participle errors 5 10,6 1 3,3 betrayed their mother while locking her up d) errors in joining sentences and sentence parts 20 42,6 6 20 ready for anything, if only to lead f) word-order errors 2 4,2 2 6,7 elevation and the pursuit of one’s goals Total: 47 30 The following subsections discuss errors in the use of participles, half-participles and adverbial participles, in the joining of sentences and sentence parts, and in word order. 2.1. Sentences containing an adverbial-participle construction that requires correction make up the largest share of errors in this group in graduates’ essays. Adverbial participles are used incorrectly when they express relationships between the main and subordinate actions other than those they should actually express. Where the same agent performs both actions, a half-participle or participle should be used instead of an adverbial participle (see KP S2: 14), e.g.: Comparing (= Comparing) Rapolas at the beginning and end of the work, we can clearly sense his changes <...> (VATM 80); Love compels a person not only to change their gray BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ. Sintaksės klaidos Vilniaus apskrities abiturientų rašiniuose | 13 everyday life, giving (= giving it) beauty, color, and nobility <...> (VATM 81); <...> for the fourth time, the Russian tsar’s officials cut it down showing no mercy (= showing no mercy) (VATM 94); After spending the whole week together <...> (= Having spent the whole week together), they decide to go to Kaunas (VATM 804). Graduates of Lithuanian-language schools also make many errors involving adverbial participles, for example: As war approached, avoiding being drafted into the army (= avoiding military service), V. Mačernis returned home to his native Žemaitija (VA 2); While reading (= While reading) this work, I noticed that people tend to defend not only their own interests but also the dignity of the person they love (VA 10); Having fallen in love (= Having fallen in love), we begin to cherish not only our own honor but also that of our beloved (VA 10); Thus, having summed up (= having summed up) everything, I can answer why what is no longer there remains alive in human memory (VA 11); In conclusion (= In conclusion), I would like to say that no matter who you are <...>, you should always act as your heart tells you (VA 17); An individual is a person with principles that they adhere to even when (= being) in an environment hostile to them (VA 50); Consequently, to be noble (= wanting to be noble), one must seek true love, and to be loved (= wanting to be loved), one must give something oneself (VA 99). 2.2. There are sentences in which the nonstandard construction *kad* (“that”) + infinitive is used to express purpose. Arnoldas Piročkinas (Piročkinas 1990: 95) notes that such and similar expressions with *kad* are not errors in Slavic languages; consequently, many such errors can be found in the work of graduates from national-minority schools. For example: The poet also called his feeling “meilytė” (“dear love”), in order to emphasise (= in order to emphasise) his sensitivity and tenderness (VATM 29); Of course, one need not fall in love in order to feel this way (= in order to feel this way) (VATM 98); Thus, having a love and a loved one in one’s life is very important in order not to break down (= in order not to break down) (VATM 99); <...> Tilius is not afraid of the evil man and is ready to fight for love to the very end, only so that he can be (= so that he can be) with his true love (VATM 191); People sometimes especially lack that light in order to be happy (= who want to be happy) (VATM 247); The character was forced to work as an elevator operator in a New York hotel in order to survive (= so that I could survive) (VATM 299); Nowadays, to find (= so that you can find) your other half, you do not even need to leave home (VATM 377); To truly love and feel (= so that you may love and feel) this heavenly feeling, one must give oneself, and only a noble person can do that (VATM 669). It should be noted that only one instance of this type of error was found in the work of graduates who studied at Lithuanian-language schools: BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ. Sintaksės klaidos Vilniaus apskrities abiturientų rašiniuose | 14 <...