Priežasties prielinksnių sistema lietuvių kalboje

LIETUVIŲ KALBOS SINTAKSĖS TYRINĖJIMAI LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI XXV (1986) ELENA VALIULYTĖ THE SYSTEM OF CAUSAL PREPOSITIONS IN LITHUANIAN § 1. The following Lithuanian prepositions mark causal relations: iš ‘from’ with the genitive (smiles with happiness), nuo ‘from’ with the genitive (the windows shattered from the impact), dėl ‘because of’ with the genitive (was late because of the bad road), už ‘for’ with the accusative (scolds for not listening), per ‘through’ with the accusative (was injured through carelessness), the genitive with dėka ‘thanks to’ (recovered thanks to the doctors’ care), and the instrumental (without a preposition) (eyes shine with joy). They are distributed in a particular way across the semantic field of causal relations and together form a system in which each of the aforementioned means of expression occupies an autonomous position. § 2. The aim of this article is to describe in detail the lexical-semantic contexts of use of causal prepositions, to bring out the differential features of each, and to establish a system of oppositions on that basis; and to show the isomorphism between the causal meanings of polysemous prepositions and their other meanings (usually spatial). § 3. The causal meaning of prepositions, like their other meanings, usually becomes apparent in a phrase, e.g.: trembles with fear, (the tree) bent in the wind, felt ashamed of his words, condemned (someone) for such an act, fell ill through carelessness, became educated thanks to his talents. However, a prepositional construction may be related not to a single word but to a group of words or an entire sentence. In such cases, it may make salient the meaning of a word with which it has no direct syntactic connection. For example, in the sentence Out of exasperation, she even began speaking Lithuanian, the construction out of exasperation is semantically “supported” by the adverb in Lithuanian, although it has no direct syntactic connection with it (it depends on the verb began speaking). Therefore, the description of prepositional usage will take into account the semantically complete context. Since the semantics of the dependent noun usually has the greatest determining power in bringing out the causal meaning of prepositions (cf. Комаров 1973, 23), most attention will be devoted to describing the lexical composition of the prepositional construction. For some prepositions, such as iš and dėka, the dependent noun alone provides a sufficient context for identifying the causal meaning, e.g.: from happiness, fear, shame; thanks to friends, talent. 4. 120 97 THE PREPOSITION IŠ GENERAL REMARKS § 4. The preposition iš is one of the principal prepositions in the causal system. It has a defined sphere of use: it is used to describe the motivation of a person’s (or another living being’s) states or actions by that being’s own internal characteristics—emotions, sensations, qualities, e.g.: (the child) jumped for joy. Thus, two semantic features characterize the causal meaning of the preposition iš: 1) the internal nature of the cause, or simply “internal cause” (for the term, see Финкель 1962, IX), and 2) the identity of the subjects of cause and effect (cf. the child jumped and the child was happy) (cf. Никитина 1979, 124).1 § 5. The causal meaning of the preposition iš is derived: genetically, it is linked to its spatial meaning. We will attempt to show concretely how the causal semantic structure of the preposition iš correlates with the structure of its spatial meaning (cf. Russian Никитина 1979, 119 ff.). To this end, we will compare the meanings by describing them in terms of semantic features (or components). Consider two utterances with the preposition iš: a) The deer (A) ran out (C) of the forest (B) (spatial meaning), and b) The child (A) jumps (C) for joy (B) (causal meaning). The spatial meaning of the preposition iš can be divided into two semantic components and written as follows: 1. “A is in contact with the interior of B” (or: “A is inside B”) and 2. “(1) is the starting point of C.” These components are related in a particular sequence: component (1) is realized first (before running out, the deer must have been in the forest), followed by (2). Thus, the spatial meaning of the preposition iš can be formally written as: “(A inside B) — starting point of C.” The causal meaning of the preposition iš can be written as follows: 1. “B is the cause of C,” 2. “B is an internal characteristic of A,” and 3. “The subject of (B) is = A.” How do these components of causal meaning relate to the structure of spatial meaning? The general causal meaning (“B is the cause of C”) corresponds to the spatial meaning feature “starting point” (“B is the starting point of C”). Researchers have long observed that spatial prepositions denoting a “starting point” generally also have a causal meaning; cf. Russian из, от, с, Polish z, od, German von, aus (see Нобак 1978, 275). The other features of the causal meaning of the preposition iš correspond to spatial-meaning feature (1), which reflects the initial position of the localized entities; cf. “A is in contact with the interior of B” and “B is an internal characteristic of A.” The feature “The subject of (B) is = A” corresponds to the spatial meaning in which object A coincides with a part of B (cf. The deer (A) is in the forest (B)). ¹ We will provisionally call the meaning of the preposition the meaning of the construction itself, i.e. the preposition plus the case form dependent on it, since no one has yet succeeded in adequately distinguishing these two meanings (cf. Никитина 1979, 113). 98 LEXICAL COMPOSITION OF CONSTRUCTIONS § 6. The preposition prie ‘from’ is used with a causal meaning in constructions with dependent nouns of a well-defined semantic class: nouns denoting a person’s (more rarely, another living being’s) internal, psychological traits and acts of mental activity2, e.g.: iš džiaugsmo, iš sielvarto, iš alkio, iš įpratimo, iš mandagumo (‘from joy, from grief, from hunger, from habit, out of politeness’). The nouns used with the preposition iš ‘from’ can be divided into the following semantic groups: 1) nouns denoting emotional states (see § 12 ff.), 2) nouns denoting character traits (see § 39 ff.), and 3) nouns denoting sensations (see § 29). In rare cases, this preposition is also used with nouns denoting physical properties of things (see § 35). § 7. Possibilities for expanding constructions with the preposition iš. Since the preposition iš is used in constructions with a strictly defined lexical composition, these constructions—that is, the preposition iš together with a dependent noun—form semantically very close-knit units, e.g.: iš džiaugsmo, iš baimės, iš pykčio, iš pagarbos (‘from joy, from fear, from anger, out of respect’). They generally provide sufficient context to identify the causal meaning of the preposition iš3. The close-knit nature of such constructions is indicated by the very limited possibilities for expanding them. As the collected data show, constructions with the preposition iš are most often used without expansion, that is, their dependent noun occurs without a modifier. 1. The noun in a construction with the preposition iš may be expanded by a word expressing degree, e.g.: iš didelio džiaugsmo, iš neišpasakyto skausmo (‘from great joy, from indescribable pain’). The choice of such a modifier is determined by the nature of the noun’s lexical meaning: the emotional state or trait it denotes can vary in intensity. Most often, constructions with the preposition iš are expanded by the adjective didelis ‘great’ (a) or its synonyms (b). a) The mother, greatly agitated, immediately asked him to come inside. VienR III 88. He came here out of great respect (trans.). b) Jurgutis… cried out as if from unbearable pain. BorBM 134. His legs stiffen from inexplicable fear and fatigue. VenclR II 256. If you make a mistake, you’ll weep from bitter resentment. Myk-PutBV 41. The heart will flutter from heartrending agitation. Avyž. As the examples show, constructions with the preposition iš are expanded by words expressing high intensity. Only very rarely is the noun in these constructions expanded by words expressing low intensity. But everyone trembled—some from burning resentment, others from faint-heartedness. BiliR I 214. He would have suspected her of doing it out of petty jealousy. Myk-PutAŠ 585. 