Daugiskaitos įnagininko kilmės prieveiksmių semantikos bruožai

LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI, VI LIETUVOS TSR MOKSLŲ AKADEMIJA SEMANTIC FEATURES OF ADVERBS DERIVED FROM THE INSTRUMENTAL PLURAL K. ULVYDAS Of all the plural cases, we have the greatest number of nominal adverbs derived from the instrumental. This is explained, first of all, by the instrumental’s distinctive position among the other cases. The instrumental is characterized by a great richness and variety of meanings. In his “Cases and Prepositions,” J. Jablonskis, without laying claim to an exhaustive examination of the instrumental’s functions, and wishing only to show the most important instances of its use in contemporary Lithuanian, identified and illustrated at least 10 meanings (and, potentially, types of this case), drawing especially abundantly on facts from the people’s spoken language, namely: instrument, route, time (or occasion), cause, manner, difference (distinction), non-agreeing attribute, predicate (divided into three subtypes: a) with the verbs consider, turn, transform, become, choose, appoint and others of similar meaning, b) with a copula expressed by various forms of the verb to be, and c) expressing comparison, appearance, form, or result), respect (or descriptive), and accompaniment1. E. Fraenkel, relying more on written sources (especially older ones) than on the people’s spoken language, and adhering to the abstract case scheme devised by the comparative-historical grammar of the Indo-European languages, lists incomparably more meanings and instances of use for the instrumental2. It should be noted, however, that neither of the authors mentioned gives a complete picture of the instrumental’s meanings and instances of use: the former because he relies almost exclusively on facts from contemporary language (mostly the people’s spoken language), and the latter because he makes insufficient use of data from contemporary standard national language, limiting himself mostly to older writings. The full range of meanings of the instrumental and the variety of its uses could be revealed only by a special study based on material from both the people’s spoken language and written language (old and new, especially works of belles lettres). Only such a study could show that, alongside the other cases, the instrumental is deeply rooted in the case system, is used very widely and variously 1 Žr. Rygiškių Jonas, Linksniai ir prielinksniai, Kaunas, 1928, p. 78—95. 2 Žr. E. Fraenkel, Syntax der litauischen Kasus, „Tauta ir žodis“, Kaunas, 1928, p. 102—144. 71 and shows no signs of weakening in comparison with the other cases. If the singular and plural instrumental have given, and continue to give, more prepositionless adverbs than the other cases, this is due not to any weakness of the instrumental, as is sometimes thought, but to its very meaning and use, and to its close relationship with adverbs. In meaning and function, adverbs are most closely related to nominal cases that express various circumstantial relations, and to the meanings and uses of those cases. The instrumental, with its various meanings and instances of use, is especially prone to expressing circumstantial relations. It is therefore unsurprising that the instrumental has been and remains the most important source for the formation of prepositionless adverbs. No other case is as closely related to adverbs as the instrumental in meaning and function. Let us take a noun, for example. Its nominative, with its distinct nominative meaning and function, as well as its other cases—for instance, the genitive used with nouns; the accusative and genitive expressing the direct relation of an object to an action denoted by a verb; or, finally, the dative, marking the indirect effect of a verb on an object, directed toward that object—show no marked tendency to become adverbs. The distinctive position of the instrumental in Russian among the other cases was described with remarkable clarity by Academician A. A. Shakhmatov: “In general, the instrumental complement, with few exceptions, denotes not an image dependent on the verb, not an object that itself undergoes the action or influence of a verbal feature, but, on the contrary, an image that helps this feature unfold, changing or determining its manifestation; herein lies the essential difference between the instrumental case and the genitive, accusative, and dative”3. This observation by A. A. Shakhmatov, which points to the essential difference between instrumental complements and genitive, accusative, and dative complements, is also characteristic of Lithuanian, where a complement expressed by the instrumental likewise often does not so much itself undergo the effect of the verb that governs it as help bring out the verbal feature. However, the instrumental case is not equally prone to becoming adverbial in all its functions. In relation to adverbs, the meanings and functions of the instrumental can be divided into three groups: a) circumstantial uses in the sentence (manner, with additional meanings of appearance, form, quantity, and comparison; place-space, route, time, cause, and purpose); b) predicate uses (or, more precisely, uses as the nominal part of the predicate); c) uses as a non-agreeing attribute and complement (instrument, difference, respect—or descriptive use—accompaniment, and content). Most instrumental-plural adverbs are related to instrumentals belonging to the first group mentioned here, especially the instrumental of manner. This circumstance is undoubtedly due to the fact that the instrumental of manner is 3 A. A. Shakhmatov, Syntax of the Russian Language, 2nd edition, Leningrad, 1941, p. 340. 