Zietelos tarmės prieveiksmis

GRAMATINĖS KATEGORIJOS IR JŲ RAIDA LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI XVIII (1978) A. VIDUGIRIS THE ADVERB IN THE ZIETELAS DIALECT The adverb in the Zietelas dialect is part of a larger study written in 1957–61 about this dialect1. Neither the material from that study, apart from one or another new example, nor the method of description has been substantially changed in this article. Only the particles are left out here; previously, together with adverbial words, they had been included among the adverbs. The author was prompted to group these parts of speech together by their often similar origins and by the chosen method of describing them according to origin and formation, a method that, it should be noted, is retained in this article as well. MEANING In terms of meaning, the dialect’s adverbs are highly varied. As in standard Lithuanian, they fall into several groups of unequal size. Manner adverbs are the most numerous, followed by adverbs of place and purpose. Since the adverbs of the Zietelas dialect are described in greater detail according to their origin and formation, they are not discussed further here by meaning. We shall give only a few more characteristic examples from the principal semantic groups: a) manner adverbs, e.g.: baltai, brangẽi, daũgi(s), dveitė “two together,” graĩta “quickly,” gražìtkai “very beautifully,” iš naũjo, kartù, kitẽp “anew, together, otherwise,” krūpà (< kruopà) “a little,” niẽkiek “somewhat,” pamacìtkù “gradually,” pušáu(t); b) adverbs of place, e.g.: artì, čà, čõndak, laũšėn (cf. Belarusian ляйша “left”), namì, namóp, pavidùj “inside,” toulì “far,” visùr, žemìn; c) adverbs of time, e.g.: an(k)stì, daũ greta dabàr, kadaĩk, reč. kadà, lik kõlai(k), kuomèt, nakčà, nẽkadàik “sometime,” ne kártą, nùn, nu·naĩk “today,” pérnaik, vãkar, vėlaĩ; d) adverbs of cause and purpose (only a few have been recorded), e.g.: dėle kõ, dėle tõ, kodėl, nẽko “for something, for some reason,” todėl, tõdrin, užtāt. The precise meaning of adverbs becomes clear in context. Sometimes the same adverb can have several meanings, e.g.: dáiktais jau hãrd “in places they are already ploughing” (adverb of place); dáiktais jū⁰das “mottled” (adverb of manner); krūpà· dãu “gave a little” (adverb of manner); aš krūpà· disù (adverb of time). ORIGIN AND FORMATION In origin and formation, the dialect’s adverbs are diverse. Noun-based, adjective-based, and pronoun-based adverbs are the most numerous. Numeral-based adverbs are considerably fewer, and only a few adverbs are derived from verbs. There are also many loanwords. 1 Iš Zietelos tarmės morfologijos autoriaus skelbta darbų apie daiktavardį (1969: 147—182); apie įvardį (1960: 113—131); apie būdvardį (1974: 277—289); apie veiksmažodį (1961: 219—231; 1973: 199—219), keletas pastabų apie tarmės fonetiką (1959: 195—213). 159 1. Noun-based adverbs Three types of noun-based adverbs can be distinguished: a) individual noun cases that have become adverbial, i.e. simple, underived adverbs; b) compound adverbs formed from nouns and other parts of speech; and c) prepositional constructions with nouns. 1. There are relatively many noun cases that have become adverbial in the dialect. Most often these are adverbialized forms of the singular accusative, instrumental, inessive², illative, and plural instrumental, and less often of other cases, e.g.: singular nominative daugis druskos nereika davinėt; o táu seserų daũgis? “and do you have many sisters?”² singular genitive iš tų namų dãũg o asmuõkų davinėjam “we paid a lot of money for those houses”; staigõs vėjas užãj “suddenly the wind rose, came up”; singular accusative kaisniũka palãuk “wait a little”; you will come again; krūp· karves ganãu “I grazed the cows a little”; aš kru·pìbka aisì pirkõn “I’ll go to the shop for a little while.” It is thought that vakar (“yesterday”) also developed from the singular accusative form (Būga 1959: 183; Ulvydas 1959: 82): vãkar jo nebit “he was not there yesterday.” The form daug(i), cf. senų bit daugį; o mūmi dar dãũgi darbo; kãrvų gãnom dãũgi—alongside dãũgi manim bit seserų, dãũgi asmuõkų nereika, needs separate discussion. The form with short i may be the adverbialized old neuter singular nominative–accusative of the noun dãugis; compare also forms that sometimes occur with no ending at all: dãũg pãdegė namū; dãũgel atsìliko. singular instrumental basaminčà apsãvė; visi draugėĩ³ gãnom; ãnos abi vãisčoj visà kartù; nakčà kab imà lot; duona nubėgo pãklūonė; singular inessive namie kã nori ir lója; ir bõlo nebit namie; ritój mán karves ganit; aimà ir mės ritój gribũsno “let us go mushroom-picking tomorrow too.” Alongside ri·tój, sometimes rit: rit arielka is also said, “he drinks like a snake.” It is thought that ankstì (rarely anstì), artì, tau lì, alongside toli: kãrves ankstì vãrom; mán artì, o jūmi toulì būs ait;, are also old singular inessive forms of nouns (Būga 1961: 690; Kazlauskas 1968: 153). singular illative dík tu šãlin, bernužėlis (folk song); drobinėtus tančiun vėsim, pãkulinus vórin išmėsim “we will take those dressed in linen clothes to dance, and throw those in tow clothing out into the yard (outside).” No other case forms of the words šalin, vórin