2. Since the nouns in constructions with the preposition iš are most often derived—deverbal or deadjectival—they can occasionally be expanded by the same forms as their base words. No, she didn’t come for no reason—out of indifference toward me (cf. indifferent to someone). LankKS 2 Human mental activity encompasses both sensory (empirical) and intellectual activity (cf. Васильев 1981, 3 ff.). 3 One type of context can be identified in which a construction with the preposition iš formed with nouns denoting internal states does not indicate cause, e.g.: atsipeikėjo iš išgąsčio, atsigavo iš baimės, atlyžo iš pykčio (‘came to after a fright, recovered from fear, calmed down from anger’), and so on. These expressions denote a change of state, a return to a previous state. 4° 99 138. This was done clearly out of a vain desire for honor (vert). — There you have it, your Shrovetide feast! There’s no cheese left! — out of vexation I sighed at myself. ŽemR II 242. The people of Varniai are delighted by every little thing. MikelžS 417. He came because he wanted to see his parents. Ktk. 3. Particles can lend various semantic (usually modal) nuances to the noun in an iš-prepositional construction (and thus to the cause it denotes). Ratui dingus, lyg iš smalsumo žuvys kai kur iškišo galvas. SimonVK I 206. Tik virpėjo pakinkliai ir lengvai svago galva. Turbūt iš džiaugsmo. MikelžS 346. Skaudėti neskaudėjo; rėkiau tik iš baimės. MašAMB 22. In this position, particles can also occur alongside a modifier of quantity (degree or intensity). Jurgutis jumped up in fright and, clutching his head, screamed as if from unbearable pain. BorBM 134. At first he groaned with his teeth clenched, but now he is shouting outright from unbearable pain. SimonAŠL 169. 4. The noun in an iš-prepositional construction can be expanded by the demonstrative pronoun tas, less often by — toks, which emphasize the meaning of the noun (or, correspondingly, the cause) and can connect it with the preceding context. She herself missed her homeland so much that she fell ill from that longing. BilR I 200. Out of that vexation, he began cursing the manor steward. JabIRR I 652. Mother seemed to have recovered completely from that happiness. ŽemR II 194. Who knows what might happen from such weakness. Skr (LKŽ IX 470). In this position, demonstrative pronouns can also occur alongside another (quantitative) modifier. He even ran out of Lithuanian words from that great fury. He lay down on the bench, but because of that extraordinary happiness, with his heart and mind brightened, he could not fall asleep. BorBM 208. 5. The noun in an iš-prepositional construction can be expanded by a phrase, that is, by a subordinate clause (in an adjunct explanatory clause; cf. LKG III 806). He hurried terribly and trembled all over with fear that he might not arrive in time and that something might happen. BorBM 215. Pincukas even spat out of vexation that he had got involved with that stupid woman. BorBM 176. 6. The iš-prepositional construction cannot be expanded by the possessive pronoun savo; for example, the expression žmogus nusigyveno iš savo tinginystės (‘a person became impoverished out of his own laziness’) is unnatural. However, other causal prepositions are possible in this context; cf. žmogus nusigyveno dėl savo tinginystės / per savo tinginystę (‘a person became impoverished because of / through his own laziness’). In terms of the lack of marking of coreference with the subject by the possessive pronoun savo, the preposition iš forms a privative opposition with all other causal prepositions as the positively marked member; cf. paslydo iš neatsargumo and per (savo) neatsargumą / dėl (savo) neatsargumo, kenčia už (savo) neatsargumą, išsimokė (savo) gabumų dėka (‘slipped from carelessness’ and ‘through / because of (one’s own) carelessness,’ ‘suffers for (one’s own) carelessness,’ ‘paid off thanks to (one’s own) abilities’). Thus, this feature is part of the semantic structure of prepositional constructions (cf. Никитина 1976, 124). Only in isolated cases (not systematically!) can the pronoun iš also occur in an iš-prepositional construction, but only as a semantically necessary component, e.g.: savo, but only as a semantically necessary component, e.g.: Ne iš savo kaltybės aš kuprotas. Ds (LKŽ V 159). (If the pronoun were eliminated, the sentence would remain meaningless.) 100 7. As noted, the use of the preposition iš with causal meaning is strictly constrained with regard to the dependent noun (see § 6). In dialects, however, this preposition is also used in nonstandard, atypical contexts. a) With abstract deverbal nouns denoting external actions (their opposite being internal states): His loins ache from walking. Šts. My head hurts from drinking too much. BM 403. He met his end from drinking too much. Vv. The noun in such constructions may be expanded by a genitive denoting: the direct object of the action (He died from drinking water. Šlnt); the subject (The rye disappeared from the geese eating it. Šts. His legs ached from the shoe being chewed. Bdr); the instrument (From throwing stones, the sheep also went off carrying a leg. Als); the place (He contracted bone tuberculosis from wading across the river. Šv). b) With concrete nouns: I have been ill from that wine. An. The woman died from childbirth. Rod. The Pavliniai pigs are sick from poor feed. Žeml (LKŽ IX 696). The plates are caked with potato soup (there had been potato soup in them). Er. In literary language, the preposition nuo. is used in such cases. CONTEXTS OF CONSTRUCTION USE § 8. As has already been established, the use of the preposition iš with causal meaning is lexically restricted with regard to the dependent noun: prepositional constructions are formed with nouns denoting emotions, sensations, or character traits. On the other hand, the contexts in which the prepositional constructions themselves function are also semantically defined. They are used with verbs (or verb combinations), adjectives, or predicatives (in nominal sentences, e.g.: I am no weaver because of old age. Ktk), denoting characteristics (actions, states, traits) of a person (or another living being). Only constructions with certain lexical compositions (see § 31) are also used to indicate the cause of states experienced by inanimate objects, e.g.: The crops perished from the heat. Pc (LKŽ IV 160). But such a context overlaps with the domain of use of the preposition nuo (see § 60). The construction with the preposition iš is used in contexts where inanimate objects are animated (personified), e.g.: His legs carried him of their own accord across the restless meadow, green with joy. MikelKLL 333. § 9. Constructions with the preposition iš are most commonly used with verbs. These can be divided into two groups according to the feature of volition / non-volition4. 1. Verbs denoting involuntary states (a) or actions (b) of a person (or another living being). a) The elder brother trembles with fear and keeps asking the fool to stop. BsRP 76. Jurgis even went pale with grief. BaltPV I 11. His wife, whom he loved dearly, died of pity. BalčHP109. The horse galloped, seeing nothing, beside itself 4 For the same purpose, linguistic literature uses the terms “controlled / uncontrolled” actions. This opposition is distinguished from the opposition “dynamic / static” actions (cf. CTП 1982, 21). 101 from pain and fear. ŠaltRD 97. The dog, having forgotten the traps in its excitement, suddenly after the fox. MašDP 98. b) Out of embarrassment, I tapped the scaffolding with my wooden clog. BaltPV I 37. Kaušpėdas merely spread his arms in confusion. BaltR I 100. When Juozapota saw her, she dropped the bundle in fright and broke into a run. BilR I 237. It did not hurt, only [she trembled] from fear. MašAMB 22. The reindeer leapt up with joy. BalčAP 247. The tabby, flicking its tail with delight, carried the mouse to the edge. BaltPV II 74. It should be noted that we have classified verbs of involuntary action conditionally, bearing in mind their contextual meanings. 