72 closest to an adverbial meaning. It is characterized by diversity of origin; various instrumental forms flow into it, retaining sometimes more pronounced, sometimes very faint shades of their original meaning. Therefore, J. Jablonskis’s observation is no accident: “The use and meaning of the i n s t r u m e n t a l of m a n n e r, its entire distinction, is often difficult to distinguish precisely from among the other instrumentals”14. Its separation from the other instrumentals is made still more difficult by the fact that, for example, the instrumental of manner of a noun, while answering the questions how? in what manner? and in any case indicating how something happens or comes about, often also loses its substantiality to some degree (however slight); cf. forms such as alternately (go with someone), in groups (run around), in rows (stand), in heaps (pile up), in crowds (gather together), head over heels (fall), in clumps (grow luxuriantly), in shoots (pour forth), in tiers (cut hair), in drops (drip), in little groups, in gusts (rain), in leaves (put forth leaves), in branches (branch), in embers (steam, i.e. fly), like thunder, like devils (curse), in tears (burst out, pour forth), and so on. Interestingly, adjectives used as instrumentals of manner often detach from their original category to an even greater degree than nouns and pass entirely into the adverb, e.g.: with white, squinting, sidelong, and askance looks and so on (look), empty-handed (travel), cf. also pronominal forms: amicably, maliciously, badly, decently, etc. The instrumentals of other parts of speech (for example, numerals) are no exception if their meaning comes somewhat close to that of an instrumental of manner; cf.: both ‘with both pairs of horses’ (travel), with one, five, six (travel), with all four ‘very much’ (rush), and so on. Here, too, one can sense a certain fading of the primary (numerical) meaning, a slight blurring of it. This, in turn, is already a prerequisite for the adverbialization and fossilization of the instrumental. Because of these characteristics, the instrumental of manner has been and remains the principal source from which the g r e a t m a j o r i t y of non-prepositional adverbs originating in the plural instrumental arise (especially nominal formations of this type), both in colloquial speech and in written language. Indeed, the most productive group of adverbs derived from the plural instrumental is precisely the one most closely connected in meaning with the instrumental of manner. Adverbs belonging to other semantic groups—for example, those connected with instrumentals of place-space, path, and time—are considerably less productive. We have very few adverbs whose meaning and origin are connected with the instrumental of cause, and only barely perceptible traces of plural instrumental adverbs with a meaning of purpose. One can hardly say that plural instrumental adverbs with this latter meaning form any relatively cohesive and distinct group. Their purposive meaning is often merely additional; otherwise, they tend toward other adverb groups, especially manner adverbs. This is no coincidence: the instrumental of purpose itself, one might say, has not become established in the language, which is why neither J. Jablonskis nor E. Fraenkel distinguishes it in the works mentioned. A purposive meaning is not characteristic of the instrumental in Lithuanian. 4 R y g i š k i ų J o n a s, Linksniai ir prielinksniai, Kaunas, 1928, p. 86. 73 In terms of its relation to adverbs (more precisely, the closeness of that relation), we have placed the predicative instrumental second. The predicative instrumental is most characteristic of Lithuanian among all the Baltic languages. In general, the Baltic (especially Lithuanian) and Slavic (especially Polish, Russian, and Ukrainian) languages stand out among all Indo-European languages for the intensive use of the predicative instrumental. Linguists often cite the use of the predicative instrumental as one of the most characteristic syntactic commonalities of the Baltic and Slavic languages. However, we have few adverbs originating in the plural instrumental that are used predicatively, since predicative use of the adverb is not a frequent phenomenon in Lithuanian at all. Instrumentals used as non-agreeing modifiers and as objects are wholly resistant to adverbialization. In Lithuanian, an instrumental non-agreeing modifier is usually expressed by a noun that also has its own agreeing or non-agreeing modifiers, e.g.: I bought a small knife with white handles. Many people read the story under that title. Several children in spotless gowns played on the sanatorium veranda. Pass me that thick book with a leather binding from the shelf. Here the instrumentals ‘handles,’ ‘title,’ ‘gowns,’ and ‘binding’ cannot undergo adverbialization for the simple reason that they have their own modifiers, which reinforce the case meaning itself. Such instrumentals cannot be used without modifiers at all. Consequently, a non-agreeing modifier expressed solely by the instrumental of a n o u n is impossible, so there are no conditions for such an instrumental to become fossilized or adverbialized. Thus, nominal instrumentals functioning as non-agreeing modifiers are not a source from which instrumental adverbs arise. An inflected-word instrumental used on its own (without modifiers) can function as a non-agreeing modifier of a noun (especially a deverbal noun or one closely related in meaning to a verb) only when it—the inflected-word instrumental—has become an adverb or has at least reached an intermediate stage between noun and adverb, e.g.: carrying a child piggyback (with the child settled on one’s shoulders), a journey on foot, work done in snatches, swimming underwater (while submerged), and so on. However, the forms piggyback, on foot, in snatches, underwater have become—or begun to become—fossilized not in the function of a non-agreeing modifier but in another function, that of the instrumental of manner in this case, and they are used not with a noun but with a verb (cf.: carry a child piggyback, travel on foot, do something in snatches, swim underwater), since adverbs themselves are very rarely used with nouns. In general, if non-adverbialized instrumentals are used alone (without their own modifiers) with nouns, they serve not as non-agreeing modifiers but in other functions—as adverbials or objects—and should therefore be considered not instrumentals of non-agreeing modification but adverbial or object instrumentals. Instrumentals used as objects are likewise resistant to adverbialization. Here, the instrumental’s objective meaning prevents it from becoming fossilized. Object instrumentals expressed by nouns adhere particularly firmly to their original category. If object instrumentals of other inflected parts of speech (numerals, pronouns) sometimes do show certain signs of fossilization and adverbialization, this is only in cases when the object meaning is weak- 74 …ening, shifting toward a manner-of-action meaning, e.g.: to travel with both pairs (with both pairs of horses), with five, six (sc. horses), they haul the manure with their own (by their own strength, with their own horses). Thus, the instrumental of manner appears not only as a case into which various other