Lietuvos augalų genčių ir rūšių pavadinimai

MOKSLO KALBOS KULTŪROS IR TERMINOLOGIJOS PROBLEMOS LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI, XXIV(1985) II KAZIMIERAS GAIVENIS NAMES OF PLANT GENERA AND SPECIES IN LITHUANIA 1. Introductory remarks 1.1. In 1980, publication was completed of the six-volume reference work “Flora of the Lithuanian SSR.” It describes all plants belonging to 129 families that grow or could grow in Lithuania but have not yet been recorded there. The subject of this article is the Lithuanian names of 724 plant genera and 2,153 species given in that work. This is terminology that has been more or less standardized and was discussed in 1966–1972 by the Commission on Botanical Terminology, chaired by Professor J. Dagys. The article discusses only the principal terms of plant systematics and does not address the synonyms listed separately in descriptions of certain plant species. In “Flora of the Lithuanian SSR,” plants are classified according to A. Engler’s phylogenetic classification system, in accordance with the requirements of the botanical nomenclature codes. Each plant species described in this work has a Latin, Lithuanian, and Russian name. Since some plant genera are called by 2–3 terms in Lithuanian, the number of genus names in “Flora of the Lithuanian SSR” exceeds the number of genera themselves by a dozen or so. All genus names are single-word, with the sole exception of the phraseological term — water lily (Nymphaea) III 3441. Almost all species names are two-word, except for a dozen or so very familiar folk names consisting of a single word, for example: aspen (Populus tremula) III 22, goat willow (Salix caprea L.) III 48, gooseberry (Ribes uva-crispa) IV 49, broad bean (Vicia faba L.) IV 499, bog bilberry (Vaccinium uliginosum) V 119, peppermint (Mentha × piperita) V 299, etc. In very rare cases, a plant species has two Lithuanian names, for example: edible, common lentil (Lens culinaris) IV 502, common (sown) parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) V 89, and so on. The smallest taxonomic units described in “Flora of the Lithuanian SSR” are forms, varieties2 and hybrids, as well as some intermediate units (e.g., sub- 1The Roman numeral next to a term indicates the volume of “Flora of the Lithuanian SSR,” while the Arabic numeral indicates the page. 2In “Flora of the Lithuanian SSR,” some varieties are named using both single-word and two-word terms (e.g., Brassica oleracea L. var. acephala DC.— leaf cabbage, Brassica napus var. oleifera DC.— rapeseed, oil turnip, etc.), but such names are unacceptable in systematic terminology and run counter to the resolution of the Commission on Botanical Terminology. 165 (genera, subspecies) generally have no Lithuanian names, and therefore are not mentioned in this article. 1.2. Lithuanian names of plant species and genera are examined in this article synchronically and primarily from the perspectives of terminology and word formation. The etymology and formation of Latin terms are considered only insofar as they sometimes help explain the formation of their Lithuanian equivalents. The aim of this article is to highlight the current state of Lithuanian terminology for plant genera and species and to further improve it. 2. Names of genera 2.1. In “The Flora of the Lithuanian SSR,” plant genus names are given in the nominative singular. The terms in this group are of two types: primary terms, including native words and intralinguistic borrowings (from other languages or from our dialects and standard language), and formations (compound words and derivatives formed with suffixes, prefixes, and endings). The former may also be called primary terms, and the latter secondary terms. Relatively few international terms are used to name plant genera—about 16.7%. Most are borrowed from Latin nomenclature and adapted to Lithuanian only slightly at the morphophonological level, e.g.: cūga (Tsuga) I 110, taksodis (Taxodium) I 166, tuja (Thuja) I 169, rupija (Ruppia) II 79, kaldezija (Caldesia) II 99, elodėja (Elodea) II 110, zizania (Zizania) II 138, kelerija (Koeleria) II 212, bekmanija (Beckmannia) II 272, tulpė (Tulipa) II 532, scylė (Scilla) II 534, jacintas (Hyacinthus) II 536, leukoja (Leucojum) II 550, karija (Carya) III 88, kočija (Kochia) III 247, portulaka (Portulaca) III 267, erantis (Eranthis) III 371, adonis (Adonis) III 442, šizandra (Schizandra) III 458, lobuliarija (Lobularia) III 542, rapistras (Rapistrum) III 561, konringija (Conringia) III 567, hamamelis (Hamamelis) IV 20, tilėja (Tillaea) IV 22, bergenija (Bergenia) IV 37, egzochorda (Exochorda) IV 63, sorbarija (Sorbaria) IV 65, neilija (Neillia) IV 69, stefanandra (Stephanandra) IV 69, arunkas (Aruncus) IV 92, valdšteinija (Waldsteinia) IV 156, prinsepija (Prinsepia) IV 325, gledičija (Gleditsia) IV 333, klad्रastis (Cladrastis) IV 337, termopsis (Thermopsis) IV 339, amorfa (Amorpha) IV 357, visterija (Wisteria) IV 360, sferofiza (Sphaerophysa) IV 365, ptelija (Ptelea) IV 593, ailantas (Ailanthus) IV 594, šeferdija (Shepherdia) IV 687, aktinidija (Actinidia) IV 692, klarkija (Clarkia) IV 771, godecija (Godetia) IV 773, astrancija (Astrantia) V 33, erika (Erika) V 128, forzitija (Forsythia) V 159, facelija (Phacelia) V 