> having made the wrong decision, remember and learn from it, so that when the time comes in life to draw (= so that you can draw) conclusions (VA 20). The essays written by graduates in Vilnius County show a clear tendency to use the conjunction and in place of and. The conjunction and is increasingly perceived as a stylistic substitute for the conjunction and, and the semantics of the coordinated elements are disregarded (Bielinskienė 2004: 123). For example: However, people, seeking liberation and risking their lives, bring German weapons through the ghetto gates, and (– and) organize a secret organization (VATM 46); Thus, the hero of Jurgis Kunčinas’s novel never forgets Tūla and (– and) feels love for her (VATM 47); <...> this is an extraordinarily powerful quality of love—its ability to give meaning and nobility, and (– and) the ability to pull a person even out of the darkest despair (VATM 80); Should a person not remain in their homeland and (– and) love, protect, and cherish it? (VA 21); That is, being loved, understood and (– and) supported in a difficult moment, when advice or simply a comforting hug is truly needed (VA 32). There were instances in which words or sentences were improperly incorporated, for example: It does not matter that the experience occurred long ago; it is relived again and again (= once more) (VA 97); A person begins to fade and dies sooner than those people who love. Because (= love, because) love gives strength to survive (VATM 247); <...> we need to know that we matter to someone in this world. Becauseimportant. Because (= important, because) when we no longer feel safe and loved, our personality begins to diminish (VA 92); Then hope awakens in Mykoliukas’s soul, and also hope, and also (= hope and) nobility (VATM 1993). 2.3. In some essays by graduates of both national-minority and Lithuanian-language schools, word order is violated by placing a non-agreeing attribute after the word it modifies, for example: He was only a small detail of the hotel mechanism (= detail of the hotel mechanism) (VATM 299); The main exaltation and pursuit of one’s goals are brought about by love (= Love essentially elevates one’s goals and motivates their pursuit) (VATM 495); Thus, based on the research material, it can be stated that the word order characteristic of Lithuanian is observed in sentences. 2.4. Half-participles are often used incorrectly when they are unsuitable for expressing a circumstantial action that does not occur at the same time as the action of the predicate, for example: <...> Mum had the opportunity to change her life, starting (= had the opportunity to change her life and begin) it with Mr. Janavičius, a man who shared the same values as Mum (VA 74). In this case, not only students whose native language is not Lithuanian make mistakes, but also native-speaking graduates, e.g.: BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ. Sintaksės klaidos Vilniaus apskrities abiturientų rašiniuose | 15 As they themselves said, both a successful flight and a possible catastrophe will strengthen the spirit of Lithuania’s sons, inspiring (= will strengthen the spirit of Lithuania’s sons and inspire) them to new heroic deeds (VATM 89); <...> fight for their own happiness, at the same time not lending (= and thus does not lend) nobility to their everyday lives (VATM 804); Doveika shot Tilius, thus bringing (= shot Tilius and put) an end to the relationship between him and Monika (VATM 821). Sometimes native-speaking students carelessly use participles in their essays, e.g.: <...> both Sam and Dean ready to sacrifice themselves for each other at any second and at any cost, having not hesitated (= without hesitation) for a long time (VA 108). No participle errors were found in the work of students whose native language is not Lithuanian. FIG. 5. Frequency of sentence-structure errors (percentages) in VATM Among syntactic topics, students at schools for national minorities find it most difficult to use converbs correctly and to link words and sentences appropriately (see Fig. 5). The same number of converbal errors was also found in the essays of graduates of Lithuanian-language schools (see Fig. 6), but they contained fewer errors in linking sentences and sentence parts. As noted, errors in the use of participles and half-participles are the least common. BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ. Sintaksės klaidos Vilniaus apskrities abiturientų rašiniuose | 16 FIG. 6. Frequency of sentence-structure errors (percentages) in VA 3. ERRORS IN THE USE OF PREPOSITIONS AND POSTPOSITIONS As mentioned earlier, incorrect prepositional and postpositional constructions occurred least frequently (see Table 4). TABLE 4. Statistics on errors in the use of prepositions and postpositions made