have been recorded in the dialect. The tendency toward adverbialization is also shown by: usìsko lãušen “turned to the left”; kãlas aiti i·šėn “the road goes to the right”; viršūn ir apačõn padkeldinėj “they lifted [them] up and down.” Temporal illatives, e.g., nedėlon jau nebūsim; subatõn atvažãu may be used following corresponding Slavic constructions, cf. Russian в неделю, в суботу; singular allative aimù namõp; ar tu namõp d isi? Sometimes namõ: o namõ ar nevažiuosi? is also said: “so, aren’t you going home?” plural instrumental o pirmaik visur bėgõm ir bėgõm (cf. Russian бегом, Belarusian бе́гма). Also tending toward adverbialization are dãiktais jau hãra; dãiktais juõdas “variegated”; skrinėmi margà “variegated with squares, with windowpanes”; plural inessive basanuõs insistój “went in barefoot.” It is thought that the adverb dabãr was formed from the noun dabà (Fraenkel 1955—1963: 79), from which the more frequent shortened form dar developed, e.g.: dabar namie būsu; Dainavój bit lietūviu, al dar jau nerà; dar gerai visiemi (cf. the particles dabar, dár, dárgi: anà dabar iš Žietelos netãj “she still has not returned from Zietela”; aš dár mačìtkas buvau “I was still small”; dárgi mùsip nieko nèrõ. 2. There are various compound adverbs. Somewhat more frequent are adverbs of this type with a pronominal or numeral first constituent, and, more rarely, an adjectival or adverbial first constituent, and a nominal second constituent (usually truncated, without an ending). Among formations whose first constituent is the accusative of a pronoun and whose second is a truncated noun, only šandien bit ãnas; šandien atvažãu has been recorded in the dialect. More 2 Several locative cases are used in the dialect: inessive—the static interior case; illative—the directional interior case; adessive—the static exterior case; allative—the directional exterior case. 3 Plačiau apie mot. g. vns. įnag. galūnę -ai, -ei žr. autoriaus straipsnį (1969: 166—7). 160 There are adverbs formed from the instrumental singular of pronouns and the truncated noun met (< metų), e.g.: ani·ku·met nebit mūsų kazų “we never had goats”; kitumet⁴ and one day he comes; and when will you come again? tai anas čia biti nėkuomet “they lived here sometime”; I never went to that mill; I was little at that time; then everything is given; those people are always small. Sometimes the adverb kuomet is used with another adverb (or particle?), e.g., kap ku·met ir āndas ā tait “sometimes he comes too.” In formations whose second component is the truncated noun kart (< times), the first component is most often the accusative plural of a cardinal numeral, e.g.: ten times more beautiful; Li dōn savūžinėjau ketūrbskart; pãdegem five times; treškart vaišėjuo Zietelon. Only in the adverb dūkart (alongside dukart) are both components dual forms (here kart is an abbreviation of the dual nominative–accusative form). Less often, the first component is an adjective or an adverb, e.g.: daugi·kart I was there many times; daugikārt⁵ we carried her to the doctor many times; kiekkaart how many times were you there? Maskvōj nākiekkārt buvau “I was in Moscow several times.” The meaning of the latter forms shows that the second component -kart here is a truncated genitive plural. Formations made from a numeral and -kart are also combined with the pronominal adverb tiek, e.g.: I have dūkart tiek mātiv: turì, kap anā; dukart tiek bit; triskart tiek bit žmonių. In adverbs with -kart, except for the formation dukart, both components are most often stressed. 3. The dialect also often has prepositional construction combinations that are becoming adverbial or have become fully adverbial. Their first component is some preposition, while the second is a noun case form or a nominal adverb. Most often, the preposition is followed by the genitive singular of a noun: an (< ant): an dūgo atvažadāvai? viškas an dākto “everything is in its place”; būk šen an dākto “stay here in your place”; ānas dažnai an kiemo ai “he often goes outside (has diarrhea)”; ji vāro an kiemo; sāko an pėrdienės atvažuos “they say he will arrive soon, in the coming days”; an ri·tojaus laīgva būs “tomorrow it will be easy”; anā an vālos lāido “she let [me] do as I pleased”; without: be gālo brangū visa; be gālo dūga; lėtai ir lėtai visa pavasarī be gālo; from: satėmo iš karto; iš karto pažinojau. Sometimes a noun’s accusative singular follows the preposition, e.g.: po krūpa, po krūpa do ir prirašėt; rugū po krū·pīka sėjam. Frozen prepositional constructions often retain dative singular forms in -u, or other nouns that have acquired their ending, e.g.: nūnesė lig truputūkį; po pažasti bit sniego; būstu prig brōli. With the preposition sā, the true instrumental singular of a noun sometimes becomes adverbial, e.g.: sā tiesāi aš tāu sakau “I am telling you the truth”; sā tiesāi ānas tap padārė “he really did it that way.” Few nominal adverbs with prepositions have been recorded, e.g.: iš arti gerašt regėt, iš toli — kap tumōnas “seen close up it is clearer; from a distance it is like mist, fog”; žviltelėk iš toliaušt “take a glance from farther away.” 4. Alongside prepositional construction combinations whose two components are separate, unmerged forms with merged components also occur in the dialect, e.g.: aš sėdu papirkoji; āni·s būsta pavidūli vesės “they live in the middle of the village”; lachōne: statom pavidūn “we set the bowl in the middle (of the table)”; pa vidūri vesės buvo “they lived in the middle of the village”; pāhara paviršuj “they plow the surface.” These forms suggest that the preposition (in this case, prefix) pa (< po) was added to the relevant case forms here recently; compare the expression tik iš po viršo šlāpas “wet only on the surface.” These adverbs can scarcely be considered to have arisen from prefixed nouns, since the second component, that is, the noun, has an unchanged stem. Moreover, other case forms of these words seem not to be used in the dialect. 