instrumentals flow, but also as a transitional stage where circumstantial meaning is most readily differentiated and the process of adverbialization begins: an instrumental object can become an adjunct, and the instrumental form itself can become an adverb. It is therefore no coincidence that manner adverbs occupy the most prominent place among adverbs originating from the plural instrumental—the largest semantic group among adverbs of this origin and formation. This can also be supported by statistical data. For this study, 1,016 distinct forms of the adverbs under consideration were collected both from written sources (mostly works of fiction) and from spoken folk language. Of these, 713 forms (70%) are used with a manner-of-action meaning, 145 (14%) with a place-space meaning, 110 (11%) with a temporal meaning, 28 (3%) as predicates, and 20 (2%) with other adverbial meanings (purpose, cause), as well as with the meaning of particles, modal words, and prepositions. Manner-of-action adverbs originating from the plural instrumental stand out among other semantic groups of adverbs of this formation not only through the abundance of forms in use, but also through the variety and richness of their additional meanings. The dominant manner-of-action meaning itself, when less associated with additional semantic nuances, is generally characteristic only of a relatively small part of manner adverbs of this origin and formation—chiefly forms denoting more abstract and general circumstantial relations, e.g.: with great difficulty, by dint of effort; antlaužais (in the idiomatic expression širdies antlaužais ‘very reluctantly, resisting, forcing oneself’), generally ‘generally, on the whole’, nenóromais ‘reluctantly’, nuodėmais ‘from the thing, constantly, continuously’, paieškais ‘searching’, paklausais ‘asking questions’, pakrikšmais ‘haphazardly, disorderly’, skaudžiais ‘painfully, very, greatly’, aumeniais ‘by heart’, aklomis ‘blindly’, aplomis ‘without looking, without distinguishing, indiscriminately’, bergždomis ‘of stale milk, said of a cow’, dovanomis ‘as a gift, gratis, for nothing’, melomis ‘falsely’, nóromis ‘willingly, gladly’, nóromis nenóromis, slaptomis ‘secretly, in secret’, āt sparomis ‘reluctantly, having resisted, stubbornly’, atviromis ‘openly, clearly, expressively’, atādūromis ‘lazily, unwillingly’, atōdairomis ‘looking back, glancing around, idling’, įvadom ‘by enticement, by coaxing’, nedrąsomis ‘timidly’, nēgirdomis ‘without hearing, without listening’, nenóromis, nesviltomis (<nesiviltomis) ‘unexpectedly’, nežiūromis ‘without regard, without looking’, paklausomis ‘asking questions’, pasalomomis ‘from ambush’, paselomis ‘likewise’, paslaptomis ‘secretly, in secret’, patýkom ‘lying in wait, by ambush’, patylomis ‘likewise’, paviršom ‘superficially, anyhow’, glundžiomis ‘by stealth, quietly’, glūščiomis ‘stealthily, secretly’, imčiomis ‘on credit, by barter’, jučiómis ‘perceptibly, with others knowing’, jusčiomis ‘likewise’, lygiomis ‘equally, uniformly’, mačiom ‘visibly, apparently, while seeing, while observing’, slapčiom nemačiom ‘very secretly’, ūman iom ‘thoughtlessly, carelessly’, vogčiomis ‘secretly’, žiniomis ‘publicly, openly, visibly’, apiviršiomis ‘superficially, anyhow’, atvirkščiomis ‘backwards’, aume- 75 niomis ‘while ill, unwell’, aūmoniomis ‘unconsciously, without judgment, by groping’, nejučiomis ‘unnoticed, spontaneously’, nejučiomis ‘likewise’, nemačiomis ‘unseen, secretly’, nežiniomis ‘without knowing, unknowingly’, nuotariomis ‘suspiciously’, paslapčiomis ‘secretly’, paviršiom ‘carelessly, superficially’, slaptėmis ‘secretly’, ūmonėm ‘thoughtlessly, carelessly’, aūmonėmis ‘unconsciously, without judgment, by groping’, paviršiumi ‘superficially’, aūmenimis ‘thoughtlessly, carelessly’, and so on. Generally speaking, adverbs of the type under discussion are most often characterized by great expressiveness and vividness. In expressing manner of action, they usually accompany the action with a static or dynamic image, sometimes coloring it with a comparison; in this way, the circumstance of the action itself emerges as if visible, directly perceptible to the eye. Although, according to the general question how? (in what manner?), we assign these adverbs to the group of manner adverbs, in fact they often denote not so much the abstract manner of the action itself as the concrete form in which the action manifests itself. Many of these adverbs are related in their roots—and thus in their lexical meaning—to verbs; consequently, when attached in a sentence to a verb denoting the principal action, they often evoke an image of a secondary action as well, and function as peculiar synonyms of participles, converbs, or semi-converbs with the corresponding root. The meaning of some adverbs of the type under consideration is extraordinarily condensed: alongside the customary manner-of-action meaning, we often encounter meanings of a static or dynamic image, of a concrete form of the action’s manifestation, and also of a secondary action. Such semantic condensation is especially characteristic of two-stem formations found in spoken folk language, whose second constituents have roots related to verbs. These adverbs, created by the language’s very creator—the people—with such remarkable aptness, are so expressive that, in order to describe synonymously the circumstantial relations they convey, we would often have to resort to paraphrase; what an adverbial construction expresses synthetically and concisely in a single form could only be expressed by a phrase or an entire sentence. The most accurate name for the adverbs of the type discussed here would be vivid manner-of-action adverbs. That this name best reveals their semantic nature is shown by the examples themselves: almais ‘at a headlong pace, in a crowd, in a stream’ (cf.: All the children ran off in a crowd to see the fox), piestais ‘rearing, on the hind legs’, plėšais ‘rushing and tearing, while forcing one’s way and tearing’ (cf. here hybrid noun-adverb forms of similar meaning: pliupsais ‘in a whole crowd’, rumulais ‘in a jet, stream, current’, uldurais ‘in whirlpools, eddies’, ūrmais ‘in a whole crowd, at a headlong pace’, urm(u)lais ‘in a current, in a stream, rushing and foaming’, ūrtais ‘in whirlpools’, ūrtas (< le. hurtem, ru. gutrom) ‘in heaps, in loads; very vigorously, rapidly, quickly’, etc.), apglobais ‘having embraced, embracing, going on one’s knees’, apgrabais ‘by groping, anyhow, quickly’, apgraibais ‘likewise’, apgraibstais ‘by