2. Verbs denoting voluntary actions (a) or states (b). a) I began to take revenge out of spite. SnuogR IV 474. Julė will be jealous of her out of envy. Myk-PutAŠ 415. It seemed to him that the dog spoke that way out of envy. BalčAP 311. Because he slandered the crowd of enemies out of resentment, falsely spreading rumors about the dear name to me. MairR I 139. Out of resentment, the women sold their goods for half price, because they had grown tired of standing in the rain. ŽemR I 202. He would have suspected her of doing it out of petty jealousy. Myk-PutAŠ 585. b) Duke Vytautas sat at the feast only out of politeness. VienR IV 338 One’s head even spins from pride. Gs (LKŽ VI 553). Out of fear, [one] will take care not to walk late. Ktk. § 10.The semantic features of verb volitionality/involuntariness identified above have differentiating significance for the construction with the preposition iš. In combinations with verbs denoting involuntary actions or states, this construction expresses situational5, or specific, cause, whereas with verbs denoting voluntary actions or states, it expresses non-situational, or generalized, cause. It should be noted that this opposition is not strong. Constructions expressing situational cause are formed with nouns denoting transient, episodic features—emotions and sensations—whereas those expressing non-situational cause are formed with nouns denoting stable characteristics or longer-lasting states. SITUATIONAL CAUSE § 11. Situational cause is marked by constructions with the preposition *iš*, formed with nouns denoting emotions or sensations and used with verbs of states or involuntary actions, e.g.: trembles with fear, flung his arms out in surprise. Such phrases generally express emotions or sensations and their forms (manner) of manifestation. Constructions with emotion nouns § 12. Verbs used with constructions comprising the preposition iš and emotion nouns can be divided into several groups, indicating various forms in which emotions manifest themselves. 5 Dėl termino plg. Засорина 1961, 78. 102 Veiksmažodžiai, reiškiantys verksmą ir juoką § 13. Psychology notes that the most prominent manifestations of emotion are crying and laughter⁶. The verbs denoting these manifestations of emotion, verkti and juoktis, have a considerable number of synonyms. The synonyms of the verb verkti are: virkauti, verkšlenti, raudoti, rudulti, ašaroti, žliumbti, rėkti, kriokti, zurnyti, knėkšti, knerkti, cirpti (ŠŽ 244–245). To this list may also be added the verbs klykti, bliauti, šniurkšėti, as well as phrases with the noun ašara ‘tear’: shed (pour, scatter, glitter) tears; tears flow, fall, trickle, roll, run, drip, stream, gush, blubber; burst into tears, be covered in tears, be bathed in tears. The primary meaning of the verb verkti is described as follows: “to shed tears because of pain, misfortune, etc.” (DLKŽ, 928). However, this verb and its synonyms are used not only in constructions with the preposition iš and nouns denoting negative emotions (a), but also with nouns denoting positive emotions (b) (through crying, a person expresses a wide variety of emotions): a) He cried out of anger, fear, and resentment. Avyž. If you make a mistake, you’ll cry out of bitter frustration… Myk-Put BV 41. Gražulis would almost cry from sorrow, so much so that he could no longer find peace even at night. VenclR II 212. Neither weep nor sing for shame. Slm. Out of that pity, I fell to my knees and shed little tears. Dbk (LKŽ III 24). A tear rolled down little Vladukas’s cheek from the cold or fright, since he was barefoot. ŽemR I 290. b) I was so happy that I even started to cry. ŽemR II 175. Someone is quietly crying with happiness. Myk-Put. The child even burst into tears with joy after finding a little knife. Kp (LKŽ I 212). [Pauga] If there were no women, I’d start bawling with joy. SruogR III 75. After all, she sheds tears both from sadness and from joy. Simon OBT 356. The verb verkti can also occur with concrete nouns, but these are used not with the preposition iš, but with dėl. The maiden wept bitterly over a clay pot (d). In this context, the verb mentioned has a somewhat different meaning, which can be interpreted as “to shed tears out of pity for something.” In this sense, the verb verkti belongs to a different semantic paradigm, whose dominant term is gailėti. The latter verb governs the genitive (e.g., gaili žmonių ‘pities people’). Therefore, in an analogous meaning, the verb verkti can also take the genitive (without the preposition dėl), e.g.: The mother wept for her son all her life. The prepositional phrase with dėl in our previously mentioned sentence can likewise be replaced by a genitive alone, cf.: wept over the pot and wept for the pot. On the other hand, the verb verkti is also used with a prepositional construction with dėl but of a different lexical composition—with abstract nouns denoting circumstances experienced by the subject from outside (rather than the subject’s own inner states), e.g.: wept over a misfortune, failure, grievance, injustice. In this context, the primary meaning of the verb in question is realized. Consequently, the construction with the preposition dėl cannot be replaced by a genitive alone: such a replacement would realize a different meaning of the verb— 6 See Teplovas 1950, 66. 103 and the phrase would remain meaningless, cf. wept over a misfortune ‘felt sorry about a misfortune’. However, some constructions with the preposition dėl and abstract nouns can be synonymous with constructions using the preposition iš, e.g.: wept from hurt feelings and out of hurt feelings, wept over an injustice / out of a sense of injustice. The following are synonyms of the verb juoktis: to guffaw, chuckle, giggle, snicker, titter, snort (ŠŽ 106), as well as to smile. The first meaning of the verb juoktis is defined as follows: “to show merriment, joy, and the like through certain jerky sounds and facial movements” (DLKŽ 270). These verbs occur with emotional nouns and the preposition iš much less often than the synonyms of the verb verkti, e.g.: laughs with happiness, giggles with delight, guffaws out of exasperation. The boy’s peeling nose laughed with joy. MikelŽS 366. [Vytautas] he smiled with pleasure. VienR IV 56. Marcelė burst out laughing with joy. BorBM 41. These verbs occur much more frequently in phrases with concrete nouns and the preposition iš. A prepositional construction with this lexical composition has the meaning of source of action (object), while the verbs themselves mean ‘to mock’. I laughed bitterly at his advice. BorSPI 114. All the dogs laugh at your work. Ds. Don’t laugh at the old man—you’ll be like that yourself one day. Ktk. At such talk of his, Petras could have a good chuckle. Pžrl (LKŽ VI 663). It may be that some townspeople will also giggle at similar caricatures. LKŽ VI 767. The source meaning can also be expressed by a prepositional construction consisting of an emotional noun with a modifier, e.g.: laughs at his own misfortune, snickers at another’s failures. In the meaning ‘to mock’, the verb juoktis is also used in dialects with the instrumental case, which is synonymous with the construction using the preposition iš. Everyone laughs at me—they say I’m afraid even of a leaf. Jabl. Don’t laugh at him. Jabl. Day laughs at night’s work. Jabl. Examples of this usage are also found in old writings, e.g.: All who see me laugh at me. BBPs 22, 8. Verbs denoting physical states § 14. Most verbs in this group denote negative states and occur in constructions with the preposition iš, also formed with nouns expressing negative emotions. According to the nature of the state’s subject, the constructions mentioned fall into two groups. 