by non-native-speaking and native-speaking graduates Error subtype Errors made by non-native-speaking graduates Errors made by native-speaking graduates Example Number of errors Percent Number of errors Percent Errors in the use of prepositions 21 58.3 3 14.3 Love with all individuals Errors in the use of postpositions 15 41.7 18 85.7 a period, thanks to which thanks to Total: 36 21 The study showed that non-native-speaking graduates make more errors in the use of prepositions, whereas native-speaking graduates make more errors in the use of postpositions. BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ. Sintaksės klaidos Vilniaus apskrities abiturientų rašiniuose | 17 3.1. In essays, the preposition pas is used incorrectly under the influence of Slavic languages, for example: Svarbiausi orientyrai pas Raganą (= Svarbiausi Raganos orientyrai) buvo šventasis raštas ir krikščioniški idealai (VATM 33); Vaikui norėjosi normalių, dorų tėvų, kaip pas visus (= kaip visų) (VATM 78); Pas juos buvo tik dvasinė meilė (= jų meilė buvo tik dvasinė), tačiau Mykoliukui to užteko visam gyvenimui (VATM 79); Meilė suteikia stiprių emocijų, nes pas tave yra (= tu turi) daug mylinčių žmonių, kurie suteikia tau stiprybės (VATM 326); Meilė pas visus individus labai skiriasi (= Visų individų meilė yra labai skirtinga) (VATM 500); Rašytojas buvo iš šių romantikų, pas kuriuos buvo nelaiminga meilė (= kurių meilė buvo nelaiminga) (VATM 552); Pas laimingus, supančius gražiais jausmais žmones viskas gerai klostosi (= Laimingų, gražių jausmų apimtų žmonių gyvenimas klostosi gerai) (VATM 1995). This type of error is found less frequently in essays by students at Lithuanian-language schools, for example: <...> only some people’s memories (= the memories of some people) are deeply embedded in memory, while others live through memories <...> (VA 18); Among us (= Ours) the works and memories of other people live on in our minds (VA 58). The data show that non-native-speaking graduates’ errors in using the preposition į are often modeled on Russian, for example: All this can be likened to a toy thrown into (= likened to a discarded toy) <...> (VATM 245); The novel “Autumn Comes Through the Woods” describes autumn there is nothing to (= look at) admire (VATM 326); From day to day (= Day after day) you wait for a little miracle (VATM 1526). More incorrect prepositional constructions were found in essays by graduates of schools for national minorities, for example: a) with the preposition ant: <...> because of love we become happier, on our faces (= our faces) a smile often appears (VATM 298); <...> meanwhile, it is not to such an extent (= so) ruined <...> (VATM 803); b) with the preposition nuo: <...> in the novel “The Forest of the Gods,” the prisoners wore striped uniforms that took away from (= from) them not only their physical but also their moral freedom (VATM 241); Such people stand out from (= from) others because they are not always understood by those around them <...> (VATM 669); c) with the preposition prieš: However, although Jokūbas, despite the fact that before the laws of that time is said to be innocent (= despite the fact that, under the laws of that time, he is said to be innocent), begins to reproach himself (VATM 192); Feeling a duty toward others (= to others), we try to help them and improve their lives (VATM 528). BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ. Sintaksės klaidos Vilniaus apskrities abiturientų rašiniuose | 18 In some essays by graduates of national-minority schools, calqued word combinations are used incorrectly. Unacceptable calqued combinations with the preposition prie (cf. Russian при чём здесь) have been found, for example: Reading this work raises the question: what is so special about this, and what has (= what does it have to do with) personal freedom? (VATM 76). The study shows that non-Lithuanian syntactic constructions arising from the influence of Slavic languages are more frequently used in essays by graduates of national-minority schools. 3.2. Constructions with the instrumental case tending towards prepositional use (su) pagalba occur in the work of pupils from national-minority schools. The choice of these constructions can be justified by the principles of linguistic economy and clarity: the tendency to express as briefly as possible—that is, in a reduced form—and clearly what one wishes to say (Vaičiulytė-Semėnienė 2016: 32). This construction is modeled on the Russian при помощи. For example: Once he was quite different, but over time with the help of illness (= because of the illness) he became somehow unlike himself <...