4 The monophthongized unstressed u·(< uo) is often shortened in the dialect. 5 The short i in this form may be due to the neuter nominative and accusative singular daugi. 11. Gramatinės kategorijos ir jų raida 161 Adverbs sometimes also occur with a secondary ending, e.g.: užporītų vari'sim pėkų “the day after tomorrow we’ll drive the cattle.” The ending -ų may have been added here on the model of other singular instrumental forms (cf. rītų, vākų), since people more often say: užporīt dienas Narčiosna; išporīt mán kārvės ganit; užpovāk ar ādžio lietūs “the day before yesterday it rained.” It is thought that the adverbs paskui, dialectal paskum̃ (Ulvy das 1957:: 122), arose from the prefixed a-stem noun pāsakas, on the basis of the u-stem singular instrumental and locative forms; e.g.: pirma apdravėk, paskui apvarįsi “first weed it, then you’ll hoe it”; palūk, paskum̃ nuneši. Suprieveiksmėjęs daiktavardžio pusė dviskaitos vietininkas pusáu(t) (Endzelynas 1957: 207) dažniausiai yra su slavišku prielinksniu na, pvz.: linúosna vilnai padauzdinėja na pusáu „lininius metmenis per pusę vilna atauždžia“; razgūrino žiedą napusáut „perl a u žė žiedą pusiau“, reč. pusáu dienõs atvažiuos „vidurdienį atvažiuos“. 2. Adverbs derived from adjectives The dialect’s adverbs derived from adjectives are formed in various ways. 1. Most commonly used are adverbs formed from positive-degree adjectives with the formant -ai (-ei after a palatalized consonant), e.g.: au(k)štai, baltai, brangei, dažnai, gardžei, gerai, gilei, gludžei, lygiai, sklandžiai, gražiai, išilgai, lįgei, plačei, plonai, rūštai “sourly,” slims lai “weakly, slightly,” sūnkei, surai, vēlai. Adverbs formed from prefixed adjectives also have the same ending -ai (-ei), e.g.: mėlinai, geltonai, raudonai, gudiškai, lietuviškai, rusiškai, seniškai “in an old-fashioned way”; nevi'nodai; dažnokai, ratokai; an(k)štikai, artikai, gluditkai “quite smoothly,” gražikiai, netoulitkai, plonitkai, ratitkai “rather sparsely, very rarely,” stiprikai⁶. Adverbs are thought also to have been formed from adjectives no longer found either in the dialect or in Standard Lithuanian: nu'nai(k) “today,” pėrnai(k) (Skardžius 1943: 216–217), e.g.: nu'nai(k) dar bit šilta; nu'nai an darbo neisu, reč. aš nūn jau nevirsu; nūn šiltėst “it is warmer today”; pėrnai pirko; pėrnaik atvažau. An old adverb that likewise no longer has the base adjective from which it was formed is labai (in Standard Lithuanian, labas likewise has almost entirely lost its adjectival meaning), e.g.: ānds labāi mēksta šūptis; rugīna labāi ār̃dosi; labai gražai mokate rašīt. Alongside the ending -ai, -au is also used, e.g.: kvi'čei nelabou geri “the wheat is not very good.” For forms with -au, see below. With an added k after -ai, the following forms of adjective-derived adverbs are most often used: nu'naik, pėrnaik, and occasionally seneik. For these and other adverbs with k, see also below. 2. The dialect also has adjectival inflected forms that have become adverbial, including isolated forms. The neuter gender of adjectives is especially prone to becoming adverbial, i.e. the singular nominative and accusative, e.g.: graita parvažau namõp; graita atāj, reč. grait užūgo (instead of grait(a), viekau ~ viekiāu is used quite often; see below); gražū padarīta visa gražiai padaryta viskas“; ar ilga ča būsi? pigū adavė “he sold it cheaply.” Sometimes the singular instrumental case of one or another adjective is also used adverbially, e.g.: raitū jājau “I rode astride”; raitū kam atsitiko kunodas “few people had potatoes left”; retū kas moka. 3. Adverbs formed from adjectives with the formant -yn are very few in the dialect, e.g.: au(k)štin patkėlti; man dabar žamin reika “I need to go down now (to die)”; nu'nūk galva žamin “bend your head down.” 4. There are also few adjective and preposition combinations becoming adverbs, e.g.: ne an ilgo būstu čonaik; iš naujo pasaudinom “anew, we planted again”; reiks ir mán sēnaut po macitkū itai nedėlai “I’ll also have to mow the hay slowly this week.” The preposition po > pa and the adjective are often fused, e.g.: ait palangvi “goes slowly”; pamacitkū nurōvēm linūs. 6 Adverbs with the suffix -itkai are more common in the dialect than adjectives with the suffix -itk-. 