1. One group consists of constructions with verbs denoting the states of a human being or another living creature (the entire organism). The subject of the state is expressed by the nominative of the corresponding nouns or pronouns, rarely by the accusative (Grief overcame her. Ktk). Soon, one after another, both parents died of grief. VienIMA 280. His beloved wife died of pity. BalčHP 109. She missed her homeland so much that she fell ill from longing. She took to her sickbed from great distress. That brother fainted beside her from pity. Do you want me to have a fit from getting upset? Čiurl (LKŽ VIII 104 692). I get stuck, I stammer from excitement. Avyž. I even began to tremble with fear. PaukštAK 59. Zenonas, trembling with rage, hissed through his teeth. PetkAA 362. Katrė even fell silent in horror. Myk-PutS I 146. I froze in place with fear. MarŽSG 10. But then she nearly froze with jealousy. Simon AšL 203. Less often, verbs from the semantic groups indicated are used in constructions with the preposition iš expressing a positive meaning. The mother seemed to have recovered completely from that happiness. ŽemR II 194. I’ll bring Zenonas such a coral that his pharmacist will melt with happiness. SirGAJ 163. Now he thought that she had died from all that joy. BsP IV 72. The snot-noses are overcome with joy. MikelžS 417. Young and old alike nearly burst with laughter. KrėvRg 87—88. Verbs denoting psychological states § 15. The construction with the preposition iš is used with verbs (or their combinations) denoting psychological states, e.g.: become confused, lose one’s mind, go mad, be stunned, be surprised, be astonished, lose one’s speech (composure, memory), forget, fail to understand, etc. I was almost stunned with amazement (trans.). Everyone was even stunned with vexation and indignation. Myk-PutS I 59. Rapolas simply went mad with happiness. Vaižg RR I 113. Fox Paw, crazed with fury, strode toward Ljokas (trans.). So her eyes would rejoice, give thanks, and laugh, wild with happiness. Avyž(P 1978 I 65). Troubles made him quite bewildered. Svn (LKŽ III 439). Hearing those words, she nearly went mad with anger. Balč. Jurgutis, from all that terror, grief, and remorse, completely lost his speech and could not utter a word. BorBM 118. Out of pride, he even forgot all the wrongs the new inner self had managed to inflict on the Sūdonis family. BorSVB 11. Elzė understood the ill-intentioned reproach made by a woman who, from vexation, had lost her sound judgment, and kept silent. PetkAA 430. He was blinded by joy and could not see the crude and harsh everyday world. BorSPI 145. From despair and dejection she herself could no longer work out what she was saying... PaukštAK 368. Here one may also include cases of use with syntactic idioms such as have nowhere to go, be unable to find a place for oneself and the like, denoting an active state of anxiety. Now he is so ashamed he doesn’t know where to hide his face. Jrb. I’m so restless I don’t know where to go. Ktk. Verbs denoting changes in facial color § 16. The construction with the preposition iš and nouns denoting strong emotions (e.g., anger, fright, agitation, shame) is often used with verbs denoting a change in a person's facial color, e.g.: to turn pale, blush, turn blue, darken, as well as to grow hot, burn, etc. The subject of the state expressed by the verbs in question is expressed by: a) nouns denoting the face or its parts: face: Faces turn pale with anger. Kp(LKŽ I 500). This is what I think to myself now, and just remembering it makes my face burn with shame. BilR I 62. Her little cheeks grew hot from great agitation. 105 cheeks: I felt so embarrassed that even my cheeks flushed with shame. Gud-Guz. forehead: His forehead grew moist from agitation. VendIGD 508. temples:A wave of warmth pierced my heart; my temple burned with joy. TilvRn 163. Cf. also: eyes:His eyes even turned green with such anger. Rm(LKŽ I 68). ears:Even his ears turned red with shame. Ktk. hair:Our hair turned white with shame. KrėvP 192; b) nouns (or personal pronouns) denoting persons (in this context the words mentioned are used metonymically—the whole stands for a part): Then that murderer turned as pale as a sheet with anger. LT IV 153. He turned completely pale with fright. Prng (LKŽ I 500). The lad grew pale with fear (trans.). Skardis was even blue with fury. Avyž. He was even black with anger as he shouted, Šk (LKŽ IV 412). Vaitas Radušis, green with vexation, interrupted the speech of Butrimas, the royal manor bailiff and the sub-elder's matchmaker, and showed him the gate. BorSVB 17. And as soon as Mother Sun sees it, she blushes like a fair maiden, overcome with great shame. KrėvP 10. — “Out!” shouted the doctor, red with anger. BorSPI 75. And once again I begin to sink—not into water, but burning with shame. BubnBV 192. The lexical combinations discussed with the preposition iš have synonymous combinations with the preposition nuo, e.g.: turned pale with fear | from fear, blushed with shame | from shame, turned black with anger | from anger. Verbs denoting the expression of the eyes § 17. The prepositional iš construction is used with verbs denoting an expression of the eyes (or face), which is an outward manifestation of emotions, e.g.: the eyes shine with joy, the eyes flashed with anger. Some of these verbs denote an indefinite duration (to shine, gleam, glow, beam, radiate, sparkle, glitter, glisten, blaze, burn), while others denote a definite duration (to flash, flare up, gleam, light up, catch fire, burst into flame, light up). When used with the prepositional iš construction, these verbs are associated with the noun eyes, less often face, or a word denoting a person. Even his eyes shone with joy. Myk-PutST 76. Agniška’s eyes flashed with joy. LzP. She was radiant with happiness. However, collocations of the lexical type under discussion with the preposition iš are rare. They are synonymous with more frequent collocations using the instrumental, cf. the eyes shone with joy / joyfully. The principal semantic feature of the causal instrumental is the simultaneity of cause and effect, or the non-discreteness of the cause. In this respect, the causal instrumental contrasts with other causal constructions. § 18. Like the prepositional iš construction, the causal instrumental is used with verbs denoting states, associated with the nouns: eyes:But the boy’s eyes suddenly flashed with anger. Myk-Put AŠ 318. Black eyes shone with rage. ŽemR I 86. His coal-black eyes burned with courage 106 and he looked around with pride. BilR I 48. Beneath Sylinas’s grey eyebrows, his eyes burned with anxiety and impatience. BaltRn 115. Ramūnas sees Sigitas’s eyes light up with curiosity. BubnBV 208. They were noticeably more expressive… or else sparkling with anger. BaltrL 115–116. Her eyes gleamed with the fairest serenity. Db (LKŽ I 745). gaze: She merely looked at Chuck with a gaze burning with hatred, fearing he might even notice that (tsp). face: The girl’s face shone with happiness and joy (tsp). Their faces, marked by hunger, shone with anxiety and suffering (trš). person: She was radiant with joy and happiness. Myk-PutAŠ 573. He burned with vengeance and showed them the way closer to the Dubysa. VienR IV 109. The elderly clergyman was aflame with anger (trans.). Rimdai saw this, burned with shame and could not contain his anger. VaizgRR I 17. § 19. The causal instrumental is used not only with expressions of the eyes (see § 17), but also with verbs denoting other manifestations of emotions, e.g.: the heart beats with joy. Like the prepositional iš construction, the causal instrumental is used with verbs denoting physical states, associated with the nouns: heart: His young heart beat with joy and solemnity. CvR₁ I 21. The heart fluttered with joy and fear. SluckDMN 283. Aras felt that his vitality was growing in his critical moment, that his heart was boiling with courage. KrėvP 248. The foster mother’s heart is breaking with pain. ŽemR I 105. And when he had said that we would set out, my heart began to ache with painful worry. SimonNTP 94. The heart trembled with vexation. ŽemR I 50. chest: The little chest shook with vengeance. SimonR I 368. His chest heaved with pain and deep sighs. ŽemR I 107. face: A painful suspicion had begun to arise in his heart, while his face began to swell with anger. KrėvP 188. Young faces burst with joy. KrėvP 168. mouth: Her mouth twisted in a savage fury. Myk-PutR VI 121. forehead: Her forehead flushed with pain and vexation… ŽemR I 127. lips: The lips trembled with anger for a long time; the son mocked and jeered. VaizgP₂ I 273. person: The shepherds melted with fear. VaizgRR I 431. Monika suddenly filled with compassion, burst into tears, and broke into laughter. CvŽM 89. The causal instrumental of emotional nouns is synonymous with the construction using the preposition iš ‘from’; cf.: eyes shine with anger | from anger, face glowed with happiness | from happiness, heart beats with joy | from joy, forehead blushed with pain | from pain, lips trembled with anger | from anger. The causal instrumental, like the construction using the preposition iš (cf. § 7), can be expanded by words that have (or acquire in context) a meaning of intensity or degree. Her bright eyes lit up with boundless joy. BorSPl 150. His eyes gleamed with uncontrollable joy in his freckled face. VendGD 282. I was struck by her wisdom and, I would say, by eyes radiating otherworldly joy. SajND 203. Irka’s eyes shone with indescribable happiness. ŠRagIT 262. His mouth twisted with savage fury. Myk-PutR VI 121. His eyes, full of feeling, shone with indescribable joy. BilR I 187. 