Отражение медицинских понятий в научно-популярной литературе

MOKSLO KALBOS KULTŪROS IR TERMINOLOGIJOS PROBLEMOS LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI, XXIV (1985) INA DRUVIETE REFLECTION OF MEDICAL CONCEPTS IN POPULAR SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE At present, there is a need to analyze how terms from various branches of science and technology function, based on studies of extensive material. It is important to observe how terms function in specialist scientific literature, as well as how they are used in popular science publications, lectures, radio and television programs, and, further, how terms pass into general vocabulary—that is, the so-called process of determinologization1. This review is devoted to studying (using Latvian-language material) how the content of a scientific concept2 in medical science is reflected in popular science contexts intended for a nonspecialist reader or listener. In a popular science text, alongside a codified scientific term tested in specialist texts, nonterminological equivalents are also permitted and widely used—stylistic synonyms, colloquial and obsolete names, professionalisms, and even slang terms. Moreover, popular science texts do not prohibit variation in the expression of a concept, which within a single text may be represented by an international scientific term, a doublet term based on the native language, a colloquial name, a periphrastic phrase, and so on.3 The study of ways of reflecting concepts in medical science is of interest for many reasons: 1. In the second half of the 20th century, medical science underwent rapid development. Whereas at the beginning of the century about 5,000 disease names were known, today there are about 30,0004. New methods of treatment, medical devices, and medicines are constantly emerging. The boom in new concepts requires a corresponding number of new terms. 1 Blinkena A. Terminologizācijas un determinoļizācijas procesi mūsdienu latviešu valodā.— LPSR ZA Vēstis, 1973, Nr. 2, 103.—107. lpp. 2 A scientific concept is a set of essential characteristics of an object, the result of knowing an object of objective reality at a given stage in the development of science. 3 Cf.: Bragina A. A. Meaning and shades of meaning in a term.— In: Terminology and Speech Culture. Moscow, 1981, p. 52. 4 Lazovskis I. Ārsts un valoda.— Literatūra un Māksla, 1981, 23.I, 6. lpp. 54 2. Traditionally, medical terms are formed on the basis of Latin and Greek, e.g.: vaskulīts, elektroforēze, pulmonologs. Recently, the number of terms borrowed from languages in which the corresponding phenomenon was first named has been increasing, e.g.: kūrorts (German Kurort), šoks (French choc), with terms borrowed from English predominating, e.g.: kompaunds, inbridings. 3. Medical terms have certain distinctive features compared with terms in other sciences. Eponyms—the name of a physician, patient, historical figure, literary character, etc.—are used to designate some concepts, e.g.: Edipa kompleks, Sārko—Mari slimība. Some terms are figurative and symbolic, e.g.: kaķa dzirnavu fenomens, strādājošās sievas sindroms. To understand the meaning of such a term, one must know the history of its origin. 4. Folk speech has long contained a large number of names of various etymologies used to designate diseases, their symptoms, methods of treatment, medicines, medicinal plants, and so on. These include dialect words, words of “folk etymology,” periphrastic expressions, and barbarisms. Such words and expressions are widespread and frequently occur in everyday speech, and often even in printed texts, e.g.: dilonis, sirdstrieka, šprices, nolēmēts. Sometimes designations of this kind are placed in quotation marks. 5. Given the process of global linguistic integration and the bilingual situation in the Latvian SSR, the coordination of Latvian and Russian medical terms acquires a certain importance5. However, literal translation from one language into another must be avoided. 6. Since most people have daily contact with medical issues and institutions, and interest in the achievements of practical medicine and medical science is continually growing, the question of optimal ways to express medical concepts and phenomena is becoming increasingly important. To familiarize the public with the basics of medicine in the Latvian SSR, the journal “Veselība” (“Health”) and a considerable number of books and brochures are published. The journal “Zinātne un Tehnika” (“Science and Technology”) also contributes to medical education. An examination of the aforementioned journals and around 30 books and brochures published in 1981–1983 established that medical concepts are represented in texts for non-specialists in diverse ways. The most important of these are presented below. I. The use in popular-science texts of terms in Latin or Greek, as in specialized literature, e.g.: Apendix vermiformis atrodas aklās zarnas lejasdaļā. 5 Cf.: E. Yu. Daugate, “The Functional Style of Science and Technology—an Important Factor in the Development of Modern Latvian.” In: Semantikas problēmas. Riga, 1982, pp. 83–88. 55 II. Use of a grammaticalized international term: 1) without explanation, e.g.: Lipidi var iziet cauri asinsvadu endotēlijam un radīt ateromatozās pangas; 2) explanation of the international term by a synonymous term in Latvian or an explanatory phrase. The explanatory unit is placed in parentheses, set off by a dash, or introduced by words such as jeb, resp., etc., e.g.: Mazuļiem nav novērota nosliece uz otītiem (auss iekaisumiem); 3) indication of the function or characteristic of the concept, e.g.: Ceptos ēdienos ir akroleins — viela, kas kairina aknas; 4) indication of the etymology of the term, e.g.: Vērojama bioloģisko ritmu akrofāzes (no grieķu akron — virsotne) nobīde; 5) explanation of the term in the form of a definition, e.g.: Par hemangiomām sauc labdabīgus audzējus, kas attīstās no asinsvadu sienas. III. Use of a term based on Latvian: 1) without explanation, e.g.: Tremes cēloņi jāmeklē bioloģiskās atšķirībās. Slimība sākas ar drebuļi; 2) explanation of the meaning of the Latvian term, e.g.: Ar jēdzienu „ievaīdīšanās ceļi“ saprot vaidu, kā zāles nokļūst organismā; 3) giving the term in the original language in parentheses, e.g.: Ilgi par neārstējamu uzskatīja Laundabīgo mazasinību (anaemia perniciosa); 4) attaching an international term to the Latvian term in various ways, e.g.: Uz ādas parādās viegli sārti plankumi (rozeolas). IV. Using an international term and a Latvian term, or a non-terminological designation, interchangeably within the same text, e.g.: Nieru pārstādīšana ir iespējama. Jau izdarītas vairākas nieru transplantācijas operācijas. V. Replacing a specialized term with a popular name—a non-terminological designation. Such designations are often placed in quotation marks, e.g.: Bērns piedzimis ar zaķa lūpu. „Caurs miegs“ var kļūt par īpašu problēmu. VI. Highlighting a newly coined scientific term in the title of an article or lecture, followed by an explanation of its meaning in the text, e.g.: Kas ir gerontoloģija? (Заголовок) Gerontoloģija ir zinātne par novecošanos. VII. Appending to the text a glossary of the terms used in it. The problem lies in choosing, for each specific case, one of the above-mentioned methods, all of which are in themselves impeccable. In doing so, a whole range of decisive factors must be taken into account: the scientific precision of the expression, the level of the addressee’s specialized knowledge, their age, and their general level of education (this factor should be taken into account when giving lectures; in a printed text, one should orient oneself 56 the average level of specialized knowledge), the conventionality and prevalence of the term, aspects of language culture, the author’s personal taste, and psychological factors, which play a major role in texts on medical topics. The question of whether a scientific term is appropriate in popular-science texts is still answered in different ways6. Most specialists today acknowledge that it is necessary to familiarize non-specialist readers reasonably with specialized terms from different branches of science. This is consistent both with the demands of the scientific and technological revolution and with the population’s increased level of culture and education. A growing tendency to use international and specialized terms is also observed in popular medical literature. It should be borne in mind that when introducing readers to a new term, this should be done gradually. If the author or editor of an article is unsure whether the term used will be understood by most readers, its etymology should be shown, its meaning explained, descriptive phrases used, or its essence made clear through context7. Sometimes there is a difference between the specialized meaning of a scientific term and its meaning in everyday speech as well as in popular-science literature. Minor semantic shifts are entirely acceptable: it is impossible, and indeed unnecessary, for a non-specialist to delve into the details of a scientific term’s meaning and master all its systemic and contextual relations. But a term often expands or even changes its meaning when it enters common vocabulary. For example, the term stress, borrowed from English and widely used in specialized literature with the primary meaning “the body’s protective responses to the influence of adverse factors,” is widely used in speech to mean “anxiety,” “troubles,” and “nervous strain.” The Latvian-based doublet term spriedze does not resolve this discrepancy. Similar desemanticization has also occurred with the word prieks, which is known in colloquial speech with the meanings “surprise,” “fright,” and “delight”8. Authors and editors need to take into account the difference between the strictly scientific and the common meanings of words of this kind. Professor I. Lazovskis of the Riga Medical Institute writes: “Rather than setting out to translate all international terms into Latvian, the main effort should be directed against intrusive foreign words that are easily translated into Latv- 6 Ср.: Мижневич А. Е. Термины в сфере популяризации знаний.— В кн.: Научно-техническая революция и проблемы культуры языка науки и терминологии: Тез. докл. и сообщ. Вильнюс, 1983, с. 63—65. 7 Skujinia V. Terminas kontekste.— Kalbos kultūra, 1983, sąs. 44, p. 19—26. 8 Ср.: Скворцов Л. И. Вопросы терминологии и терминотворчества в эпоху НТР.— В кн.: Терминология и культура речи. М., 1981, с. 11—12. 57 ian, especially if they have not become internationalisms”9. Most languages have doublet terms with identical meanings. One may agree that it is preferable to find a Latvian equivalent for a borrowed word if it is not constructed from elements of classical languages, e.g., krustmija — English crossing-over, galētājšūnas — English killers. The practice of introducing a Latvian term in place of a widely used term formed from classical languages is questionable, e.g., metastāze — sriesumi. It is becoming the duty of science popularizers in our republic to introduce new Latvian terms into use judiciously. Although “every newly introduced word is like a window in an abandoned house, and any boy passing by wants to throw a stone through it”10, the ongoing popularization of new formations based on Latvian will help them find their place more quickly in the system of medical-science terminology, while explaining the essence of the new term to non-specialists. Psychological factors, which have not yet been adequately studied, play a major role in choosing the means of expression for popular medical texts. A considerable number of medical terms based on the native language have undesirable connotations. For purely ethical reasons, popular literature generally uses not aptaukošanās, but adipozitāte; not resns, but korpulents; not mirstība, but letalitāte. And when naming certain diseases, there is a prevailing tendency to use an international term. Popular publications must also take into account the so-called “colonel’s widow” complex, from a novella by J. Smuul—the desire to find a more dignified and more scientific name for one’s illness. While a detailed analysis of the factors that lead people to prefer either a Latvian or an international term falls within the competence of psycholinguistics, the most important features of readers’ psychology must be taken into account both by linguists specializing in terminology and, especially, by authors and editors of popular-science publications. Those creating new medical terms would do well to consider additional factors, such as psychological and emotional ones. A judicious selection of the best means of expression will contribute to the further dissemination of medical knowledge, which is so necessary for everyone. 9 L a z o v s k i s I. Ārsts un valoda.—Literatūra un Māksla, 1981, 23.I, 6. lpp. 10 S e l j e H. Mana mūža stress.—Rīga, 1983, 77. lpp.