touch, groping, feeling around’, apgramais ‘superficially’, apgrobais ‘likewise’, apkandais ‘as if between the teeth’ 76 “with something clenched in one’s teeth,” apžargais “in a rough, superficial manner,” apigrabais “by groping,” apyčiupais “by feeling around, approximately, roughly,” atrop­lais “crawling, creeping,” atsiūbais “swaying,” atžvilgais “looking back, turning around, glancing,” įbrukais “pushing and squeezing one’s way through,” išplastais “with wings or coat-tails spread; forcefully,” išsprogtais (eyes popped out in astonishment), išvirtais “somersaulting,” paglemžais “by snatching, seizing,” palaipais “flickering, fluttering (of a candle flame),” paplazdais “flapping,” pasigavdais “catching one by one,” pralindais, pushing and squeezing one’s way through, worming one’s way in,” prisėdais “sitting for a while, resting,” prisėstais “the same,” proverksmais “crying, through tears,” sučiuopais “with pursed lips; barely,” užbloškais (I marked out the writing, i.e. having drawn a line, marked it with a cord), užčiaupais “with pursed lips; barely,” užgrobais “by seizing, taking over, attempting to seize,” užgulais “leaning on, without withdrawing,” užgužais (I grew up without a mother among relatives, i.e. being bullied and hurt), aukštšūkiais “leaping upward,” basnirtais “barefoot, with one’s feet slipped into shoes,” dvikibais (dvikẏbais) “joined in pairs,” dvikinkais “harnessing a pair of horses to a cart,” dvily.pais “two riding one horse, two-up,” dvišėdais “the same,” kaktomušais “head-on, meeting forehead to forehead,” kūlvir tais “head over heels,” vienvarais “without stopping (while driving),” žemėvilkais “dragging along the ground (after the snow has melted),” gaidėliais (carrying a child, i.e. seated on one’s shoulders), kromėliais “with something on one’s back,” trinkuliais “head over heels,” tuščiais “empty-handed, with nothing,” atšūkiais “very quickly, leaping,” atžvilgiais “looking back,” paklupdžiais “very energetically, stumbling and getting up again (of walking, running, etc.),” pasklindžiais “sliding sideways (usually of sledding),” pašliūkščiais “skiing,” aukštšūkiais “leaping upward,” ditkūliais “somersaulting, head over heels,” dūdkūliais “tumbling head over heels,” dūdkūliais “the same,” dūtkūliais “the same,” dvikẏbiais “two riding one horse, two-up,” dvikinkiais “harnessing a pair,” dvikužiais “joined in pairs, two-up,” dvilipiais “two riding one horse, two-up,” dviračiais “the same,” galtrūkčiais “very forcefully, headlong,” galtrūkiais “the same,” galvūduriais “the same,” galvatrūkčiais “the same,” galvatrūkiais “the same,” galvatrūkčiais “the same,” galvótrūkčiais “the same,” galvótrūkiais “the same,” galvótrūkščiais “the same,” kaktomušiais “almost colliding forehead to forehead, very close,” kryžkryžiais “crosswise, diagonally,” kūliavirsčiais “turning somersaults, head over heels,” kūlverčiais “the same,” kūlvertiniais “the same,” skėrskryžiais “crosswise” (Batus riša skėrskryžiais), stačiagalviais “headfirst,” strimgalviais “head over heels,” strimgalviais “the same,” šalipbančiais (hobbling, tying horses together [one horse’s right leg to the other’s left]), šunbajais (eating, gulping [like a dog]), trim kūliais “turning, rolling,” trūkčiagalviais “headlong, head over heels, headfirst,” trūkstang alviais “the same,” akėlpom is “without knowing what one is doing, by groping,” baltomis (sc. eyes) “cross-eyed,” basomis “barefoot,” čiul pom “sucking,” čiurkšlomis “in a stream,” čiupin omis “by feeling,” dykom “empty-handed, for nothing, in vain, with nothing,” dribs om “at a trot, trotting,” grįžom “returning, going and coming back,” gujom “stooping, hunching, crouching,” kreivomis “sideways, askance,” lengvom “lightly, with the cart unloaded— 77 (the cart),” naromis “having dived underwater,” niūromis “from beneath lowered brows,” repečkomis “crawling, creeping,” rėplomis “crawling,” roplomis “the same,” ropomis “the same,” sausomis “dry, with nothing,” šokinomis “jumping,” scattered “having dispersed,” žnairomis “looking askance, glancing sideways, squinting,” žvairomis “the same,” apčiūopomis “feeling about; superficially, carelessly,” apčiupomis “the same,” apgrabomis “the same,” apgraibomis “superficially, carelessly; somehow,” apgraibstomis “the same,” apgrėbomis “feeling about,” apgreibomis “superficially,” apsisukom “turning around repeatedly,” apžabom “riding with legs on either side of the road, astride; greedily; superficially, carelessly,” apžargom “astride, without a saddle,” apičiū- pom “groping, feeling about, superficially,” apigraizdom “in haste,” apyčiupomis “on the surface, superficially,” apýgraibomis “by groping, somehow, superficially,” atbulomis “backwards, with one’s rear,” atlapom “with clothes open,” atžvilgomis “looking back,” looking around “glancing about; lazily,” disheveled “without fastening or tidying oneself,” wearing shirts outside (wearing shirts [over other clothes]), with legs spread “astride,” from the hip “from the hip,” feeling about “by groping,” bent over “stooping,” hunched “the same,” with shoulders raised “hunching, stooping, slouching,” stumbling “stumbling,” headlong “headlong, falling forward onto one’s nose,” headlong “the same,” headlong “the same,” diving “the same,” diving “diving underwater; lowering one’s head,” from beneath lowered brows “from beneath lowered brows,” flapping “flapping coat-tails or wings close to the ground,” splashing “the same,” flapping “the same,” slipping “sliding, tipping sideways,” sliding “the same,” sliding “the same,” flying off “taking off,” leaping “bouncing, springing up,” swaying “swaying, staggering,” headlong “head over heels,” crossing “crosswise,” running past “passing by, superficially, in passing,” barefoot “with bare feet slipped into shoes,” two-up “two riding one horse,” somersaulting “turning somersaults,” somersaulting “the same,” nosediving “headlong, nose scraping the ground,” half-closing one’s eyes “with eyes half-closed,” half-closing one’s eyes “the same,” wading “wading,” (on all fours) “with hands and feet, with great effort, with all one’s strength,” wide-eyed (sc. eyes) “with eyes wide open,” writhing “twisting, wriggling,” competing “competing,” empty-handed “with nothing,” burning “with fire, fiercely,” squinting “askance, sideways,” groping “by groping,” open-mouthed “with one’s mouth open,” from both sides “on both sides; greedily, with one’s whole mouth,” barefoot “barefoot,” barefoot “the same,” headlong “very quickly, forcefully, headlong,” somersaulting “turning