107 Such instrumentals could be replaced by a construction with the preposition iš. However, substitution is impossible if the modifier of the instrumental expresses not quantity but an individualizing meaning. Now his eyes flashed with a strange severity. GrušK 42. He flushed; his eyes flashed with a new anger. PaukštK 119. His black eyes gleamed with peace of conscience… His face was positively burning with wicked joy. BaltPV I 120. Some combinations with the instrumental are fixed and semantically non-compositional, e.g.: the heart boils with courage, the heart beats with calmness, the heart was kindled with anger, the eyes burn with courage, the face swells with severity. If the specified instrumentals were replaced by constructions with the preposition iš, the expressions would sound rather artificial; cf. the heart boils from courage. § 20. Synonymous combinations with the construction using the preposition iš (a) and with the instrumental (b) are formed by the verb ne(si)tverti: a) She undresses and examines her once more, while the girl is beside herself with joy. CvR VI 46. Seeing Brisius get down, he could not contain himself with joy, jumping around and whining. BilR I 206. The son cannot contain himself with delight, while his mother weeps and worries about the daredevil. SimonR I 122. Robert Suopis was beside himself with happiness. Avyž (P 1978 2 58). b) The violets hung so comically from the eagle’s claws that the girl could not contain her joy. SluckGMN 361–362. K atrė could not contain her vexation. ŽemR I 95. — “To hell with the director!” Malvina burst out, unable to contain her anger, then suddenly caught herself and fell silent. BaltR I 102. I cannot contain myself with shame. Slnt (LKŽ III 194). On the way home, Ida could not contain her joy. SimonNTP 150. She eats and simply cannot contain her laughter—she is so happy. SimonNTP 22. — And Katrė, too, seems stubborn: she would shout and shout, unable to contain her anger, but she would not quarrel. ŽemR I 84. Analogous combinations are also formed with the verbs nesiliauti ‘not to cease’ and nenurimti ‘not to calm down’. The brothers likewise did not cease being vexed, not seeing an end to it and gaining no benefit. ŽemR I 285. T v and I do not stop joking. ŽemR I 22. After looking around the rooms, Peter, unable to quiet his vexation, truly began to scold his wife. ŽemR I 191. However, with the fixed expression ne(si)tverti savo kailyje ‘to be beside oneself’, only the preposition iš is used. I grabbed the whole loaf and, beside myself with joy, shouted… MikelŽS 429. Verbs denoting sounds § 21. The prepositional construction with iš also has a situational-cause meaning with verbs denoting sounds, e.g.: shouted with joy, squealed with anger. Such verbs can be contrasted according to whether their duration is definite or indefinite. Some have definite duration (to shriek, shout, squeak, give a short cry, call out, gasp), while others have indefinite duration (to scream, call, squeak, shrill; moan, wail, lament; growl, bark, moo) (of animals). These verbs are generally used with prepositional constructions with iš whose nouns denote strong and sudden emotions. 108 a) She was ready at any moment to cry out with joy. MikelŽS 26. The children even squealed with joy. Evikė let out a terrible shriek in fright. SimonOBT 48. The girl gasped in surprise. BorSPI 150. He almost cried out in astonishment. GrušRŠ 105. Rauskys squeaked—from shame, pain, and fear alike. SimonAŠL 104. b) It did not hurt; I screamed only out of fear. MašAMB 22. Jurgiukas ran up to him, squealing with joy. MikelŽS 430. The dog would whimper in fright. MškŽG 12. With verbs from the semantic group discussed (especially to moan and its synonyms to lament, gasp, sigh, wail / keen), the construction out of pain, from aches is often used. She writhes and wails from indescribable pain. SimonAŠL 169. At first she groaned with her teeth clenched, but now she cries out directly from unbearable aches. SimonAŠL 169. The nouns pain, aches belong to another semantic group; for more on their use, see § 27. Verbs Denoting Movements § 22. Emotions may be expressed through various movements. The construction with the preposition iš and verbs of movement has a situational-cause meaning. Having startled me, the girl stopped in the middle of the path in astonishment. MarŽŠG 156. The dog curled up in fear, hunched over, and moved farther away. KrėvRg 262. By nightfall I was ready and fidgeted with impatience, looking around. MikelŽS 451. Father had jumped up in anger, but then only waved his hand. BaltPV II 10. Having heard such a plan, Mother wrung her hands in despair. Myk-PutAŠ 482. When she saw Juozapota, she dropped the bundle in fright and broke into a run. BilR I 237. I am getting warm, but the pen falls from my hand in agitation. CvR₁ III 10. From the fright and haste, Kirtikienė bumped her forehead against the doorframe. BorSPI 160. In vexation, Visimanta chewed his mustache and beard. VienR IV 119. The little animal would even close its eyes from pleasure. MašMŽ 48. Constructions with Nouns Denoting Sensations § 23. The preposition iš also forms causal constructions with nouns denoting sensations, e.g.: iš skausmo, iš nuovargio, iš alkio, iš troškulio, iš šalčio. Nouns denoting sensations of pain (skausmas, sopė), organic sensations (alkis, troškulys), taste (saldumas, kartumas), and temperature (šaltis, šiluma) occur with the preposition iš. § 24. Constructions with nouns denoting sensations are used to indicate the cause of effects experienced both by people and by other living beings, e.g.: The man sighs, stretches his whole body, groans, and closes his eyes from pain. Dubn BV 222. Even the birds dozed in the thicket, their yellow beaks at first drooping from fatigue (trans.). 109 Constructions formed with nouns denoting sensations of temperature and temperature phenomena, however, are used to indicate the cause of effects experienced not only by living things but also by inanimate objects, e.g.: While jumping over the ditch, the girl fell in, got wet, and shivered from the cold. TarasP 29. The bricks and stoves glow with heat like a fiery steam room (trans.). § 25. Alongside the preposition iš, constructions with nouns denoting sensations, as with emotional nouns, occur with verbs (or verb phrases) expressing states and, less commonly, actions, e.g.: turned pale from pain, bites his fingers from pain. § 26. Unlike emotional nouns, most nouns denoting sensations are used to indicate cause with both the preposition iš and the preposition nuo, e.g.: iš skausmo / nuo skausmo, iš nuovargio / nuo nuovargio, iš bado / nuo bado, iš šalčio / nuo šalčio and so on. In some contexts, these constructions can replace one another (fainted from pain / from pain, died of hunger / from hunger, shivers from cold / from cold); in others, only the construction with the preposition iš is used (ate bark from hunger, surrendered into captivity from exhaustion). Nouns denoting sensations of pain § 27. The construction with the preposition iš and nouns denoting sensations of pain (skausmas, sopulys, sopė, skaudėjimas, sopėjimas, kančia, kentėjimas), in combinations with verbs denoting various states, is synonymous with constructions using the preposition nuo. He lost consciousness from pain (vert). He even fainted from pain. Dkš(LKŽ I 89). The horse galloped, seeing nothing, crazed with pain and fear. Šalt RD 97. A little bee stung me so badly that I nearly died of pain. Gž(LKŽ I 848). Everyone who was stung had to die from great agony. J. The ploughman fainted from a severe pain. BsP II 283. He was bent over from pain. Varn. The German beat with a whip the sick man, writhing with pain. SimonAŠL 30. The soldier’s pale face contorted as if from pain. LzP. However, in combinations with verbs denoting an active action, generally only the construction with the preposition iš is used. The horse shied sideways from pain, knocking down several infantrymen. ŠaltRD 97. He tilted his head back in pain and began to sing out, choking on smoke. ŠaltRD 114. From pain and rage he was almost grinding his teeth. VenclR II 454. At first she groaned, clenching her teeth, but now she cries out from unbearable agony. SimonAŠL 169. How shall I jump about, bawling from the pain! PietRR 294. He would cry out in a superhuman voice from his burns. BsV 133. They chewed their tongues from the burns. LKŽ IX 856. The noun skausmas (‘pain’) (and others), in the figurative sense of ‘grief’, is also more often used with the preposition iš (in this case they belong to the group of emotion nouns). Her eyes dimmed with tears; her heart was breaking from grief. Myk-PutR I 90. People thought that he had gone mad from great grief. KrėvP 103. He began drinking from his sufferings. Ktk. § 28. The construction with the preposition iš and the noun nuovargis. is very common. 