> (VATM 124). The writer with the help of the novel (= in the novel) managed to answer this question very precisely (VATM 186). Instrumental-case noun constructions with (su) pagalba also occur in the final essays of graduates of Lithuanian-language schools in Vilnius County, for example: He had mastered this weapon perfectly and knew wonderfully how to with its help (= with it) spread the ideas of freedom among the people, the priest Jonas Mačiulis-Maironis (VA 3); With the help of love (= Loving) people often achieve their long-dreamed-of goals, overcome fear, and color gray and gloomy everyday life with warm hues (VA 39); This testifies that whatever may be forgotten can be remembered with the help of sound (= aloud) (VA 60); Therefore with the help of a vivid imagination (= being imaginative) he transforms himself into a bat so that he can catch a glimpse of his beloved and spend some time beside her (VA 61); Thus, Irusia, having grown up and become a woman, only with the help of memory (= remembering) could understand where her value system came from (VA 118). Dėka is used in essays both prepositionally and postpositionally, but most often when referring to objects and phenomena (cf. Russian благодаря кому), for example: In his work “Anykščių šilelis,” the writer of the Romantic era Antanas Baranauskas thanks to the power of memories and imagination (= drawing on memories and imagination) described the landscape of the Anykščiai forest very vividly (VATM 94); They are grateful to nature, thanks to which they have (= receive from which) food (VATM 504); Only thanks to books (= by reading books) can we even imagine what love is (VATM 1997); During the world wars, thanks to the experience he had accumulated (= having accumulated experience) A. Škėma discovered a way to escape from the cruel BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ. Sintaksės klaidos Vilniaus apskrities abiturientų rašiniuose | 19 reality (VA 16); Thanks to captivity (= While imprisoned) Sruoga finds himself on the threshold of death <...> (VA 71); Thanks to some events (= When certain events occur) or sometimes upon visiting the same place where something happened, a person may suddenly remember <...> (VA 72); <...> the protagonist-narrator thanks to his bohemian lifestyle (= living a bohemian life) manages not to give up, while his love for Tūla is the driving force behind life and joy (VA 87). Occasionally, sentences occur in which the postposition atgal is used to indicate a time span; these are calques from Russian expressions (cf. Russian пару лет (веков) назад), e.g.: A couple of years ago (= Two years ago) I felt hopeless <...> (VATM 98); However, a couple of centuries ago (= two centuries ago), Black people were enslaved because of the cruel behavior of white people <...> (VA 36). One sentence was found in which the word sąskaita is used as a postposition, e.g.: However, if love is attained at the expense of others (= if love is attained by hurting others), a person can never feel fully (= completely) happy or enjoy their love (VA 92). FIG. 7. Frequency of preposition and postposition errors (percent) in VATM Preposition errors account for about 58 percent of the errors in the essays of high-school graduates from schools where the language of instruction is not Lithuanian (see Fig. 7). The prepositions pas, į, ant are used incorrectly more often, and prie and su less often. Among the incorrectly used postpositions (about 42 percent), the following are noteworthy: pagalba, dėka and atgal. The calque dėka, as the research data show, is more characteristic of graduates of schools for national minorities. BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ. Sintaksės klaidos Vilniaus apskrities abiturientų rašiniuose | 20 FIG. 8. Frequency of errors in the use of prepositions and postpositions (percent) in VA Native-speaking high-school graduates are the least likely to make preposition and postposition errors (see Fig. 8). Such errors were found in only 21 essays. This accounts for about 14 percent of preposition errors, among which incorrect constructions with the prepositions pas and į are more common. Nearly 86 percent are postposition errors: it was observed that constructions using the postpositions dėka and pagalba are most often incorrect, while those with atgal and sąskaita are rarely so. CONCLUSIONS 1. Three types of syntactic errors were found in the 2014 state Lithuanian language and literature examination essays written by school-leavers from national-minority and Lithuanian-language schools in Vilnius County: case errors, errors in the use of prepositions and postpositions, and faulty sentence structure. Analysis of the data shows that non-native speakers make one-third more errors. The study allows us to draw general conclusions. 