237, melisa (Melissa) V 314, monarda (Monarda) V 366, nikandra (Nicandra) V 382, skopolija (Scopolia) V 386, petunija (Petunia) V 401, nemezija (Nemesia) V 423, katalpa (Catalpa) V 490, veigelė (Weigela) V 519, koniza (Conyza) VI 46, rudbekija (Rudbeckia) VI 69, galinsoga (Galinsoga) VI 80, etc. These are mostly names of genera of introduced ornamental plants, the names of which— 166 have become more widespread in Lithuania only in recent decades. Among Lithuanian genus names, many are morphologically unanalyzable, old native (Baltic and even Indo-European) or borrowed names, e.g.: lęšis (Lens) IV 501, vikis (Vicia) IV 470, žirnis (Pisum) IV 528, dobilas (Trifolium) IV 438, klevas (Acer) IV 606, liepa (Tilia) IV 653, agurkas (Cucumis) IV 740, builis (Anthriscus) V 42, kmynas (Carum) V 55, krapas (Anethum) V 72, barštis (Heracleum) V 90, aguona (Papaver) III 464, krienas (Armoracia) III 505, kopūstas (Brassica) III 550, ridikas (Raphanus) III 564, agrastas (Ribes) IV 43, avietė (Rubus) IV 100, kriaušė (Pyrus) IV 229, obelis (Malus) IV 232, erškėtis (Rosa) IV 117, slyva (Prunus) IV 295, morka (Daucus) V 96, viržis (Calluna) V 129, uos(is) (Fraxinus) V 153, brantas (Cuscuta) V 228, dasis (Satureja) V 315, notra (Stachys) V 335, etc. Overall, there are considerably fewer primary genus names (about 31%) than names formed through various word-formation processes. 2.2. The boundary between primary and secondary plant genus names is not very clear. The analysis of genus-name formation is particularly complicated by several factors: 1) the names of some plant genera have been transferred from the synonymy of other plant names, so the base word in such formations may sometimes reflect distinctive features of a different plant. For example, the term gaivenis (Bupleurum) V 50 is derived from the verb gaivinti by means of the suffix -enis (cf. also footnote 4 of this article), but since gaivenis formerly referred not to Bupleurum, but to a plant of the genus Spinacia (spinach), the verb gaivinti can no longer explain the motivation behind the names of plants in the genus Bupleurum; 2) some plant genus names are clearly formations, but they have entered the terminology of plant systematics as borrowings from the vernacular; in other words, they are no longer formations within the terminology, e.g.: ašarėlės (Briza) II 218, auskarėliai (Dicentra) III 470, klumpaitė (Cypripedium) II 570, kurpelė (Aconitum) III 384, katilėlis (Campanula) VI 12, saulutė (Bellis) VI 36, smaugikas (Celastrus) IV 636, lipikas (Galium) V 190, miegėlė (Succisa) V 536, snaudalė (Leontodon) VI 198, etc.; 3) the formation of some plant genus names is unclear: they have formal derivational features, but words from which they might be derived can no longer be found (or, if such words do exist, the motivation of the formation is entirely opaque), e.g.: prožiklė (Neslia) III 584, plauretis (Gymnadenia) II 605, slepišerė (Isoëtes) I 80, bereinis (Chamaedaphne) V 115, kimbara (Cruciata) V 212, šalpusnis (Tussilago) VI 128, švitriėšis (Ficaria) III 406, liaudiga (Chaiturus) V 333, etc. These terms are mostly distinctive coinages by J. Pabrėža, L. Ivinskis, and P. Matulionis. 2.3. Compound genus names, accounting for about 33% of all formations, are less numerous than suffixal derivatives alone. Most of them are old vernacular names; there are few neologisms. Genus names of this type first— 167 are classified according to which parts of speech form the components of the compound term. 2.3.1. In a large proportion of compounds formed from two nouns, the second component is -medis (“tree”) or -žolė (“herb”), e.g.: diemedis (Artemisia) VI 115: die(vas), pupmedis (Laburnum) IV 350: pupa, riešutmedis (Juglans) III 77: riešutas, šeivamedis (Sambucus) V 525: šeiva, šilkmedis (Morus) III 130: šilk as, vynmedis (Vitis) IV 645: vynas, žirnmedis (Caragana) IV 368: žirnis; dantažolė (Dentaria) III 515: dantis, jonažolė (Hypericum) IV 695: Jonas, kardažolė (Onopordium) VI 163: kardas, karpažolė (Euphorbia) IV 580: karpa, kraujažolė (Achillea) VI 92: kraujas, linažolė (Linaria) V 423: linai, maražolė (Tunica) III 330: maras, melžolė (Isatis) III 526: mėlis, monažolė (Glyceria) II 238: monas, narytžolė (Triglochin) II 89: naryčia “a certain udder disease,” ožiažolė (Pimpinella) V 56: ožys, petražolė (Petroselinum) V 52: Petras, pienažolė (Glaux) V 139: pienas, raktažolė (Primula) V 145: raktas, sidabražolė (Potentilla) IV 159: sidabras, sukažolė (Leonurus) V 331: sukatos “consumption, tuberculosis,” šunažolė (Dactylis) II 221: šuo, trindažolė (Comarum) IV 157: trindė “a bog,” trūkažolė (Cichorium) VI 179: trūkis “a disease of that name,” zubražolė (Hierochloë) II 146: zubras “bison,” and others. Some terms of this type are apparently partial calques, since their first components are not used independently, e.g.: būksmedis (Buxus) IV 639, ginkmedis (Ginkgo) I 82, kukmedis (Taxus) I 87, maumedis (Larix) I 128, and others. There are also a few terms of distinctive or unclear formation, e.g.: saldymedis (Glycyrrhiza) IV 384. K. Būga and P. Skardžius explain the formation of the latter word, drawing on the word saldyžolė, as follows: saldymedis< <saldybmedis: saldybė and medis. P. Skardžius further adds that “if saldybžolė itself, in turn, is not remodeled