110 Monika was almost dozing from exhaustion. CvR₁ V 76. Tylius babbled from exhaustion and the effort to stay awake. KatMAR 396. Kazytė fell silent from exhaustion. BaltPV II 287. Laurušas could barely stay on his feet from exhaustion. SirGAJ 244. The survivors returned to Ragainė, collapsing from exhaustion. TarasP 83. From exhaustion, his knees buckled in the snowdrifts of the Oryol region. SNėR I 357. Trude’s hands trembled from exhaustion. SimonP 252. With the specified noun, the preposition nuo ‘from’ is also possible. Probably from exhaustion, Žilys grows weak and begins to faint. PetkAA 467. From great fatigue, the hot weather, and a glass of vodka drunk aboard the ship, sleep overcame me. BalčGK 15. Reinholt’s body began to ache from terrible fatigue (trans.). The construction with the preposition nuo can always be replaced by the more common construction with the preposition iš. The construction nuo nuovargio ‘from exhaustion’ is apparently avoided because of the repetition of two identical syllables. Nouns denoting organic sensations § 29. The preposition iš forms causal constructions with nouns denoting organic sensations that arise from the need for nourishment (hunger, starvation, being hungry, being famished, fasting, thirst, being thirsty) or from its satisfaction (satiety, over-satiation, overeating, excessive drinking, eating too much). In combinations with verbs denoting states, such constructions are generally synonymous with constructions using the preposition nuo. Cf.: My children are hungry and sick from starvation. SimonP 118. People in the suburbs died of starvation—seeing it today makes one’s head spin. TilvRn 140. The dog died of starvation. Krkl(LKŽ₁ II 956). I am dying of thirst by the spring. VenclLL 229. Illness can set in from not eating. Jnšk(LKŽ VII 461). Liokas became dizzy from satiety and being unable to stand (trans.). The dogs, which had lain down and dozed beneath the table from overeating, suddenly sprang to their feet (trans.). Many of our brothers perished from starvation. Pn. From fasting, his head grew dizzy, his voice choked, and cold sweat stiffened his body (trans.). The sun was already nearly at the midpoint of the sky; foreheads grew dewy, and more than one person’s stomach began to rumble from hunger. Myk-PutS I 68. She was tired from the long journey, from hunger (trans.). You won’t die of such hunger, don’t be afraid. Grg(LKŽ₁ I 103). There’s nowhere to go anyway, what with the heat and the thirst. MikelŽS 413. The cow bloated from overeating. Rdm(LKŽ₁ II 1044). However, with verbs denoting active, voluntary actions, only the construction with the preposition iš is used. From hunger, I think I could swallow a stone (trans.). From hunger, even a dog eats curd cheese. Grg(LKŽ I 444). Even a dog chews a radish when hungry for its master. Jrb(PP 352). Feed them even bark, out of hunger. JablRR I 652. There is not yet any pasture for the livestock, and from hunger, you know, they might start gnawing. Srv(LKŽ III 531). This construction is also used in generalized impersonal nominal sentences. 111 Even curds are delicious when one is hungry. Vlk(LKŽ I 444). When hungry, bread with honey is delicious. Mk (LKŽ I 444). After starving, one’s health is gone, even for the time being. Dr(LKŽ I 445). § 30. Nouns denoting taste sensations may conditionally also be assigned to the nouns denoting organic sensations: sweetness, bitterness, saltiness, sourness (psychology distinguishes the corresponding kinds of taste sensations), sliminess, astringency, as well as deliciousness, tastiness. Nouns of general meaning deliciousness, tastiness are used to denote cause with the preposition iš (from). It’s so delicious you could tear your ears off. Sb(LKŽ III 123). It was so delicious he nearly rubbed himself raw—one can see he wanted to eat. Ktk. It’s so delicious you could swallow your tongue. Sdk. You’ll bite your tongue from tastiness. Krš(LKŽ XII 739). Nouns denoting specific taste sensations (depending on context) may occur with the preposition iš (from) (a), or with nuo (from) (b). a) You can’t eat radishes because of the bitterness. Ktk. At last, snoring, the priest nearly swallowed his tongue from the sweetness of that sleep. BorBM 16. b) I oversalted the soup. Even my tongue is burning from the saltiness. Ktk. Tears spring from the sourness. Ktk. My heart grew faint from the sweetness. J. Their little one curled up, Untaniukas, even gaping from the sweetness of his first sleep. Balt. Nouns denoting temperature phenomena § 31. Nouns denoting temperature phenomena (and the sensations reflecting them) fall into two groups: some denote warmth (warmth, warmness, warming, overheating, heat, hotness, blazing heat, heating, overheating, as well as stuffiness, drought, dryness), others cold (cold, coldness, catching cold, as well as coolness, dampness). Noun constructions from these semantic groups with the preposition iš (from) are used to denote the cause of effects experienced not only by living (a), but also by inanimate (b) things. a) Steponas was very cold and began to cry when he arrived. ŠRagIT 71. They trembled from the cold and wailed piteously. BorSPl 104. The pantagė flowers fall off from that cold. Rt. Many illnesses arise from catching cold. Klvr. I can hardly walk at all; perhaps it’s from the warmth. JnšM. The daughter-in-law is pale from the fevers of illness. J. b) The day quivers from the heat. SkliuAŠ 60. The crops perished from the blazing heat. Pc(LKŽ IV 160). The wild rose flowers withered from those heatwaves. Šts(LKŽ III 277). Somewhere else there was another crack, as if there had been an explosion from overheating just before ignition. ŽemR II 420. All the seedlings are drying up from the dryness. Pc. The leaves turned pale from the dampness. BP II 406. § 32. However, nouns denoting temperature phenomena (and related phenomena) are more often used with the preposition nuo (from) in both cases—to indicate the cause of effects experienced by living (a) and inanimate (b) things. a) The little mole trembled from the cold. ŽemR I 207. He chattered his teeth from the cold. LankKS 69. Karvelė shook her whiskers from the cold. ŽemR I 56. Hands grow numb from the cold. Grš(LKŽ III 651). Though the legs are red, they are numb from the cold—you have to endure it. ŽemR II 95. I have known for a long time that my nose turns blue from the cold. MikelžŠ 223. Nug (Nuo) little growths appeared under the jaw from catching cold. Vlk (LKŽ IX 713). Chills shake Laurynas from dampness and cold. BilR I 68. 112 Exhausted by the heat, the hens were sprawled in the garden beneath the currant bushes, their wings outstretched. MikelŽS 35. Her lips were parched from the heat. Dgl. The heat has made the person completely weak; they can hardly even walk. Skr(LKŽ III 407). b) The whole windowpane cracked from the cold. Ds(LKŽ I 39). The water froze into ice from the cold. PietRR 273. The trees crack from the cold. J. The windows are coated with frost from the damp. Grg. The little plant, withered on the ground and shriveled, seems weakened by the heat. ŽemR II 420. The roofs shimmer from the heat. Dkš(LKŽ VIII 250). Even the sturdy wormwood plants, too, are drooping from the heat. BaltR I 240. The entire upper crust of the bread cracked from the heat. Mrj(LKŽ I 39). The leaves of the trees wilted from the scorching heat. Brt(LKŽ III 408). All the implements withered from the drought. Trg § 33. Constructions with the preposition iš formed with nouns denoting temperature phenomena (they usually occur with verbs of state or their combinations) can always be replaced by constructions with the preposition nuo. However, the latter cannot always be replaced by constructions with the preposition iš: the context may prevent this. Some usage tendencies of the compared constructions can be identified. 