somersaults, head over heels,” somersaulting “the same,” crawling “on all fours,” barefoot “wearing shoes without socks,” somersaulting “turning somersaults, head over heels,” head over heels “headfirst, somersaulting,” dog-eyed “with a dog’s eyes,” crosswise “crosswise, diagonally,” sliding “headlong,” crosswise “crosswise, diagonally”. It should be noted that, alongside the adverbs given here (and hybrid formations: pliupsais, rumulais, uldurais, ū rmais, urm ulai s, ū r stais, ū rtais...), many plural instrumental forms could also be listed (apšalais [it is raining, 78 that is, it rains, and everything freezes over and becomes covered with ice, buriais “in patches, intermittently,” gūsiais “in gusts, intermittently,” kūliais “rolling along like a tumbling wheel,” urduliais “boiling, in waves,” ūrtuliais “headlong, very fast,” uruliais “in waves, whirlpools, eddies,” vėjais “like the wind,” and so on), which, although they show a slight tendency toward adverbialization, cannot be distinguished from nouns, since they still retain complete declensional paradigms. While the adverbs listed above, in expressing manner of action, most often also evoke a certain v i s u a l (optical) i m a g e, other adverbs of manner are characterized by an a u d i t o r y (acoustic) i m a g e, e.g.: pašnibždais “whispers,” patyliukais “(very) quietly,” patylukais “the same,” prorėksmais “half-shouting, loudly,” patylėliais “(very) quietly,” patyliais “quietly,” balsomis “in a voice, vocally, loudly,” kuštomis “whispers,” kuždomis “the same,” šnabždomis “the same,” šnibždomis “the same,” šnypštomis “in a hissing manner,” tylomis “quietly,” paklegomis “chattering, aloud,” pakugždomis “whispers,” pakuštomis “the same,” pakuždomis “the same,” papliuopom “loudly, aloud,” pastūgomis “howling,” patėrškomis “with a clatter,” pašnabždomis “whispers,” pašnibždomis “the same,” pusiau giedom “half-singing,” tylėmis “quietly,” tylutėlėmis “(very) quietly,” tylutėmis “the same,” and so on. The general and basic meaning of manner of action is often not the only meaning of other adverbs of manner either: various additional meanings also arise alongside it, sometimes even overshadowing the meaning of manner of action, namely: a) t e m p o: zovadais “at a gallop, galloping,” zovedais “the same,” palengviūkais “gently, gradually,” pamažiukais “little by little, gradually,” šuoliais “hopping, in shouts,” apžyngsniais “at a walk,” palengvėliais “gently, gradually,” pamažėliais “little by little, gradually,” greitomis “quickly,” skubinoms “hurriedly,” skubomis “hurriedly,” tekinomis “running, at a run,” apytėkomis “at a jog,” pabėgomis “running intermittently,” paliuokomis “in leaps,” paskubomis “in haste, hurriedly, quickly,” pastrūipomis “in leaps,” pašokomis “in leaps,” pašokėdamas “, pašuokomis “the same,” patekomis “running,” pótekomis “almost at a trot,” šuoliom “in leaps”; b) t i m e: apéntais “again, anew,” grįžalais “returning, while returning,” grįžulais “the same,” priešais “in the future, ahead,” ūpais “sometimes, intermittently,” atminais “sometimes, on occasion, now and then,” atmy nais “the same,” atvalkais “a second time,” apértačiais “again, anew,” atótrūkčiais “taking breaks from work, from time to time,” atótrūkiais “the same,” igeidžiais “occasionally, when one feels like it,” įnorais “the same,” išokiais “occasionally, in fits and starts,” inšokiais “the same,” pripulčiais “dropping in, coming over, once in a while,” priepuoliais “the same,” priešokiais “the same,” atótrūkomis “taking breaks from work, from time to time,” igeidóm “occasionally, when one feels like it”; compare also the hybrid nominal-adverbial form perdebesiais “intermittently, in patches” (Today it rains perdebesiais lyja); c) l o c a t i o n-s p a c e or spatial orientation: priešais “in front,” priešų priešais “the same (intensified),” aplinkais “around, going around, windingly, in a circle, circuitously,” aplan ktais “the same,” aplan ktais “the same,” įdūrmais “immediately behind, in pursuit,” įkantinais “afterwards, behind, in pursuit,” padūrmais “the same,” patikimais “only among the trustworthy, not everywhere,” pridūrmais “from 79 behind, in pursuit,” užuolankais “by a detour, in a circle, windingly, around,” gretomis “beside,” apylankomis “around, going around; indirectly, obliquely,” pasekomis “behind,” grečiom “beside,” ažčiomis “off to the side, apart”; d) s u b s t i t u t i o n: mainais “in exchange for something,” atkitais “alternately,” įmainais “the same,” pakaitais “in turns, alternately,” pakeitais “the same,” pramainais “by way of exchange, in turns,” mainomis “in exchange,” apkalptomis “in turns, alternately,” atkalptomis “the same,” atamainom “in exchange,” atomainom “the same,” pakaitomis “in turns, replacing one another,” pamainomis “the same”; e) a certain bodily or other object’s p o s i t i o n: aukštynaikais “lying on one’s back,” aukštynais “the same,” išgūliais “lying down, reclining,” aukštieninkom “lying on one’s back,” gulom “lying down,” klūpom “kneeling,” sėdom “sitting,” pusiaušėdomis “sitting halfway,” gulsčiomis “horizontally,” klūpščiomis “kneeling,” kniūpščiomis “prostrate,” stačiom “standing, while standing”; f) a certain m a n n e r with a verb of the same root: atsimelžais (to milk a cow) “in return for fodder, for grazing,” užpiaumais (to mow) “in the manner of mowing,” pamelžiais (to milk a cow) “in return for fodder, for grazing,” bėgòm (to run) “running,” gulòm (to lie), kepùrstom (to caper) “on all fours,” ropòm (to crawl), sėdòm (to sit), bėgčiòm (to run), atmilžtumìs (to milk a cow) “in return for fodder, for grazing”; g) q u a n t i t y or d e g r e e: aukštkaũpais “excessively; more than necessary,” dievmeldais “very”; h) d i r e c t i o n: pavandeniais “downstream, as the current flows,” pavėjais “downwind, as the wind blows,” gręžom “backwards,” ats tupòm “back, backwards,” atatupstòm “the same,” atgalioms “backwards,” atpakaliòm “the same,” atalūpščiòm “backwards”; ch) r e a s o n or p u r p o s e: juokais (spoke), niekdėliais “over trifles, for no reason,” juokòm (said), tyčiomis i) o r d e r - s e q u e n c e: pagymais “one after another, in pairs,” paporiais “in succession, two at a time,” paeiliūmis “in turn”; j) c o m p a n i o n s h i p: bičiùoliais “together, jointly, as pals,” bendròm “the same”; k) i n t e r r u p t i o n - s k i p p i n g: prišokais “coming by in fits and starts, now and then,” įpuoliais “not continuously, but only in places,” peršokiais “skipping places,” pagaudomis “intermittently,” priešokomìs “the same”; l) s e p a r a t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n (distributive): paskirmais “separately, by separating oneself,” daliomis “in parts,” atskiromis “separately,” paskįromis “separately, by separating oneself,” etc. Thus we see that adverbs of manner of action originating from the plural instrumental are distinguished not only by the greatest abundance of individual forms but also by their diversity and richness of meaning. This cannot at all be said of the other semantic groups of adverbs of the same origin (for example, those of place-space and time). What is most characteristic of plural-instrumental adverbs of p l a c e - s p a c e is that their meaning is highly generalized. They, in fact, express place-space relations of the most general kind, e.g.: artìmais 80 “near, close by,” gretimais “next to,” šalimais “beside,” netolimais “nearby,” priešpriešais “opposite,” artitelaičiais “very close,” atstuoliais “at a distance, obliquely,” priešpriešiais “opposite,” etc. The small number of adverbs in this semantic group is due primarily to the very nature of the place-space instrumental. When discussing the place-space instrumental, it is necessary to distinguish its two meanings, associated with two cases of its use: with this instrumental we denote a place where something is, happens, takes place, or occurs, and a place along which someone goes, proceeds, or moves. In fact, we have here two instrumentals that are very closely related to one another: the instrumental of location and the instrumental of path. Lithuanian, like other Indo-European languages, is more characteristically associated with the instrumental of path, used with verbs of movement; it is probably also older than the former. The instrumental of path, as J. Jablonskis⁵ correctly observes, is closely related to the instrumental of means. Among other things, therefore, the instrumental of path has a shade of meaning denoting an instrument or means, which distances this case from adverbs and restrains its adverbialization. The instrumental denoting the place where something is, happens, takes place, or occurs has developed semantically and syntactically on the basis of the instrumental of path: no longer restricted to verbs of movement, the instrumental of path gradually extended its functions—it came to be used with other verbs⁶. In this way, we have obtained two instrumentals of a single origin. Their common origin determines the closeness of their meanings, as well as their identical relationship to the instrumental of means and their resistance to adverbialization. This, in particular, explains why we have so few adverbs originating from the plural instrumental that express place-space relations. The small number of adverbs of the type under discussion is also due to the fact that language uses many other means to denote place and various place-space relations, for example: pronominal adverbs of place, the locative case of all declinable parts of speech, and prepositional constructions. Place-space instrumentals themselves are often nothing more than certain alternatives competing with locatives, cf.: krašt ais || kraštuose, šalimis || šalyse, šonais || šonuose, pagiriais || pagiriuose, pakampiais || pakampiuose, pakraščiais || pakraščiuose, pasieniais || pasieniuose, palvor iais || patvariuose, pakampėmis || pakampėse, pakrūmėm || pakrūmėse, palangėm || palangėse, palaukėm || palaukėse, etc. Finally, the small number of adverbs in this semantic group can also be explained by the fact that language uses numerous transitional forms to denote a place where something is, happens, takes place, or occurs, as well as a place along which someone goes, proceeds, or moves. These forms may have undergone some degree of adverbialization, but are still far from detached from the noun, e.g.: ančkeliais “along the roadsides, at the roadside,” antdaržiais “along the gardens, in the gardens,” antežerėliais “along the banks of the little lake,” antežiais “along the edges of meadows by the field,” antgalviais “above the heads,” aňt jūriais “along the banks of the Jūra River,” aňtkrančiais “along the banks,” antkraščiais “the same,” aňtpamačiais “right by the house foundations,” antskardžiais “along the escarpments—”},{ 5 Žr. R y g i š k i ų J o n a s, Linksniai ir prielinksniai, Kaunas, 1928, p. 79. 6 Cf. B. D e l b r u c k, Comparative Syntax of the Indo-European Languages, Part I, Strassburg, 1893, p. 244. 6. Kalbotyros klausimai VI. 81 “on the slopes,” añtslenkščiais “along the slope,” añtsuoliais “at the top of a bench (benches),” añltvarčiais “on the roof of a barn,” añltvoriais “at the top of a fence (fences),” and so on. We use especially abundantly, to express location, transitional plural instrumental forms with the prefix pa-: pabalais “by the ponds,” pablendžiaviais “in places where blendžiai (willows) have grown,” pabučiais “by the houses (dwellings), around the houses (dwellings),” pabutšaliais “the same,” padaržinšaliais padebesiais “in the space beneath the clouds,” padirviais “by the field,” paežeriais “along the lake,” pagiriais “along the forest,” pagrioviais “along the ditch (ditches),” pakampiais “along the corners,” pakerčiais “along the corners,” pakiemiais “along the yard (yards),” pakluoniais “along the threshing barn (threshing barns),” pakraščiais “along the edge (edges),” pakrūmiais “along the bushes,” palangiais “along the windows,” palankiais “along the window,” palubiais “along the ceiling,” papečiais “along the stove,” papieviais “along the edges of the meadow,” paprūdžiais “along the pond,” papūdymais “along (and within) the fallow field,” paraviais “along (and within) the furrows,” pasieniais “along the walls,” pastatiniais “along a plank fence (along the fence posts),” pastogiais “under the eaves, in sheds,” pašąliais “along the edges,” pašvenčiais “along the Šventoji River,” patrobiais “along the buildings,” patvoriais “along the fences,” paupiais “along the river: at the river’s edges,” paviršiais “on the surface,” pažemiais “close to the ground, on the ground,” pajūrelėms “along the seashore,” pakampėm (is) “along the corners,” pakelėm “along the roadsides,” pak iemėm “along the yard (yards),” pakluonėmis “along the threshing barn (barns),” pakrūmėm “along the bushes,” palangėm “along the windows,” palaukėm “along the edges of the field,” paliūnėm “by the bogs,” pamarelėms “along the lagoon,” pastogėmis “under the roofs (by the wall),” and so on. Among adverbs originating in the plural instrumental, where, as