162 Following the Belarusian language, the following adverbs have been formed with the preposition po: ānas po lietuviškai nesupranta; mēs maži po prastų nemokėjom “we, as children, did not know how to speak Belarusian plainly (Belarusian па-просту)”; po dabarišĉamu āti dzeğarīkas “the clock is going in a modern way”; po senomu gerāst bit, ale ir po naujomu prijūnkom “according to the old (clock) it was better, but we have also got used to the new one” (cf. Belarusian па-новаму, па-старому). The neuter gender of adjectives and pronouns has become adverbial in the construction visa ligu “all the same, just the same”: visa ligu aš aišu; visa ligu ānas nenóri būt. 3. Numeral adverbs Few numeral adverbs are used in the dialect. 1. Among the case forms of numerals that have become adverbial, the inessive of collective numerals is most common, e.g.: āni's sāu dveitė būsta “the two of them live together”; traitė kūlė; jų ketvertė bit; šešetė pjovė: aštuonetė būstam. The inessive of cardinal numerals that has become adverbial occurs less often, cf.: dvijosa paždāilėm; trijosa mėlžem kārves. Only a couple of examples are recorded of the adverbialized neuter singular nominative and accusative: the collective kētveria “four together” (kāetvera vaikų bit; bōcis mus kāetvera pāmētē) and the ordinal pirma (pīrma tu atāik pōtim as). 2. A couple of adverbs with the formant -ai should also be noted, e.g.: the collective dvejei “two together” (pāti's sāu dvejei abū visa ūtarino) and the ordinal pirmai(k) (ānas pirmaik padūmos, pōtim isijūks “he will think first, then laugh”; pirmai padkaldinėj ir jāučus). 3. Adverbs formed from word combinations are of several types. The construction vienum vienā, -as (būstu vienum vienā, vienas, vienum vienā varguoju) is used particularly often to describe a way of life; its second constituent is the singular nominative of a cardinal numeral, while the formation of the first may be compared with that of the previously mentioned adverb paskum. The construction visa viena “all the same” is formed from the neuter forms of a cardinal numeral and a demonstrative pronoun, e.g.: visa vėna kā dīrpt; aš visa vėna disū nāmōp; cf. the previously mentioned, more common expression of analogous meaning, visa ligu. Adverbialized case forms of numerals (especially the singular genitive) occur with prepositions, e.g., with an: an pirmo išaidinēja pruźbnā “first the spring (of the clock) comes out and releases”; an pirmo dār krūpa dantų sedi “there are still a few teeth at the front”; inbrūks žāmen rāmti an pīrmā jōs “he will stick the stick into the ground in front of her”; an vėno gerāst, an kīto blogēst; with iš: iš pēn(k)to iš dešimto paūtarino “he spoke at random, without coherence, incoherently.” These constructions were most likely formed on the model of corresponding examples used in Slavic languages, cf. Belarusian на першае, на перад, на другое; пятае через дзесятае; Russian из пятого в десятое; через пятое на десятое. 4. Pronominal adverbs The dialect has quite a number of adverbs derived from pronouns. 1. Of the case forms of pronominal forms that have become adverbs, the neuter singular nominative and accusative are used most often, e.g.: ānas iz manē jaunēsnis nēka mētū penkis ar šešis; šiēnas netiēka indžūdinēja “the hay does not get dried”; visa mīekt ānas “he sleeps all the time”; ānas atvažūdinēj ča visa. The shortened forms kiek, tiek, tiek, nēkik, bile kiek are used more often, e.g.: tiek nebūs mētū “there will not be that many years”; kīek būs, tiek duōs; jūsų nēkiek irā “how much there will be, that much he will give; you have some, a few”; reiks ne bile kiek dīonos; tai šēi, tai tei zināu “it won’t take just any amount of bread; I know this one thing and that one.” 11* 163 Sometimes a generalized singular genitive occurs: būsta ani's viso dveite. Singular locative forms are becoming fixed, e.g., singular illative kanà tu važūsi nakčai? nēkùna užveža ir nēkùna nerōdina “they take [someone] somewhere, but show [them] nowhere”; singular adessive kám(p) tu būsti? “at whose place, with whom do you live?” 2. Adverbs with the formant -ur (generally used with the meaning of the locative inessive), e.g.: o kur nūn buvai? kurgig vaikas? anà nēkur po bólkai būsta “she is somewhere under the beam”; bē dárbo nī'kur nebūsi; visur žmonės miršta; visur žūri, nēkur nēr. 3. Adverbs with the formant -da || -dai(k), e.g.: gāl izbrinks kadà vīna liežūvi “perhaps they will choose, accept one language at some point”; tadà pasakis. These forms with -daik are said more often: kadaik žinōri, tadaik ir atvažūja; tadaig nebit nēko; vaišioja nēkadaik škālon “I used to go to school sometime”; kadaik tu aisi? aš niekadà neimù vienōn kruvōn; niekadaik nebit musìm tokō vėjo. However, the adverb visadà has not been heard with -daik: visadà girtas; jam visadà mažà (more often visùmet). The consonant k (recorded as g) most likely arose from the particle gi and became voiceless at the end of the word: kadaig > kadaik. Only the k in forms with a doubled particle is puzzling, e.g.: kadaikik, tadaikik greta kadaigig, tadaigig. Perhaps k was added here by analogy with the more frequent forms kadaik, tadaik. 