1. Constructions with the preposition nuo can more readily be replaced by constructions with the preposition iš in contexts describing the states of living beings (see § 32 a), and less readily (or not at all) in contexts describing the states of inanimate things (cf. § 32 b). 2. The preposition nuo cannot be replaced by the preposition iš in constructions whose noun has a modifier that individualizes or specifies its meaning (not a quantitative modifier!), e.g.: Andrius Gražulis was shivering from the chill before dawn. VenclR II 30. Here and there, pinewoods catch fire from the summer heat, and the pastures turn red. SimonAŠL 75. Her chest heaved and her lips cracked from internal heat and tension. KatMAR 122. § 34. In dialects (a) and the language of fiction (b), nouns denoting sensations are also used in the instrumental case (without a preposition) to mark cause. a) I can’t bear the pain—let me scream! Py. All day long I shivered with cold. Prn. She walks, bristling with cold, half-naked. Vlkj. The mother died of hunger and cold. Ktk. His whole head is burning with fever. Vkš (LKŽ V 326). I’ve become so tired from that heat. Rs(LKŽ V 83). Don’t speak of hunger when Father died of starvation. Šd(LKŽ I 444). What can that dog do? It could die of starvation. Iñšk(LKŽ, II 956). b) She fell across the bed, her head bursting with pain and fever, buried in the pillow. ŽemR I 73. Trembling all over with cold and hunger, she moved on. BalčAP 39. Brood that have died of starvation can be identified. Krišč. His face and hands burned as if from a hundred cuts and scratches. Balt. In literary language, the causal instrumental has a limited range of use (see Rasimavičius 1965). It can be replaced by the more frequent constructions with the prepositions iš or nuo; cf. sprogsta skausmu | iš skausmo | nuo skausmo, dreba šalčiu | iš šalčio | nuo šalčio, mirė badu | iš bado | nuo bado. This yields a synonym series of as many as three members. 113 Kiti daiktavardžiai § 35. The causal meaning, used to mark cause, is also expressed with certain nouns denoting physical attributes of living beings (a) or inanimate objects (b). Most constructions occur with the noun old age and its morphological variants (oldness, senility, age). a) Some of them died of old age, while others were claimed by the sea. LankKS 42. He is not yet bent over from old age. Jrb(LKŽ XII 394). There were also those who could barely drag their limbs, trembled all over, and could no longer hold up their heads because of age. VienR V 172. Weakened by age. Š. The woman can hardly walk because of her corpulence. Ktk. I am white from loveliness, red from beauty. JV 132. b) The little house is stooped from decrepit old age. SimonOBT 54–55. Its forest is covered with slime from age. Ds(LKŽ III 420). The doors are warped from age. J. The little apple tree does not bloom because it is young. Ktk. The trees stand wet and silent. Only from the weight pressing upon them do they sway from side to side. ŠeinVVK 65. The old man has put on his Sunday shoes, and they gleam so brightly they crackle. Vlk(LKŽ I 763). § 36. However, nouns from the semantic groups listed above are more often used with the preposition from: a) In that little hut there is an old woman, so old that her head is already shaking from age. Brt (LKŽ XII 410). His knees have begun to buckle from old age. Vvr. My teeth fell out from the fever. Varn. Her skirt has slipped down, her hair has come loose, and her cheeks are so red they seem about to burst. PaukštT 157. b) The granary opposite the house still stood untouched, with carved doors darkened by age. BaltPV II 27. The walls of the sitting room yellowed with age and peeled. Piet. There are manuscripts so aged they have even turned to stone (trš). This collar is bony, yellow with age. Balt. His beard is hoary with whiteness. Skp. § 37. Like nouns denoting sensations, nouns of the semantic type under discussion are also used in the instrumental case to mark cause. He was no longer able to manage because of age. Šb. When flour has been scalded, it smells stale. Pc (LKŽ XII 410). I am no weaver by age; she is young, and there is no one to weave. Her children have all died of old age. Haška ran in, her cheeks bursting with red, bringing the scent of snow and a chill (trans.). She cannot walk because of her corpulence. Prn. These instrumental forms can also be replaced by prepositional constructions. GENERALIZED CAUSE § 38. Prepositional constructions with iš are used to denote the cause of not only involuntary but also voluntary actions or states, cf. trembles from the cold (1) and declined the support out of modesty (2). We called the meaning of the former constructions situational cause, while that of the latter we will call non-situational, or generalized, cause. Prepositional constructions with iš expressing situational cause describe elementary, uncomplicated situations, generally accessible to empirical perception. Constructions expressing generalized cause, on the other hand, reflect more complex situations 114 in which causal relations are established through acts of logical reasoning. Constructions with a generalized meaning may also differ in their lexical composition from constructions expressing situational cause. Constructions with nouns denoting character traits § 39. Cause constructions expressing the meaning of cause are formed with nouns denoting a person's character (spiritual) traits, e.g.: iš modesty, greed, curiosity, gullibility. The nouns in this semantic group differ from emotion and sensation nouns in one important semantic feature that distinguishes the causal meaning of prepositional constructions with iš: character traits are relatively stable attributes of a person (emotions and sensations are temporary, changeable, episodic attributes). The cause denoted by constructions with nouns expressing character traits is not exhausted by a single specific consequence—the same trait may also cause other consequences. In this sense, the cause denoted by constructions with the specified lexical composition is generalized, not situational (i.e. it extends beyond the bounds of the specific situation being described). For example, in the utterance helps out of friendliness, the noun denotes a trait of friendliness that may manifest itself not only in the act of helping, but in other ways as well. § 40. Prepositional constructions with iš containing nouns denoting character traits have a defined sphere of use: they occur with verbs or verb phrases denoting voluntary actions (a) or states (b). a) [Barbora] At least you could say hello out of politeness! SruogR IV 434. Now and then, out of silliness, in summer... he would dash across the town. CvR VI 272. I began to take revenge out of spite. SruogR IV 474. Out of fear, he will not even be able to go outside. Gs(LKŽ I 463). Out of such power, he treated the poor fellow so cruelly. Lnkv(LKŽ III 486). Circus trainers, out of clumsiness or lack of skill, or perhaps out of bad habit, still pierce elephants' ears with hooks. MašMŽ 94. b) If we are silent out of politeness, people say that we are cowardly. SimonVK I 338. It was only out of caution that we wanted weapons! LKŽ I 344. Duke Vytautas sat at the feast only out of politeness. VienR IV 338. Constructions with nouns expressing emotions § 41. Constructions with the preposition iš formed with emotional nouns are used to denote the cause of not only involuntary but also voluntary actions or states; compare: turned pale from fright (1) and came out of respect (2). The first phrase (1) denotes an emotion and its manifestation; the relation between them is automatic, without any effort of will on the subject’s part. The latter phrase (2), by contrast, expresses a voluntary action and an emotion as its logical motive, which the subject