1.1. One of the main types of errors made in all the essays is case errors; they account for a similar proportion in the essays of both native and non-native speakers. The most numerous group of errors consists of the non-use of double cases; more such errors were found in the work of native-speaking school-leavers, which may be because this mode of expression is chosen more often. 1.2. Students from both types of schools make errors in using the locative: errors involving the temporal locative are more common in essays by school-leavers from national-minority schools, while essays from Lithuanian-language schools more often contain errors involving the directional interior locative vardan. 1.3. Non-native-speaking school-leavers substantially outnumber native speakers in essays that incorrectly use the accusative instead of the genitive required by negation. BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ. Sintaksės klaidos Vilniaus apskrities abiturientų rašiniuose | 21 2. The second group of syntactic errors consists of sentence-structure defects. 2.1. The predominant error of this type is the incorrect use of the gerund. It is made by school-leavers from both national-minority and Lithuanian-language schools. The nature and relative frequency of the errors suggest that they may have the same cause: failure to understand that the gerund is unsuitable for expressing an accompanying action performed by the same agent in personal sentences. 2.2. Unlike the essays of native speakers, those of non-native-speaking school-leavers abound in constructions kad with an infinitive to express purpose, most likely due to the influence of Russian. 3. The third type of error, characteristic of essays by both native and non-native speakers, is the incorrect use of prepositions and postpositions. 3.1. Due to the influence of Russian, most preposition errors in the work of students from national-minority schools consist of the incorrect use of the prepositional constructions pas and į. 3.2. Incorrect use of the postpositions dėka and pagalba is characteristic of school-leavers from Lithuanian-language schools. 4. The results show that the syntactic errors occurring in the essays are mostly due to the influence of Slavic languages. Calques translated from Russian occur in the work of students from both non-native- and native-language schools. By analogy with Russian, syntactic constructions become established in speakers’ minds as the norm. The language used in the family and by people around them, as well as the media, also appears to exert an influence; both written and spoken media texts abound in the language errors characteristic of school-leavers’ essays. LITERATŪRA Bielinskienė A. 2004: Dėl jungtuko bei vartosenos dabartinėje lietuvių kalboje. – Kalbos kultūra 77, 119–123. KP S1: Kalbos patarimai. Kn. 2. Sintaksė: 1. Linksnių vartojimas. Sud. Rita Miliūnaitė, teksto aut. Vitas Labutis, Aldonas Pupkis ir Jonas Šukys. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2009. KP S2: Kalbos patarimai. Kn. 2. Sintaksė: 2. Įvairūs dalykai. Sud. Rita Miliūnaitė, teksto aut. Vitas Labutis ir Aldonas Pupkis. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2009. Piročkinas A. 1990: Administracinės kalbos kultūra, Vilnius: Mintis. Šukys J. 1998a: Lietuvių kalbos linksniai ir prielinksniai: vartosena ir normos, Kaunas: Šviesa. BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ. Sintaksės klaidos Vilniaus apskrities abiturientų rašiniuose | 22 Šukys J. 1998b: Taisyklingi ir klaidingi vietininkai, normų ribos. – Gimtasis žodis 4, 43–46. Urnėžiūtė R. 2015: Mūsų mokslo ateities kalba. – Gimtoji kalba 1, 14–20. Vadovėlių rankraščių kalbos apžvalga. Prieiga internete: http://www.vlkk.lt/aktualiausios-temos/svietimas/vadoveliu-aprobavimas/vadoveliu-rankrasciu-kalbos-apzvalga (žiūrėta 2016 11 02). Vaičiulytė-Semėnienė 2016: Daiktavardžio pagalba įnagininko desemantizacija. – Acta Linguistica Lithuanica 74, 9–39. Įteikta 2016 12 05 Priimta 2017 01 20 SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ Lietuvių kalbos institutas P. Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius [email protected] BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204