we have seen, the meaning of manner or appearance of an action has become predominant, a semantic group of temporal adverbs stands out quite clearly. These latter adverbs, too, are not semantically homogeneous. First of all, we should mention here the adverbs that express the most general and abstract temporal relations, for example: ankstąnais “early, very early” (cf. synonymous forms used with almost exactly the same meaning: ankstąniniais, ankstėnais, ankstėlniais, ankstėnais, ankstienais, ankštiniais, ankstėinyčiais), galų galais “in the end, finally,” niekadais “never, at no time,” ana dienais “the other day, that day, then,” davėliais “now, just now.” In addition to their primary temporal meaning, other adverbs in this semantic group also have an added sense of intermittence or alternation, or even of manner, for example: kartais “not continually, at intervals, now and then” (cf. also synonyms with the same or a very similar meaning: kartų kartais, įkartais, prarečiais, prórečiais, kartkartčiais, retkarčiais, pakaitėmis, kartkartėmis, retkartėmis); others, besides an added sense of intermittence or alternation, also have an ordinal meaning: pamečiais “year by year, every year; every other year,” pamenesiais “month by month, every month; every other month,” pramečiais “every other year.” Finally, the group of temporal adverbs includes a considerable number of forms denoting various periods of the day, for example: pavakarėnais “in the late afternoon, toward evening,” pribrekšmais “in the evening, at dusk,” prietemais “the same,” apšviesiais 82 “at dawn; before dark,” aptamsiais “at dusk,” aptemiais “the same,” apybrėkšminais “twilight, dusk,” apydieniais “at daybreak, at dawn,” apýryčiais “early, at daybreak, at dawn,” apýšviesiais “while it is still light,” apytamšėliais “as it grows dark, at dusk,” apýtamsiais “the same,” apýūšriais “at daybreak,” paryčiais “in the morning,” perpiečiais “at noon, at lunchtime,” išvakapomis “in the evening beforehand,” išnaktėmis “late at night,” išvakarėmis “in the evening, the evening before,” išnaktimis “late at night,” pietumis “at lunchtime, at noon,” cf. also the expression: aušęs pražiebais “at daybreak, at dawn.” Adverbs originating in the plural instrumental that are used as predicates do not so much function as independent forms or words in the sentence as they do, to a greater or lesser extent, as constituents of free predicative phrases, carrying their main meaning and elaborating and highlighting the feature expressed by the phrase’s verbal element. Thus, we most often find an adverb originating in the plural instrumental in predicative phrases in which the primary meaning of an outcome (usually a negative one) is intertwined with additional meanings of comparison, appearance, or a particular form. The verbal constituents of such phrases are usually forms of the verbs eiti, išeiti, nueiti. Among the nonverbal constituents of these phrases, besides nominal-adverbial forms that lose their substantive character, such as aitais “to nothing, to waste,” aitais “the same,” niekais, ubagais, vėjais..., we also find adverbial formations that have lost all substantive character: baudaís “to nothing, merely in intentions or promises” (usually in the same sentence after forms of the verb baustis “to set about, to prepare, to intend”), dõlais “to nothing,” žadais “to nothing, merely with promises” (in the same sentence after a form of the verb žadėti “to promise”), suskydaís aplóm “to nothing, regardless; uselessly,” dūlekom(i)s “to ruin, with nothing to show for it, to beggary,” skliundžiom “to nothing, to waste, to naught,” padaukais “the same.” Forms of the verb eiti also occur in other predicative phrases, whose meaning is not so much one of outcome as of a particular appearance. However, the nonverbal constituents of these phrases are mostly not adverbs originating in the plural instrumental themselves, but nominal-adverbial hybrids, for example: galėtyniais (instead of the more usual and more frequently used galėtynėmis, galėtyniu), pagaugais “with shivers,” pagaugomis “the same,” užkuriom “with the fire going,” užkuriais “the same,” atāraugomis “with belches”; cf. also the expression: dykiais užleisti “to leave completely neglected (e.g., a garden, nursery, etc.), not to take care of,” in which the predicative meaning of the first constituent is still overshadowed by its object meaning. With the negative particle nė and forms of the verb būti, which are omitted in the present tense, predicative phrases are formed by such adverbs originating in the plural instrumental as būtais, mūtais, būčiais, for example: nė botais “not a thing, not in one’s thoughts,” nė mūtais “the same,” nė būčiais “the same.” That adverbs originating in the plural instrumental can function as predicates also with finite forms of the verb būti, which are likewise omitted in the present tense, is shown by such expressions as: paklausais (dideliai paklausais tėra gražus lomajkas), dvigulais “to lie two together” (if a bed is dvigulais, tai...), bičiuolėm “together, jointly, like companions or friends, as bees.” 83 (He has four beehives of his own, the others for the beekeepers), cf. the instrumental of a noun becoming adverbial and functioning as a predicate gabižalais ‘in pieces’ (The salt had been in pieces). Statistical data have already shown (cf. p. 75) that adverbs originating from the plural instrumental are very rarely used with other meanings (purpose, cause, particles, modal words, prepositions). These meanings are entirely uncharacteristic of adverbs of the type under consideration: only one or two adverbs have them as their principal meanings. For example, forms used with verbs of motion eiti, nueiti, važiuoti, nuvažiuoti have the principal meaning of p u r p o s e, such as apgėl ais ‘to visit one’s mother after giving birth and take her gifts’, atkla usais ‘to ask whether one may receive the matchmakers’, piršliais (piršlėm) ‘to court, to go matchmaking’; cf. also the form niekdeliais, which, besides the temporal meaning ‘right away, without delay’, also has the purposive meaning ‘for nothing, to no purpose’. We use juokais in the sense of c a u s e (especially with the verbs trūkti, leipti, virsti, alpti, nesitverti, pasileisti and others), tyčiom ‘deliberately, intentionally; jokingly, not seriously’, netyčiom ‘unintentionally, accidentally; in earnest’. These meanings (purpose and cause) are not always easy to distinguish from one another: they are often, as it were, intertwined. In