from *saldydžolės on the basis of saldybę.” This doubt is probably justified, since we also have the words saldymėšis, saldyledis. Moreover, alongside the adjective saldžiarūgštis we also have its variant saldyrūgštis. All these examples suggest that the formation of the word saldymedis might also be explained somewhat differently, namely: saldym(as) + medis. A relatively large number of compound plant-genus names of the “noun + noun” type are used, whose second component is the name of a plant, e.g.: avinžirnis (Cicer) IV 469: avinas and žirnis, blužniapap artis (Athyrium) I 47: blužnis and papartis, bobramunis (Anthemis) VI 84: boba and ramunė, jonpapartis (Struthiopteris) I 30: Jonas and papartis, kalnarūtė (Asplenium) I 44: kalnas and rūta, kiškiagrikis (Luzula) II 491: kiškis and grikis, kiškiakopūstis (Oxalis) IV 539: kiškis and kopūstas, liūnm eldis (Bolboschoenus) II 320: liūnas and meldas, ožiarūtis (Galega) IV 358: ožys and rūta, ožkarožė (Epilobium) IV 755: ožka and rožė, pelėžirnis (Lathyrus) IV 504: pelė and žirnis, perkūnropė (Sempervivum) IV 23: perkūnas and ropė, smiltlendrė (Ammophila) II 180: smiltis and lendrė, šluotsmilgė (Deschampsia) II 190: šluota and smilga, šunobelė (Rhamnus) IV 642: šuo and obelis, šunramunis (Matricaria) VI 100: šuo and ramunė, šunvyšnė (Atropa) 168 V 385: šuo and vyšnia, zuiksalotė (Mycelis) VI 249: zuikis and salota, and so on. There are only a few compound plant-genus terms whose first component, or both components, are plant names, e.g.: rugiaveidė (Leymus) II 298: rugys and veidas “appearance,” viksva meldis (Scirpus) II 314: viksva and meldas. A distinctive group consists of compound metonymic genus names of the “noun + noun” type, e.g.: auksašaknė (Hydrastis) III 360: auksas and šaknis, bitkrėslė (Tanacetum) VI 107: bitė and krėslas, biedgaurė (Nardus) II 274: briedis and gauras, driežlielė (Ophioglossum) I 20: driežas and liežis “tongue,” jūrasmiltė (Honkenya) III 290: jūra and smiltis, katpėdė (Antennaria) VI 51: katė and pėda, mėnuliasėklis (Menispermum) III 450: mėnulis and sėkla, muskrėslė (Pulicaria) musė and krėslas, saulašarė (Drosera) III 592: saulė and ašara, skiautalūpis (Epipactis) II 584: skiautė and lūpa, šunlielė (Cynoglossum) V 262: šuo and liežis “tongue,” varnakojė (Coronopus) III 573: varna and koja, varnalesė (Arctium) VI 146: varna and leša(s) “leaf?,” vilkakojė (Lycopus) V 303: vilkas and koja, žiognagė (Geum) IV 149: žiogas and nagas, and so on. Terms in this group are often not original formations but calques from classical languages, e.g.: driežlielė ← Ophioglossum, mėnuliasėklis ← Menispermum, šunlielė ← Cynoglossum, and so on. 2.3.2. Compounds formed from an adjective and a noun are relatively few, e.g.: whitehead (Leucanthemum) VI 105: white and head, white-root (Polygonatum) II 543: white and root, long-lipped (Corallorhiza) II 578: long and lip, black-seeded (Nigella) III 372: black and seed, hard-seeded (Lithospermum) V 240: hard and seed, hard-spiked (Cynosurus) II 223: hard and spike, bare-rooted (Gymnocladus) IV 335: bare and branch, dry-shrub (Sarothamnus) IV 356: dry and shrub, honeysuckle (Lonicera) V 514: dry and tree, sea-buckthorn (Hippophaë) IV 686: cold and bark³ “inner bark,” grey-shrub (Elaeagnus) IV 688: grey and shrub, and so on. There is only one reverse-ordered compound (formed from a noun and an adjective) — May-mottled (Orchis) II 610: May and mottled. 2.3.3. Compounds formed from a noun and a verb are approximately as common as those formed from an adjective and a noun, e.g.: eye-scrubber (Euphrasia) V 466: eye and scrub, bug-killer (Cimicifuga) III 378: bug and kill, plume-caster (Chamaenerion) IV 766: plume and cast, blood-drinker (Sanguisorba) IV 146: blood and drink, dew-rise (Alchemilla) IV 192: dew and rise, sunflower (Helianthus) VI 70: sun and bore/turn, wall-bending kū (Thladiantha) IV 733: wall and creep, rock-splitter (Saxifraga) IV 38: rock and split, fruit-warder (Ajuga) V 280: fruit and guard, wolf-grass (Nonnea) V 245: wolf and trample, and so on. These compounds are also often not original but calques from other languages, e.g.: blood-drinker ← Sanguisorba, rock-splitter ← Saxifraga, and so on. Compound terms with the component -sargis or -sargė may have a problematic formation: kalnasargis (Selinum) V 78, krūmsargė (Cucubalus) 3 We believe that P. Matulionis considered this term dialectal and restored it unnecessarily. 169 III 325, liūnsargė (Scheuchzeria) II 91, vandensargė (Zannichellia) II 81, as well as vandenplūkis (Hydrocharis) II 111, vynvytis (Parthenocissus) IV 650. We would think that the second components of all these compound terms are verbal. Other compound formations are rare. For example, there are also several genus names formed from a numeral and a noun: dviguonė (Listera) II 580: dvi ‘two’ and guonia ‘head’; tridantė (Sieglingia) II 209: trys ‘three’ and dantis ‘tooth’; vienadienė (Hemerocallis) II 509: viena(s) ‘one’ and diena ‘day’, and so on. 2.4. Among derived forms, suffixal terms are the most numerous. Terms formed by this method far outnumber those derived by endings and prefixes. For example, derivatives with the suffix -en- alone are more numerous than endingal and prefixal derivatives combined. The suffix -en- has two variants: 1) -enė: dantenė (Circaea) IV 774: dantis, drėgmenė (Sium) V 61: drėgmė, dumblenė (Limosella) V 408: dumblas, griovenė (Hottonia) V 148: griojus, gumbenė (Phlomis) V 345: gumbas, kalkenė (Vaccaria) III 332: kalkės, morkvenė (Astrodaucus) V 46: morkva, raistenė (Hydrocotyle) V 29: raistas, ravenė (Leersia) II 140: ravas „griovys“, rykštenė (Solidago) VI 34: rykštė, smilgenė (Aira) II 188: smilga, sultenė (Valerianella) V 533: sultys, unksmenė (Blechnum) I 45: unksmė, vandenė (Elatine) IV 730: vanduo, žemenė (Sagina) III 289: žemė and 2) -enis: akenis (Ballota) V 334: akis, dirvenis (Ononis) IV 413: dirva, garždenis (Lotus) IV 393: garždas, kaulenis (Cotoneaster) IV 256: kaulas, kirvenis (Hedysarum) IV 407: kirvis, laiškenis (Mercurialis) IV 577: laiškas, plukenis (Najas) II 85: plukė, pūšlenis (Physocarpus) IV 66: pūslė, raženis (Coronilla) IV 404: ražas, rūtenis (Corydalis) III 472: rūta, saidrenis (Pycreus) II 304: saidras „viksvą“, saulenis (Helianthemum) IV 727: saulė, skarenis (Libanotis) V 66: skara, šiaudenis (Anthericum) II 506: šiaudas, tujenis (Thujopsis) I 168: tuja, varpenis (Botrychium) I 21: varpa, viksvenis (Blysmus) II 322: viksvą, vikšrenis (Schoenus) II 336: vikšris, žagrenis (Rhus) IV 602: žagrė, etc. All these derivatives with the suffix -en- are formed from nouns. Derivatives from adjectives (a) and verbs (b) are considerably less common, e.g.: a) laibenis (Alyssum) III 538: laibas, kartenė (Cardamine) III 508: kartus, margenis (Coleus) V 288: margas, skraistenis (Pyrethrum) VI 111: skraistus, vairenis (Arabidopsis) III 516: vairus „beautiful“, b) gaivenis (Bupleurum) V 50: gaivinti⁴, klėstenė (Scleranthus) III 295: klėsti „to flourish, grow well“, skendenis (Utricularia) V 498: skęsti, tryškenis (Ecballium) IV 738: trykšti, etc. The derivation of some words ending in this way is not sufficiently clear, e.g.: artvenis (Sherardia) V 190, bandenis (Echinops) VI 177, gebenė (Hedera) V 22, pastenis (Malachium) III 279, patvenis (Swertia) V 179, praujenė (Callitriche) V 266. For some of these terms, the base word can no longer be identified at all, while for others it can be associated with several words. For example, the word gebenė may be thought ⁴ This term can also be associated with the adjective gaivus ‘lively, vigorous; cheerful, sprightly’. 170 to have been formed from the noun geba ‘broom’ (Genista), or from the verb gebti/gebti ‘to embrace, envelop; to wind’, and so on. The suffixes -ūn-, -ut- and -uol- are almost equally productive: several plant genus names have been formed with each of them: 1) -ūnas, -ūnė: from nouns: balandūnė (Atriplex) III 240: balanda ‘orache’; česnakūnė (Alliaria) III 524: česnakas ‘garlic’; dobilūnė (Lespedeza) IV 412: dobilas ‘clover’; gegūnė (Dactylorhiza) VI 290: gegė ‘cuckoo’; girūnė (Sanicula) V 31: giria ‘forest’; guaizdūnė (Zinnia) VI 79: guaizdė ‘Armeria’; kraštūnė (Littorella) V 512: kraštas ‘edge’; kregždūnė (Vincetoxicum) V 187: kregždė ‘swallow’; lendrūnas (Calamagrostis) II 172: lendrė; nendrūnė (Scolochloa) II 237: nendrė ‘reed’; pūkūnė (Filago) VI 47: pūkai ‘fluff’; rožūnė (Lavatera) IV 670: rožė ‘rose’; vilnūnė (Holcus) II 185: vilna ‘wool’; žvaigždūnė (Scabiosa) V 539: žvaigždė ‘star’; from adjectives: dygūnė (Torilis) V 45: dygus ‘prickly’; puikūnas (Mimulus) V 407: puikus ‘splendid’; skudrūnas (Pleurospermum) V 49: skudrus ‘growing well, luxuriant’; from numerals: šimtūnė (Centunculus) V 143: šimtas ‘hundred’; 2) -utė, -utis: from nouns: blužnutė (Chrysosplenium) IV 41: blužnis ‘spleen’; dalgutis (Erodium) IV 564: dalgis ‘scythe’; ežerutė (Hydrilla) II 106: ežeras ‘lake’; pakalnutė (Convallaria) II 546: pakalnė ‘slope’; vaistutis (Arabis) III 518: vaistas ‘medicine’; vakarutė (Hesperis) III 530: vakaras ‘evening’; from adjectives: dryžutis (Typhoides) II 143: dryžas ‘striped’; from verbs: barškutis (Rhinanthus) V 478: barškėti ‘to rattle’; varputis (Agropyron) II 282: varpyti; and so on; 3) -uolė: from nouns: avižuolė (Arrhenatherum) II 204: aviža ‘oat’; dirvuolė (Agrimonia) IV 139: dirva ‘field’; lizduolė (Neottia) II 582: lizdas ‘nest’; smilguolė (Apera) II 182: smilga ‘bent’; snieguolė (Galanthus) II 551: sniegas ‘snow’; viksvuolė (Cyperus) II 302: viksva ‘sedge’; from adjectives: drėgnuolė (Berula) V 63: drėgnas ‘damp’; kartuolė (Aristolochia) III 150: kartus ‘bitter’; mažuolė (Aphanes) IV 224: mažas ‘small’; rusvuolė (Cypripedium) II 570: rusvas ‘brownish’, etc. Terms with less clear and more individual formations occur only in the first group, for example: peletrūnas (Artemisia) VI 115, dumplūnė (Physalis) V 388. The first of these terms is probably cognate with the term pelynas (Artemisia absinthum), whereas the second cannot be related to the word dumplas ‘mud’, since the plant is ornamental and grown in flower gardens; its flowers are white, greenish-yellow, or violet. Very few derivatives with other suffixes are used as plant genus names. For example: -ainė, -ainis: buožainė (Knautia) V 535: buožė ‘club’; duglainė (Pyracantha) IV 261: duglys ‘sting’; kaštainis (Castanea) III 113: kaštanas ‘chestnut’; margainis (Sil-vbum) VI 162: margas ‘variegated’; -aitė: miltinaitė (Berteroa) III 536: miltinas ‘floury’; smilgaitė (Catabrosa) II 236: smilga ‘bent’; -einis: ežeinis (Echium) V 241: ežys ‘hedgehog’; šatreinis (Diplotaxis) III 547: šatras ‘rod’; žioveinis (Antirrhinum) V 428: žiovoti ‘to yawn’; -eivė: plateivė (Coeloglossum) II 600: platus ‘broad’; -eklė: džioveklė (Orobanche) V 492: džiovinti ‘to dry’ (by parasitizing); gelteklė (Scorzonera) VI 191: gel­tas ‘yellow’; 171 -ekšnis: spindle tree (Euonymus) IV 631: goat, alder buckthorn (Frangula) IV 644: cold; -elis: gladiolus (Gladiolus) II 563: sword, bulrush (Isolepis) II 334: reed; -ėlis: foxtail (Alopecurus) II 156: to bristle, oregano (Origanum) V 305: red; -ena: fireweed (Coronaria) III 319: fire (Lychnis), duckweed (Lemna) II 462: pondweed (Potamogeton), twiner (Sicyos) IV 747: to curl, strugena (Myosurus) III 405: strugė (Brachypodium); -esas: krekesas (Globularia) V 489: to crackle; -ikė: septynikė (Trientalis) V 138: seven; -ylis: kartylis (Pioris) VI 201: bitter; -inas: ūksminas (Adoxa) V 528: shade; -ynas: hazel (Corylus) III 106: hazel rod; -inė: šustinė (Luronium) II 100: to steam, žvaginė (Capsella) III 585: to bloom; -ingė: kūlingė (Trichophorum) II 312: kūlis “stone”; -ininkas: šilininkas (Baldellia) II 101: pine forest; -inys: šakinys (Melandrium) III 321: branch, žiaudrinys (Lappula) V 261: žiaudrus “rough, hard”; -inukė: sandwort (Minuartia) III 288: sand; -išius: dagišius (Xanthium) VI 76: prickly, drugišius (Oxytropis) IV 381: butterfly; -utė: bokštutė (Turritis) III 517: tower, gardūnytė (Anthoxanthum) II 144: sweet grass, meškytė (Symphoricarpus) V 520: bear, ratainytė (Gratiola) V 405: ratainis “flattened bun”, bristle grass (Setaria) II 133: bristle; -(i)ukas, -(i)ukė: režukras (Nasturtium) III 506: rėžis, sidabriukė (Goodyera) II 596: sidabras, smaliukė (Viscaria) III 306: smala; -yuė: ankstyvė (Erophila) III 546: early; -lė: tuklė (Pinguicula) V 497: to grow fat; -okas: šilokas (Sedum) IV 27: pine forest; -okė: linokė (Chaenorrhinum) V 430: flax; -oklė, -oklis: putoklis (Saponaria) III 342: to foam, raudoklė (Lythrum) IV 751: red, vijoklis (Convolvulus) V 223: to wind “to wrap,” vynioklė (Calystegia) V 226: to wind, žemoklė (Moneses) V 108: low; -okslė: putokšlė (Polygala) IV 596: to foam; -otis: gyslotis (Plantago) V 504: vein; -tukas: skėstukas (Odontites) V 476: to scatter; -ulis: godulis (Lycopsis) V 249: greedy; -uoklė: garduoklė (Myrrhis) V 43: tasty, žibuoklė (Hepatica) III 392: to shine; -uonė: plaumuonė (Nymphoides) V 181: plaumuo (Yucca); uodeguonė (Hippuris) IV 785: tail; 172 -uotė: nariuotė (Polycnemum) III 218: joint, finger-like (Digitaria) II 128: finger; -vė: žalvė (Puccinellia) II 244: to turn green, green. 2.5. Derivatives formed with endings are used relatively rarely to name plant genera, but are nevertheless more popular in this terminology than derivatives formed with prefixes. They are formed from nouns, adjectives, and verbs. For example: Derivatives with the ending -a: ankšta (Draba) III 543: tight, narrow, atvaisa (Chaenomeles) IV 226: to bear fruit, gaisra (Lychnis) III 318: fire (referring to flower color), gaiva (Lapsana) VI 251: fresh, lively, užgina (Orthilia) V 100: to defend; Derivatives with the ending -as: pataisas (Lycopodium) I 70: to repair; Derivatives with the ending -ė: agurklė (Borago) V 248: agurklas “cucumber,” aklė (Galeopsis) V 354: blind, blizgė (Lunaria) III 533: to shine, druskė (Salsola) III 251: salt, gelsvė (Levisticum) V 83: yellowish, geltė (Serratula) VI 165: yellow, glindė (Pedicularis) V 461: nit, maurė (Spirodela) II 462: duckweed, melsvė (Hosta) II 507: bluish, miglė (Poa) II 224: mist, pienė (Sonchus) VI 203: milk, plautė (Pulmonaria) V 242: lungs, raganė (Clematis) III 402: witch, raugė (Agrostemma) III 304: to ferment, smiltė (Arenaria) III 292: sand, sprakšė (Cystopteris) I 29: to crackle, šilingė (Lysimachia) V 135: shilling, taukė (Symphytum) V 246: fat, tūbė (Verbascum) V 409: tube, vanagė (Hieracium) VI 209: hawk, visgė (Trisetum) II 194: to be green, žiemė (Vinca) V 183: winter, žilė (Senecio) VI 135: gray-haired, žiomenė (Dracocephalum) V 325: gullet, žliūgė (Stellaria) III 272: chickweed, žvirgždė (Acinos) V 317: gravel; Derivatives with the ending -is: gailis (Ledum) V 112: bitter, guržėdis (Chaerophyllum) V 36: to become coarse, kietis (Artemisia) VI 115: hard, šaukštis (Senecio) VI 135: spoon, šiurpis (Sparganium) II 24: to shiver, vikšris (Juncus) II 467: caterpillar; Derivatives with the ending -(i)us: pentinius (Delphinium) III 380: spur, pūšlius (Colutea) IV 366: bladder. Several plant genus names of this type have an unclear derivation, for example: suidrė (Lolium) II 277, rieskė (Holosteum) III 286, kurklė (Batrachium) III 409, guostė (Cnidium) V 73, and others. The base word for the derivative suidrė is probably the verb suidruoti “to sway” or the noun suidras “silk.” The term guostė should probably be linked to the word guostas “bunch, tuft.” The plant name kurklė should most likely be linked to the word kurkliai “tadpoles.” There are also more folk plant names with the same root, for example: kurkulės “water crowfoots,” kurkuškos “sweet flag,” and others. All of them are aquatic plants. 2.6. There are only a few derivatives formed with prefixes: Prefix ant-: antbarzdė (Epipogium) II 595: beard; Prefix be-: begalis (Laserpitium) V 92: end, beragis (Aceras) II 627: horn; 173 Prefix po-: pocūgė (Pseudotsuga) I 103: spruce, povaizė (Helictotrichon) II 201: oat, posmilgė (Eragrostis) II 216: grass, posmiltė (Spergularia) III 301: sandwort, poraistė (Naumburgia) V 137: marsh; Prefix pro-: progailis (Anagallis) V 140: pimpernel, prožirnis (Genista) IV 348: broom. 