4. Adverbs (or conjunctions) with the formants -aip, -eip. The diphthongs ai, ei in these formants have monophthongized in the dialect (possibly because of enclisis and proclisis), e.g.: būsta kap visi “they live like everyone”; and now it is like that too; this is how our people laugh; Adōlo’s father said it otherwise than the others; visēp occurred alongside visāp, perhaps; viselēp ūtarino “he spoke in every possible way”. Sometimes, under the influence of standard Lithuanian, the diphthongs ai, ei remain, e.g.: I like, as they say, that sweetness; nemėtino tep vieni vi'nus they did not leave one another so alone “beside tep nebūs (perhaps ei and ie alternate here as in the words sviekas alongside sveikas, šievā ~ šeivā, viekāu ~ veikiau). 5. Adverbs of less clear origin are čà, čōn, čōnai(k), čanaik, šēn, šēnaik, tēn, tenai(k): they die here and they die there; the daughter will arrive there; I went there; he was there; one has to make do both here and there; the father’s bag was right here; long ago I was there with him; how will one get there? They filled the potatoes there; we will arrive here. Sometimes these forms are also said with the particle ka, e.g.: I arrived here; look over there; he is there; he came here. 6. The dialect has quite a number of adverbs derived from combinations of pronouns with prepositions. Their components may be fused or separate. When the pronoun precedes the preposition, the two components are usually fused, e.g.: why weren’t you there? And why didn’t I want to? The horse is rubbing itself; therefore it needs to be curried. A particularly old adverb is tōdrin: Bronė’s health was not good, so she went to Zietela “Bronė’s health was not good (she was not very well), so she went to Zietela (to the doctor)”; compare tōdrin in Daukša’s Postilė 6₁₂, kōdrin 28₃₃, kōdrinag 128₁₈. When the preposition comes first and the pronoun follows, the components are usually separate, e.g.: she is so amazed at everything; it is no concern of mine; why will it be so? I know why he didn’t want to; everything is fine; everything is old; they will laugh about that. 7. Adverbs formed from prepositions and pronominal adverbs, e.g.: where are you coming from? People come from everywhere; he carried everything from here; they did the work, and I came from there; I went down from there; where will you go from there? Closer from here; you will go down from there; until here he kept sleeping; how long will you stay? You cannot manage entirely; (visāi may also occur without a preposition: it will all rot; a goose that is not entirely cooked) alongside they are not far from everything. Also compare the adverb sa visūm recorded by E. Volter: thus she stood completely beside the horse (Wolter 1899: 172). The preposition (prefix) and adverb occur fused, e.g.: in the smoke they went out into the fields to look for the wind, until it dawned; that is why they burned down many houses. 7 Apie panašios darybos įvardžius plg. (aut. 1960: 130). 164 8. Various compound adverbs and combinations are formed in different ways. From a pronoun and a pronominal adverb, e.g.: vaikami tai tiek to, o mŏmai tai negadnai “for the children, that is enough, but for Mother it is no good”; ânas teĩ pâčo būsta vĩenas “he too lives alone”; tei pâča nūmirė âni s; tep pâča gerai būsta. The adverb tūoj <, from the instrumental singular of a pronoun and the particle jau, was probably formed in this way (Otrębski 1956: 362), e.g.: an fabrikos, tai tūoj dastotai pensija- “at the factory, we would get a pension right away.” Combinations of two pronominal adverbs, e.g.: viselēp kàp būsta “in all sorts of ways, as it happens”; nēkap kitēp sakē; ânas čà nēkur bit; kàp kur ir nuvežūjam; kàp kadaik atàima; bōčū tavàm vistiek. 5. Verbal adverbs Very few adverbs associated with verbs have been recorded in the dialect. For example, the verb root has a prefixed derivative aplink: aplink nuvėj; aplink vaiščoj. The combination kap ragi “in a flash, while watching, suddenly” has arisen from a pronominal adverb and a verb: kap ragi nuvažiuojam Li-dōn; kap ragi pastatīs pirkà. There are more fossilized verbal forms, but they are not adverbs. For example, rēgis (tokàs gēras, rágis, visa tau dúotup, rágis, ten viso dúoja) is considered an interjection; būlo rēč. būlau “used to be” (būlo, an Pētro kàsa kunodàs “it used to be that, around Peter’s time—June 29—potatoes were dug”; būlau, gīemame visalōkas giēsmės). The invariable predicative nominal part is expressed by reĩkia, probably following Slavic models; cf. Belarusian трѐба, Russian надо, нужно (reĩka gi màn sa jū būt reĩka bit ait “I had to go”; reĩka būs pæku varit “the livestock will have to be driven”). 6. Borrowed adverbs Alongside native adverbs of Baltic origin, the Zietela dialect has a considerable number of borrowings, especially from Slavic languages (mostly Belarusian, and to a lesser extent Polish and Russian). They are very diverse. First, mention should be made of adverbs which, by virtue of their meaning, no longer have (and some perhaps never had) Lithuanian equivalents in the dialect, e.g.: aš aršà ju nemėstu “I dislike them very much, particularly” (cf. Belarusian, Russian горше); ānis nazharōk tep dirba “they do this deliberately (literally—‘on purpose’)” (Belarusian знапок); ânas narōčna tep padàrē (Russian нарочно); nazōt atāi (Belarusian, Russian назад); pės̆a reĩka ait pro girà “one has to go through the forest on foot” (Belarusian пѐша); pėuna (and pėunei) atvažūos “will probably, most likely