addition, the meaning of manner of action sometimes accompanies them; this is in fact the meaning in which adverbs originating from the plural instrumental are most commonly used. Another characteristic of purpose or cause adverbs of this derivational type is that their degree of adverbialization is relatively low; for the most part, they have not yet become fully detached from the case meaning itself. Adverbs originating from the plural instrumental can pass into other parts of speech only in exceptionally rare cases. For example, the form kartais can become a p a r t i c l e (cf. Bene būsi kartais iš Telšių? ‘Perhaps you’re from Telšiai?’), while priešais can become a p r e p o s i t i o n used with the accusative case (cf. priešais krosnies kaktą ‘in front of the corner of the stove’). Quite separately, we should mention words that coincide with adverbs originating from the plural instrumental only in their formants -(i)ais, -(i)om, for example: the particles (and sometimes adverbs) dėlt ais ‘therefore, nevertheless’, nōrintais ‘although’ (usually in adverbial expressions kada nōrintais ‘sometime, whenever’, kaip nōrintais ‘somehow, however’), auriais ‘then, there’, kančiais ‘sometimes’, anaū riais ‘there; then, another time, once’, beskòm ‘that is why, therefore’, būkčiom ‘supposedly, as if, as though’; the modal word musintais ‘probably’; and even the interjection bagròm ‘swish, scrape’. These are all various individual formations, whose connection with the plural instrumental case is difficult to discuss at all. Having examined the relationship between the instrumental case, in general and in its individual types, and adverbs, as well as the semantic features of adverbs originating from the plural instrumental, we arrive at the following conclusions: 1. Of all the plural cases, the i n s t r u m e n t a l shows the greatest tendency to become adverbial, since, compared with the other cases, it expresses the widest range of adverbial relations. Thus, the instrumental has been 84 and remains the principal source for forming adverbs with a preserved case ending. 2. The instrumental plural does not become adverbial to the same degree in all its meanings and functions—that is, not in all its types to the same extent. The manner instrumental is closest to adverbs; its meaning and use are often difficult to distinguish from those of other instrumentals, since many other instrumental meanings converge in it. The manner instrumental forms a kind of transitional stage, where the circumstantial meaning differentiates most readily and the process of fossilization and adverbialization begins; even an instrumental object can become an adverbial modifier, and the instrumental form itself can become an adverb. 3. Among adverbs derived from the instrumental plural, manner adverbs occupy the most prominent place—they are by far the largest semantic group among adverbs of this origin and formation. Manner adverbs are distinguished here not only by their great abundance but also by the variety and richness of their additional meanings. The dominant meaning of manner is usually characteristic only of a certain subset of these adverbs, which denote circumstances of a more abstract nature. For the most part, however, adverbs of the type under discussion, while expressing manner, also accompany the action itself with a static or dynamic image, thereby making manner inseparable from a visual or (occasionally) acoustic image. The primary meaning of other manner adverbs derived from the instrumental plural is also often intertwined with one of the following meanings: tempo, time, place—space or spatial orientation, change, position, character, quantity or degree, direction, cause or purpose, order, accompaniment, interruption or leap, separateness, etc. 4. Adverbs derived from the instrumental plural whose primary meaning is locative-spatial, temporal, or predicative are comparatively few, while those with meanings of purpose and cause are particularly rare. 5. Only a very few adverbs of the type under discussion have acquired the meaning of a particle, modal word, or preposition. Vilnius SEMANTIC FEATURES OF ADVERBS DERIVED FROM THE PLURAL INSTRUMENTAL CASE K. ULVYDAS Summary 1. In Lithuanian, of all the plural cases, the instrumental is the most prone to adverbialization. Both in the past and at present, the plural instrumental is the most important source from which adverbs with a fossilized plural ending originate. 85 2. The plural instrumental is not adverbialized to the same degree in all its meanings and functions. The instrumental of manner and means is closest to an adverb; its meaning is often difficult to distinguish from the other meanings of the plural instrumental. The instrumental of manner and means is, as it were, a transitional stage in which the adverbial meaning is most readily differentiated and the process of adverbialization begins. At this stage, even an object expressed by the instrumental can become an adverbial, and an instrumental form can become an adverb. 3. Among the adverbs derived from the plural instrumental, the largest semantic group consists of adverbs of manner and means. These adverbs stand out among other semantic groups not only for their greater number, but also for the variety and richness of their additional shades of meaning. The dominant meaning of manner and means is usually characteristic not of all adverbs of this type, but only of a certain subset denoting circumstances of a more abstract nature. For the most part, however, the overwhelming majority of adverbs of this type, while denoting manner and means, also have additional semantic nuances: they accompany an action with a static or dynamic representation, making the action inseparable from a visual or (in rarer cases) auditory representation. The primary meaning of the other adverbs derived from the plural instrumental and expressing manner and means is also often interwoven with one of the following additional meanings: tempo, time, place or space, spatial orientation, change, position, quantity or degree, direction, cause or purpose, sequence or order, co-occurrence, interruption, separation, and others. 4. Relatively few are the adverbs derived from the plural instrumental that denote place or space and time, as well as those used in the function of a subject. Meanings of purpose and cause occur here only rarely. 5. In exceptionally rare cases, these adverbs pass into the classes of particles, modal words, or prepositions.