3. Species Names 3.1. Lithuanian species names are two-word compound terms. The main (second) component indicates the genus, while the secondary (first) component indicates the species. Thus, the general structure of Lithuanian species names differs from that of Latin and Russian species terms. The only exceptions are Lithuanian attributive compounds whose modifier is expressed by a noun, for example: asiūklis ožkabarzdis (Equisetum pratense) I 59, pataisas šarkakojis (Lycopodium clavatum) I 75, aviža netikšė (Avena strigosa) II 197, viksvatrainė (Carex panicea) II 428, aguona birulė (Papaver rhoeas) III 466, rūgtis gyvatžolė (Polygonum bistorta) III 206, beržas keružis (Betula nana) III 102, gluosnis virbis (Salix pentandra) III 72, viršūnė serpentinė (Carex microglochin) II 416, and so on. However, the presentation of such terms in the “Flora of the Lithuanian SSR” is inconsistent, since we also find one or another term of this type with a different structure, for example: vėjalande šilagėlė (Pulsatilla patens) III 394, and so on. The terminology of plant systematics differs somewhat from that of other fields of science in its strict uniformity of taxa. Here there are no more significant (categorical) and less significant (secondary) concepts: typologically, all concepts are equal. For example, the terms aviža (Avena) II 197 and povaizė (Helictotrichon) II 201 denote concepts that are not subordinate to one another. Some genera include quite a large number of species. For example, the goosefoot genus has 16 species; hawthorns and pondweeds, 26; lady’s-mantles, 24; hawkweeds, 34; and sedges as many as 67. These species are distinguished by a dozen or even several dozen distinguishing characteristics. Species names can also form logically classified groups of plants, for example: greater, intermediate, and lesser enchanter’s nightshade (Circaea lutetiana, intermedia, alpina) IV 775, and so on. 3.2. Species names can be of two types: some indicate a characteristic distinguishing feature of the plant (a), while others indicate the species’ relationship to other species (b), for example: a) thyme-leaved sandwort (Arenaria serpyllifolia) III 292, water-plantain-leaved baldellia (Baldellia ranunculoides) II 102, ash-leaved maple (Acer negundo) IV 619, pea-leaved vetch (Vicia pisiformis) IV 478, plum-leaved hawthorn (Crataegus prunifolia) IV 293, alder-leaved serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia) IV 255, birch-leaved spiraea (Spiraea betulifolia) IV 83, guelder-rose-leaved ninebark (Physocarpus opulifolius) IV 67, ivy-leaved bindweed (Ipomoea hederacea) V 223, caraway-leaved mountain-parsley (Selinum carvifolia) V 78, lemon-balm-leaved bastard balm (Melittis melissophyllum) V 330, and so on; b) common pepperweed (Lepidium ruderale) III 572, common watercress (Nasturtium officinale) III 506, common winter-cress (Barbarea vulgaris) III 497, common fumitory (Corydalis solida) III 474, common barberry (Ber- 174 beris vulgaris) III 448, common water crowfoot (Batrachium aquatile) III 412, common pasqueflower (Pulsatilla vulgaris) III 398, common globe-flower (Trollius europaeus) III 370, and so on. Species names (the first components of the word combinations) are also of two kinds according to their origin: ready-made words of literary language that have become terms (a), and neologisms coined specifically for this purpose (b); for example: a) fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) IV 422, field pennycress (Thlaspi arvense) III 577, lesser knotweed (Polygonum minus) III 200, great spurry (Spergula maxima) III 298, marsh spearwort (Ranuncullus lingua) III 416, yellow bladderwort (Utricularia ochroleuca) V 503, downy hawthorn (Crataegus pubescens) IV 288; b) pea-cypress (Chamaecyparis pisifera) I 180, arrow-leaved skullcap (Scutellaria hastifolia) V 380, lobed-leaved apple (Malus sieboldii) IV 242, Chinese wisteria (Wisteria sinensis) IV 360, paper-barked birch (Betula papyrifera) III 100, stinking goosefoot (Chenopodium botrys) III 225, and so on. N. Zabinkova, a researcher of Russian plant systematics terminology, observes that the nomenclature of this field contains a relatively large number (about 20%) of modifiers derived from proper names and geographical names5. There are also quite a few such names in Lithuanian terminology—about 15%. To indicate the plant’s place of origin, an adjectival species modifier is usually used (a), while a genitive species modifier is used to name the discoverer or describer of the species (b), for example: a) Nordmann fir (Abies nordmanniana) I 102, Japanese larch (Larix leptolepis) I 130, Austrian sage (Salvia austriaca) V 374, Tibetan neillia (Neillia thibetica) IV 69, French rose (Rosa gallica) IV 135, Manchurian apple (Malus mandshurica) IV 241, Canadian hawthorn (Crataegus canadensis) IV 283, Ussurian plum (Prunus ussuriensis) IV 303, German broom (Genista germanica) IV 350, Mongolian lime (Tilia mongolica) IV 660, Lithuanian pondweed (Potamogeton lithuanicus) II 74, Tien Shan sorrel (Rumex