arrive” (Belarusian пўна); kuni po-prōstu tiklaik ūtarina (Belarusian по-просту); iš zōdo nepažnau jūsu “I did not recognize you from behind” (Belarusian ззаду), etc. Other borrowings are used alongside Lithuanian adverbs and often displace them, e.g.: ânas ir vienas čēsam (and čēsnam) atvažūoja alongside kartais “sometimes” (Belarusian часам); čista (others say čōlsta) paspaūs “will squeeze completely” alongside visai “completely,” sa visu (Belarusian чыста); ten ināčei ūtarina alongside kitēp “otherwise” (Belarusian іначай); jau baznīčon māla kas āiti is less common than mažà, mažai “little” (Belarusian мала); nāit a šaltis bit didelis “it was very, excessively cold” alongside labai “very” (Belarusian надта); nigdi nepamiršū alongside niekadaik “never” (Polish nigdy); rāptam (rarely rāptum) pamirē “died suddenly” alongside staigōs, kap ragi (Belarusian раптам); zāras atais namōp alongside tuoj “right away” (Belarusian зараз), zausdōbl ânas ten sēdi, cf. visuomet “always” (Belarusian заўсёды); zūsim (sometimes sausēm) arti būsta “lives very close” (also sa visai, sa visū) (Belarusian зусім, Russian совсем), etc. 165 The examples show that many Slavic adverbs are used in the Zietela dialect almost entirely unchanged, cf. čįsta, māla, nātta, naznaŕok, žāras, zaušōdb⁸, etc. Such lexical interference is most often evident when dialect speakers talk to one another, being equally proficient in Lithuanian and Belarusian and not monitoring their speech. When speaking with a speaker of another dialect (e.g., the author of this article), most dialect speakers would often try to monitor their speech, choose a more Lithuanian word, or explain the meaning of a Belarusian word and express the thought in another way. Thus, these are recent borrowings, and māla, zaušōdb, for example, are less common than their Lithuanian equivalents. Other adverbs, borrowed earlier, are more thoroughly Lithuanianized, e.g.: arša (stressed Slavic o has become a, sometimes also palatalized and pronounced š—arša), nigdi (after d, the vowel i has become fronted), nazoť, iš žōdo (stressed Slavic a has become o), and so on. In addition, the dialect uses a considerable number of borrowed adjectives, as well as adverbs in -ai formed from them, e.g.: biednai, britkei “ugly, badly,” dramnai or drabnai “finely,” gadnai “well,” slobai “weakly,” žitkei “quickly, nimbly.” Sometimes their neuter singular nominative-accusative form has become adverbial, e.g.: britku || britkų, slisku || sliskų “slippery,” vesēla “cheerful,” etc. They differ from the corresponding Slavic adverbs, cf. Belarusian бе́цела, слі́зка, сла́бка, Russian сла́бо, etc. Some adverbs are hybrids, e.g., abikāp “anyhow,” Belarusian абы-як, abikūr “anywhere,” Belarusian абы-дзе, na pusā(t). Possibly, formations with ne- are of the same origin, e.g.: nēkap, nēkadaik || nēku⁰met, nēkiek, nēkur, nēkanda, cf. Belarusian не́дзе, не́калі, не́куды, не́калькі, Russian не́когда, не́сколько, нéкуда⁹. Some adverbs are formed from Lithuanian words but on a Slavic model, cf. the already mentioned po dabarīščemu “in the present-day way,” po lietuviški (sometimes simply po litouški) “in Lithuanian,” po najōmu “in the new way,” po senōmu “in the old way.” The adverbs sa ti'sai, visa ligu may also be calques, cf. Belarusian сапаўды, уё по́ўна, Russian всё равно, although similar, widely used Baltic and Slavic derivational formations do not seem to be regarded as calques, cf. pamacitkų, Polish pamažu, Latvian pamazītēm, pamazītņām, Belarusian памале́ньку, Russian and Ukrainian помале́ньку. Gradation Like dialect adjectives, adverbs (mostly adjectival, less often other types), in addition to the positive form, have two degrees: comparative and superlative. Comparative and superlative forms are derived from the positive degree. 1. Comparative adverbs are mostly formed with the suffix — est (after hardened consonants — ast), e.g.: au(k)štēst, blogēst, daugēst, dru'tēst “harder,” gardēst, gerēst, gražāst, jilgest, langvēst, mažāst, min(k)štēst, pigēst, plonēst, pradēst, ratēst, sausēst, storēst, sviekēst “healthier,” šaltēst, šiltēst, vēlēst, vikēst “faster,” žamēst. The consonant t is added, and is thought to have arisen from the enclitic second-person pronoun ti > t, which here functions as a formal marker of the adverb (Arumaa 1933: 35; Hermann 1936: 388). The dialect also sometimes (quite rarely) has daigēs || daugēs, gerās, gražās, cf. Western Dzūkian daugēs and daugēs: daugēsni i·sipilk Plikiai, Varenavo district, as well as Daukša’s Postilė daugēsni 93₆, didesn’ 450₄₈; nēudingesn’ 432 alongside daugiaus 7₃₂, rōmieus 289₂₉, where daugēsni < daugēsni or daugēsnia is the comparative degree of neuter-gender adjectives (Arumaa 1931: 65; 1933: 35; Otrębski 1956: 305). 8 The pitch accents of loanwords are highly variable. Loanwords are more often pronounced with Lithuanian pitch accents by dialect speakers who grew up in purely Lithuanian-speaking families (the sounds of the words are also adapted, e.g.: čįsta), whereas in the speech of members of mixed families their pronunciation does not differ from Belarusian pronunciation (so it would suffice to indicate only the stressed syllable, i.e. the word’s stress). 9 Plačiau apie darinius su ne- žr. aut. 1960: 123. 