tianshanicus) III 168, Dahurian moonseed (Menispermum dahuricum) III 450; b) Veitch’s fir (Abies veitchii) I 94, Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii) I 118, Murray pine (Pinus murrayana) I 157, Marschall’s thyme (Thymus marschallianus) V 311, Ruprecht’s bedstraw (Galium ruprechtii) V 204, Henry’s spiraea (Spiraea henryi) IV 81, Jundzill’s rose (Rosa jundzillii) IV 131, Lindberg’s lady’s-mantle (Alchemilla lindbergiana) IV 209, Maack’s bird cherry (Padus maackii) IV 323, Wolfgang’s milkwort (Polygala wolfgangiana) IV 599, Crantz’s cinquefoil (Potentilla crantzii) IV 178, Lobel’s hellebore (Veratrum lobelianum) II 502, Bieberstein’s mouse-ear chickweed (Cerastium biebersteinii) III 286, Borbas’s pink (Dianthus borbasii) III 336, Steven’s buttercup (Ranunculus stevenii) III 431, and others. However, these terms are still not fully standardized, since terms of the first type (a) with other suffixes also occur (for example: Weissenburgian 5 Забинкова Н. Н. Термины и номенклатурные слова в ботанических словарях.— В кн.: Проблематика определений терминов в словарях разных типов. Л., 1976, с. 94. 175 silver cinquefoil — Potentilla leucopolitana IV 171, Lithuanian catchfly — Silene lithuanica III 311) and the second (b) type of adjectival terms (e.g.: Robert’s cranesbill — Geranium robertianum IV 563, Rivin’s violet — Viola riviniana IV 714), and so on. In Russian and Latin nomenclature, this type of forming species terms is nevertheless more productive, e.g.: Buxbaum’s sedge (Carex buxbaumii, Russian осока Буксбаума) II 410, Bueck’s sedge (Carex buekii, Russian осока Буека) II 401, blue club-rush (Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani, Russian камыш Табернемонтана) II 318, Syreishchikov’s bentgrass (Agrostis syreistschikovii, Russian полевица Сырейщикова) II 163, narrow-leaved water-plantain (Alisma gramineum, Russian ластуха Лезели) II 98, saltmarsh rush (Juncus gerardi, Russian ситник Жерара) II 478, garden tulip (Tulipa gesneriana, Russian тюльпан Геснера) II 534, and so on. 3.3. The system of species names in the “Flora of the Lithuanian SSR” is not as coherent as the system of genus names. This system can still be improved. In standardizing plant taxonomic terms for species, attention should be paid to the following inconsistencies and lack of uniformity in standardizing this type of terminology found in the “Flora of the Lithuanian SSR”: 1. Linguistically flawed species terms occur, e.g.: “krikštolinė” (=“krištolinė”) pluostagėlė (Mesembrianthemum crystallinum) III 264, “karpuotasis” (=“karpotasis”) duonis (Eleocharis mamillata) II 330, “uodeguotasis” (=“uodegotasis”) burnotis (Amaranthus caudatus) III 258, “dvišakinė” (=“dvišakė”) naktižiedė (Silene dichotoma) III 310, and so on. 2. Different types of terms are unnecessarily used to express the same distinguishing feature of a species, e.g.: yellow-flowered lupine (Lupinus luteus) IV 344, but yellow daffodil (Narcissus pseudonarcissus) II 554; Lobel’s hellebore (Veratrum lobelianum) II 502, but Robert’s cranesbill (Geranium robertianum) IV 563, and so on. 3. Semantically similar modifiers related by subordination should not be used to name species of the same genus, e.g.: field clover (Trifolium aureum) IV 443 and pasture clover (Trifolium campestre) IV 444; beaked sedge (Carex rostrata) II 452 and long-beaked sedge (Carex rhynchophysa) II 450; rough horsetail (Equisetum hiemale) I 66 and rough-toothed horsetail (Equisetum trachyodon) I 69, and so on. 4. Figurative species modifiers that are difficult to identify should be avoided, e.g.: globular sedge (Carex globularis) II 420, black-toothed milkvetch (Astragalus danicus) IV 376, whorled watermilfoil (Myriophyllum verticillatum) IV 781, and so on. 5. Inconvenient rare loanwords that reflect no distinguishing features, e.g.: Sarepta mustard (Brassica juncea) III 551, Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) I 125, Amur maple (Acer ginnala) IV 613, Nootka cypress (Chamaecyparis nutkaënsis) I 180, Kašubian vetch (Vicia cassubica) IV 482, and so on. Moreover, when describing plants in the text, Lithuanian terms rather than fo 176 specific species names, e.g.: Cornus mas (=yellow-flowered dogwoods) berries are edible V 16. Pyrola media (=intermediate wintergreen) is a distinct species, not a hybrid V 107. Andromeda polifolia (=bog rosemary) is also found in deposits from interglacial periods V 113. It grows in dry, sandy places together with Thymus serpyllum (=wild thyme), Artemisia campestris (=field wormwood), Corynephorus canescens (=grey hair-grass) IV 34, and so on. 4. Conclusions 4.1. A review of the names of 724 genera and 2,153 plant species systematized and described in the six-volume “Flora of the Lithuanian SSR” shows that the system of genus names is more terminologically coherent than the system of species names. Lithuanian genus names better meet the requirements of international codes of plant taxonomy. International terms (about 16.7% of all genus names) are most often used to name recently introduced plants. About one-third of all genus names are old Lithuanian (or Baltic) words that entered systematic terminology from our literary language and dialects. 4.2. About 69% of Lithuanian genus names show derivational features. Some of these names (about 5–8% of all genus names) could be divided into derivational morphemes, but it is no longer possible in our language to identify the words from which they originated as derivatives. The most common genus names are suffixal derivatives. The most productive suffixes for neologisms are -enė, -ūnė, -uolė. Several dozen genus names have been formed with each of them. Unproductive suffixes include -eivė, -esas, -ylis, -ingė, -ininkas, -yvė, -okšlė, -otis, -ulis, etc. Only one genus name has been formed with each of these. Compound genus names rank second in frequency. Most are formed from two nouns. In such terms, the second component is particularly often -medis or -žolė (more than 30 names). Compounds formed from an adjective and a noun and from a noun and a verb are roughly equally productive. Among suffixal derivatives, those formed with the ending -ė are the most productive (25 genus names). Derivatives with the endings -as and -(i)us are unproductive; only 1–2 genus names have been formed with each. Prefixal derivatives are the least common (10 genus names). Derivatives with the prefix po- occur somewhat more often than others. Another characteristic feature of word formation in plant genus names is that plant names often serve as base words for derivatives of all types and as one of the components of compounds. 4.3. In “Flora of the Lithuanian SSR,” the range of species names is broad: some genera have the greatest number of species (67), while quite many plants (several dozen) have the fewest—one species each. Species epithets are of several types: some indicate a distinguishing feature of the plant, while others express the relationship of a plant species to other species. Terms of the first type are more productive. 12 Užsak. Nr. 1007 177 4.4. Further development of Lithuanian plant-taxonomy terminology requires: 1) eliminating or correcting linguistically defective terms; 2) standardizing the linguistic expression of the same distinguishing features; 3) avoiding semantically similar epithets related by subordination when naming species within the same genus; 4) avoiding vivid and difficult-to-identify species epithets, etc. GENERIC AND SPECIFIC NAMES OF PLANTS IN LITHUANIA Р е з ю м е 1. In 1980, the publication of the major scholarly work, the six-volume Flora of the Lithuanian SSR (1959—1980), was completed. It systematizes and scientifically describes 724 genera and 2,153 species of plants growing in Lithuania. All these taxa have Lithuanian names. This terminology was discussed at meetings of the Botanical Terminology Commission, chaired by Prof. I. Daugis, over several years (1966—1972). This article is devoted to a brief analysis and further improvement of this system of terminology. 2. More than 50% of all plant genus names are old Lithuanian (Baltic) words that entered plant systematics from the Lithuanian literary language and dialects. 16.7% of the terms in this group are borrowed words. About 8% of the terms are neologisms coined over the past 2—3 decades, e.g.: atvaīsa (Chaenomeles) “henomeles,” avinžīrnis (Cicer) “chickpea,” dyglainė (Pyracantha) “firethorn,” dobilinė (Lespedeza) “bush clover,” and others. About 69% of Lithuanian plant genus names have word-formation features. The most popular terms are suffixal formations. Productive suffixes include -enė, -ūnė, -uolė. In second place in terms of productivity are compound terms. Among these names are relatively many terms (about 30) in which the second component is the word medis “tree” or žolė “grass,” e.g.: diemedis (Artemisia), purmedis (Laburnum), riešutmedis (Juglans), šeimamedis (Sambuchus), šunažolė (Dactylis), and others. Among inflectional formations, those ending in -ė are more common (25 names), e.g.: druskė (Salsola), maurė (Spirodela), plautė (Pulmonaria), raugė (Agrostenia), smiltė (Arenaria), tuklė (Pinguicula), visgė (Trisetum), žliūgė (Stellaria), and others. Prefixal formations are quite uncommon in this terminology (10 names). 3. Plant species names can be divided into two groups: in some, attributes indicate the plants’ principal distinguishing features, while in others they indicate the connection and relationships of species with other species. Attributive components of compound species terms are most often expressed by compound adjectives and adjectives with the suffix -inis. A characteristic feature of the terminology in this group is that common nouns in the genitive case and present passive participles are not used in species terms. 4. The system of plant genus names is more developed than the system of species names. To improve the system of plant species names, it is necessary to: 1) eliminate terms that are not entirely correct in terms of word formation, e.g.: uodeguotasis (=uodegotasis) burnotis (Amaranthus caudatus), dvīšakinė (=dvīšakė) našlaitė (Silene dichotoma); 2) standardize the linguistic expression of distinguishing features, e.g.: geltonžiedis lubinas (Lupinus luteus), but geltonasis narcizas (Narcissus pseudo-narcissus); 3) eliminate terms that are overly figurative, difficult to understand, and misleading, e.g.: snapuotoji viksvā (Carex rostrata) and ilgaspārė viksvā (Carex rhyncho-physa), etc. Such terms account for 2—3% of all the terms we studied.