166 Alongside forms in -est, comparative forms in -(i)au < *(i)au, -(i)aus, -(i)aust are also frequently used, e.g.: daugáu, usually daugáust, geráu || geráus, usually geraũst, langvãu || langvãist, mažáust, paskãu, sunkáust, taulãu || taulãust, véliaust10. It is possible that the suffix -(i)au was characteristic of adverbs alone; however, as the system of gradation became simpler, it began to be displaced from usage in the Zietela dialect by the suffix -es(t) of neuter-gender comparative adjectives. In other dialects and in standard Lithuanian, the adverbial suffix -(i)au was similarly generalized. Only the contaminated suffixes -(i)aus (and, in the Zietela dialect, -iaust) found in dialects indicate that the neuter-gender comparative adjective suffix was once distinct: -es(ni). Sometimes forms with -(i)au(st) no longer have comparative meaning and are used instead of positive forms, e.g.: labau and teń gi·va būsta “she lives very well there”; labau gerau ča būt “it is very good to live here”; labau gerau ānas teń mókinasi “he studies very well there”; tokāi pagadāi negerāu “the weather is not good”; iš taulāu āni·s čā “they are here from far away”; labdáus ítep mékštu útàrt “I really like speaking this way (in Lithuanian).” The more frequent positive-degree adverb form labai now seems to be the form with -(j)au. The basic adverb form vièkāũ has no variants, cf.: aš vièkāũ aisù namóp “I go home quickly”; vikāũ aš teń nuvažavāũ “I quickly drove there”; vekāũ ānas āiti šeń “he is coming here quickly.” Its current comparative degree is vièkešt || vekèšt || vikèšt. These examples clearly show that the suffix -(i)au often no longer has its original comparative meaning. This is understandable. Once the distinction between the formation of comparative adverbs and neuter-gender adjectives ceased to be made, the suffixes -est and -(i)au became entirely equivalent. One of them had to recede. Forms with -(i)au(st) are to be treated as relic forms in the Zietela dialect. The loanword arša sometimes has comparative meaning even without any ending, e.g.: ča ir karvė neimindžos arša “here even a cow won’t trample the ground harder (more unpleasantly)”; nežinom kāp būs, ar gerāst ar arša “we don’t know how it will be, whether better or worse”; less commonly aršā || aršast. 2. Superlative adverbs are formed mostly from comparative adverbs with the Slavic particle nāi: náidaugėst, náibrangėst, náimažāst, náipigėst, náitaulėst, less commonly náidaugāust, náimažāust, náivėlāust. Superlative forms with the suffix -ausia are much rarer. But they too almost always have the particle nai, e.g.: náiau(k)ščāusà, náidaugāusà, náimažāusà, náipirmāusà. Forms without the particle nai are rare: dalgelāi gerāusà pjāut. Among denominal adverbs, only the following are gradable: an(k)sti, an(k)stėst, nāian(k)stėst; arti, artėst, nāiartėst || nāiartāusà; taulì || tolì, taulėst || tolėst, nāitaulėst. No other degrees of the numeral adverb pirmāik have been heard. 3. Sometimes derivatives with the suffix -itkiau, -itkest express a certain transitional comparative degree, e.g.: kab jāunas, tai vekìtkāũ nuhāis “when young, he’ll go off very quickly”; vekìtkāũ anà atāi namóp “she came home very quickly”; iš čā tāu būs artièkèst “it will be closer for you from here.” Generally, the dialect tends not to form degrees of adverbs with the suffix -itkai. Adverbs with the particle per indicate an excess of the quality expressed by the positive form, e.g.: per brangei davėi; per vēlai atājo; or the loanword nātta: nātta brangũ visà; nātta dáugi svieto bit. Adjectival adverbs with the prefix pa- (from the preposition po) have a diminutive, attenuating meaning: palangvì važũok ir nuvažũosi; pamacìtkũ būstam “live gently, gradually, little by little.” 10 Chr. S. Stangas (1958: 188) prieveiksmius su (i)aust pateikęs prie aukščiausiojo laipsnio formų, priduria, jog iš savo surinktos medžiagos negalėjęs nustatyti, ar jos yra aukštesniojo, ar aukščiausiojo laipsnio. 167 The dialect adverbs presented here were recorded mostly during conversations. It must be assumed that quite a few were not recorded (there was no suitable situation in which to say them). Moreover, compared with other subdialects, the Zietela dialect is considerably poorer. For a long time it was only the language of household life; in recent times it has also ceded its functions within families to Belarusian. In fact, it is remembered and spoken fluently only by a few elderly people. LITERATŪRA Arumaa P. Litauische mundartliche Texten aus der Wilnaer Gegend mit grammatischen Anmerkungen. Dorpat, 1931. Arumaa P. Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der litauischen Personalpronomina. Tartu, 1933. Būga K. Rinktiniai raštai. T. 2. V., 1959; T. 3. V., 1961. Endzelynas J. Baltų kalbų garsai ir formos. V., 1957. Fraenkel E. Litauisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. Heidelberg, 1955–1963. Hermann E. Litauische Studien. Berlin, 1936. Kazlauskas J. Lietuvių kalbos istorinė gramatika. V., 1968. Otrębski J. Gramatyka języka litewskiego. T. 3. Warszawa, 1956. Skardžius P. Lietuvių kalbos žodžių daryba. V., 1943. Stang Chr. S. Die litauische Mundart von Zasėčiai im Gebiet von Wilna. — „Norsk Tidskrift for Sprogvidenskap“, Bd. XVIII, 1958. Ulvy das K. Vienaskaitos naudininko prieveiksmėjimas ir prieveiksmiai su formantais -(i)ni, -i lietuvių kalboje. — Kn.: Kai kurie lietuvių kalbos gramatikos klausimai. V., 1957. Ulvy das K. Dėl vienaskaitos galininko prieveiksmėjimo dabartinėje lietuvių kalboje. — „Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai“, 1959, t. 2. Vidugiris A. Kai kurios Zietelos tarmės ypatybės. — „Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai“, 1959, t. 2. Vidugiris A. Zietelos tarmės įvardis. — „Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai“, 1960, t. 3. Vidugiris A. Veiksmažodžiai su priešagomis -ineti ir -dinėti Zietelos tarmėje. — „Lietuvos TSR Mokslų Akademijos darbai, serija A“, 1961, t. 2. Vidugiris A. Zietelos tarmės daiktavardis. — „Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai“, 1969, t. 11. Vidugiris A. Zietelos tarmės veiksmažodžio kaityba. — „Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai“, 1973, t. 14. Vidugiris A. Zietelos tarmės būdvardis. — „Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai“, 1974, t. 15. Wolter E. Zur litauischen Dialektkunde. I Die Litauer im Kreise Slonim (Slanimas) Gouv. Grodno (Gardinas). — In.: Mitteilungen der litauischen Litterarischen Gesellschaft. Bd. 4. Heidelberg, 1899. А. ВИДУГИРИС НАРЕЧИЕ В ЗЕТЯЛЬСКОМ ГОВОРЕ Резюме Наречия в Зетяльском говоре анализируются главным образом в плане их происхождения и словообразования. Больше всего в говоре наречий, образованных от имен существительных (напр.: an perdienės, basamitė, daugikart, kiomet, namõr, staigõs, taulį) имен прилагательных (artitkai, glūdžei, graita, nūnaik или nūn, pamacitkū, slimslai) и местоимений (šõn, šonaik, itep, itiek, kadaik, nėkap, nėkur, netieka, šėnaik, tėdп, vislėp). Сравнительно немного наречий, которые образованы от имен числительных (напр.: dveitė, dvejei, dvijosa, pirmaik, vienum vienā) и глаголов (apliṅk, kap ragi). В говоре отмечаются также славянские, в основном белорусские, заимствования (напр.: ārša, čista, pāčei, nazōt, nigdi, pēša, rāptam, žāras, zausōbi), наречия, образованные по примеру соответствующих славянских слов (po dabar iščamu, po najūtu, sa visai, visa ligu) и гибриды (abikap, abikūr, parušaut). Сравнительная степень наречий образуется чаще при помощи суффикса -es(t) (daugės, drūgėst, sviekėst) и иногда -(i)au(st) (daugiaust, langiau, tūliaušt). Предполагается, что в прошлом суффикс -es(t) < *-esni использовался для образования сравнительной степени имен прилагательных среднего рода, а -(i)au для той же степени наречий. При обобщенном употреблении суффикса -est, суффикс -(i)au стал вытесняться и применяется в качестве основных форм, напр.: labai gerai ča būt; iš tau lū āniščė; vikāi ānas aiti šėn. Сравнительные формы наречий иногда употребляются с контаминированным суффиксом (i)au+st: daugiaust, geraust, vėlaust. Превосходная степень наречий образуется при помощи славянской частицы pai и форм сравнительной степени, напр.: pāidaügėst, nāimāžast, nāipirėst, иногда pāidaugāust, nāimazāust, nāivėlaust. Формы с суффиксом -(i)auша еще более редки: pāiau(k)šiaūsa, nāidaugāūsa, nāipirmāūsa и иногда без частицы pai: gerāūsa. 168 A. VIDUGIRIS ADVERB IN DER SIETELAS MUNDART Zusammenfassung Adverbien in der Sietelas Mundart werden hauptsächlich im Plane ihrer Herkunft und Zu-sammenbildung analysiert. In der Mundart herrschen die Adverbien vor, die von den Substantiven (an pėrėdėnė, basamcā, daūgkārt, kūomet, namóp, staigōs, taulì), von den Adjektiven (artikìkai, glu’dzėi, graita, nu’naik oder nūn, pamacitku, slimstai) und von den Pronomen (ėn, čonaik, itep, itiek, kadaik, nėkap, nėkur, netieka, šėnak, tōdrin, visėlėp) gebildet sind. Es gibt im Vergleich nicht viel Adverbien, die von den Zahlwörtern (dveitė, dvejėi, dvìjosa, pirmàik, vienùm vienà) und von den Verben (apliṅk, kap ragi) gebildet sind. In der Mundart bemerkt man auch slawische, hauptsächlich belorussische Lehnwörter (arša, čista, ināčėi, nažōt, nigdi, dėsa, rìptam, žāras, zaušōdb), Adverbien, die nach dem Muster der entsprechenden slawischen Wörter (po dabariščamu, po nau-jōmu, sa visāi, visa ligu) und Hybriden (abikap, abikūr, na pūsāut) gebildet sind. Komparativ der Adverbien wird meistens mit Hilfe des Suffixes -es(t) (daugėš, dru’tėst, sviekėst) und manchmal mit Hilfe des Suffixes -(i)au(st) (daugāust, langvāu, taulāust) gebildet. Man setzt voraus, daß das Suffix -es(t) < *-esni in der Vergangenheit für die Bildung des Komparativs der Adjektive sächlichen Geschlechts gebraucht wurde und -(i)au für denselben Grad der Adverbien. Das Suffix -(i)au wurde beim verallgemeinerten Gebrauch des Suffixes -est hinausgedrängt und als Grundform gebraucht, z. B.: labau gerau ča būt; iš taulāu ani’s čā; vikāu ānas aiti šėn. Komparativ der Adverbien wird manchmal mit dem kontaminierten Suffix (i)au+ +st (daugāust, gerāust, vēlàust) gebraucht. Superlativ der Adverbien wird mit Hilfe der slawischen Partikel nai und der Form des Komparativs gebildet, z. B.: nāidaugėst, nāimazāst, nāipigėst, manchmal nidaidaugāust, nāimazāist, nāivēlaust. Die Formen mit dem Suffix -(i)āusa sind noch seltener (nāiau(k)stāusa, nāidaugāusa, nāipirmāusa), manchmal werden sie ohne Partikel nai gebraucht (gerāusa).