perceives and is conscious of. On the basis of the emotion experienced, the subject first makes a decision in their mind to perform a certain action. In this sense, the causal relation is established at the level of logical reasoning and, accordingly, the cause is generalized. Constructions with the preposition iš are used to denote the cause of voluntary actions or states, generally formed with nouns expressing enduring emotions (feelings) of indefinite duration 115 nouns expressing [these relations], e.g.: love, respect, trust, attachment, contempt, hatred, pity, compassion, etc. These are the so-called nouns of emotional relations (cf. Russian Васильев 1981, 108–122). § 42. Constructions of the preposition iš with emotional nouns are also used with verbs or verb phrases denoting both voluntary actions (a) and states (b). a) Out of love he built a palace for her at the edge of our village. VienIMA 118. He came here out of great respect (translation). Julė spies on him out of jealousy. Myk-PutAŠ 415. Out of concern I fed the horse; out of pity I saddled it beautifully. JD 473. b) Only out of love, out of fondness, the young lady stands by the side. Krč. Others maintained that the name had been chosen out of respect for our sister. SakAP 131. Phrases with verbs of speaking are common, both emotional and neutral. Having overheard those words spoken out of resentment, Baltaragis was somehow pleased. BorBM, 9. So that the crowd of enemies, slandering out of spite, would not defame my dear name with rumors. MairRR I 139. The others criticized her out of envy. Jrb(LKŽ IX 687). § 43. Nouns denoting either a trait or emotions of longer duration (see § 39) are also used to indicate cause with the preposition dėl, which is the main means of expressing generalized cause. Constructions with this preposition may be synonymous with constructions using the preposition iš. Compare: The inhabitants of this not-too-large town, some out of hostility, others simply dėl immodesty, follow him (translation). Because of his boorishness, he felt no embarrassment anywhere and did not control his behavior. Myk-PutS I 30. This is wrong, because it encourages children to behave well not out of inner conviction, but in expectation of a reward (tsp). This is always what happens dėl absent-mindedness! BalČAP 232. Because of his neglect, he became so impoverished. And(LKG III 86). § 44. On the other hand, constructions with the preposition iš may have synonymous constructions with the preposition per. Compare: But the neighbor did not give anything because of his stinginess, knowing that the woman would have nothing to repay him with. Šmk. Through carelessness with that pipe, he nearly burned down the house. Gs. Because of your greed, you can’t even eat a proper meal. Varn. Plačiau apie prielinksnį per žr. aut. 1977, 155 tt. SUMMARY REMARKS § 45. 1. The preposition iš is used to describe the motivation for a person’s (or another living being’s) actions or states in terms of their own internal characteristics—emotions, traits, or sensations. 2. The causal meaning of the preposition iš is discrete, i.e. clearly distinguished from its other meanings. 3. The semantic structure of the causal meaning of the preposition iš is isomorphic to the spatial meaning of the same preposition. 4. The principal semantic feature of the causal meaning of the preposition iš is the internal character of the cause. In terms of this feature, it forms a privative opposition with other causal prepositions, as its positively marked member (see § 113). 116 5. The use of the preposition iš in its causal meaning is strictly governed by the semantics of the dependent noun: the causal meaning is realized in constructions with nouns denoting emotions, character traits, or sensations. 6. The verbs that denote a person’s (or another living being’s) actions or states, and some adjectives, constitute the environment in which the constructions themselves function. On the other hand, these constructions are often associated not with a single word, but with a group of words or an entire sentence. 7. Constructions with the preposition iš may stand in synonymous relations with other causal constructions: a) constructions with the preposition iš formed with nouns denoting sensations are synonymous with constructions using the preposition nuo (see § 26 ff.); b) constructions with the preposition iš formed with nouns denoting emotions, in combinations with verbs denoting eye expression (more rarely, other verbs), are synonymous with the instrumental case (see § 17); c) constructions with the preposition iš and nouns denoting permanent characteristics may have synonymous counterparts among constructions with the preposition dėl (see § 43); d) in particular cases, constructions with the preposition iš may be synonymous with constructions using the preposition per (see § 44). PREPOSITION NUO GENERAL REMARKS § 46. The preposition nuo is one of the principal prepositions of cause. Its causal meaning, like that of the preposition iš, is derivative. The derivational nature of this meaning is reflected in its isomorphism with the spatial meaning. We shall attempt to show concretely how the semantic structure of the causal meaning of the preposition nuo corresponds to the structure of its spatial meaning. This preposition, like iš, in its spatial meaning indicates the initial point of an action (a shared feature), but differs from the latter preposition in the initial position of the located objects, the point of departure of the action, or its orientational meaning7. Let us take two phrases with the preposition nuo and represent its meaning formally: 1) The fork (A) fell (C) from the table (B) [(A on the surface of B) – initial point C] and 2) The person (A) comes (C) from the forest (B) [(A near B) – initial point C]. As we can see, the preposition nuo has two orientational meanings: in one case it indicates external contact between objects (1), in the other it does not establish contact between objects (2) (cf. Russian Никитина 1979, 120). § 47. The principal semantic component of the causal meaning of the preposition nuo is its (the cause’s) external nature. A cause is called external when it consists of a phenomenon extraneous (i.e., external) to the subject of the consequence, for example: 1) The windows (A) shattered (C) from the impact (B) [(Sub. (B) ≠ A, i.e., the subject of the cause is not- 7 Dėl orientacinės reikšmės termino žr. Kilius 1977, 40. 117 tampa su pasekmės subjektu, plg. Никитина 1976, 122] arba to paties subjekto išorinis požymis, pvz.: 2) Vaikas (A) pavargo (C) nuo lakstymo (B) (kur Sub. (B)=A). Kiekviena šių prielinksnių nuo priežasties konstrukcijų koreliuoja su skirtingomis to paties prielinksnio erdvės reikšmės konstrukcijomis. Konstrukcijos, reiškiančios priežasties santykius tarp skirtingų subjektų požymių (1), atitinka erdvės reikšmės konstrukcijas, žyminčias nekontaktinę lokalizuojamų daiktų padėtį, plg.: Langai (A) išbyrėjo (C) nuo trenk­smo (B) (kur Sub. (B) ≠ A) ir Žmogus (A) ateina (C) nuo miško (B) (kur B nekontaktuoja su A). O konstrukcijos, reiškiančios priežasties santykius tarp to paties subjekto požymių, koreliuoja su erdvės konstrukcijomis, žyminčiomis kontaktinę daiktų padėtį, plg.: Vaikas (A) pavargo (C) nuo lakstymo (B) (kur Sub. (B) = A) ir Šakutė (A) nukrito (C) nuo stalo (B) (kur B kontaktuoja su A). § 48. The causal preposition nuo serves a fairly broad denotative sphere: it can mark causal relations between: 1) phenomena of the external (with respect to humans) world (The water glistens from the sun), 2) human attributes and phenomena of the external world (his feet became wet from the dew), and 3) individual human attributes (The child became tired from running around). The latter (3) microfield of use of the preposition nuo adjoins (borders on) the sphere of use of the preposition iš: both mark the motivation of a person’s actions or states (consequence) by their own states or actions (cause), cf.: The child became tired from running around and Mother fell ill from grief. The compared phrases differ from one another in one significant structural feature—the meaning of the noun in the prepositional construction: the noun in a construction with the preposition nuo denotes an external action, whereas with the preposition iš it denotes an internal state. Thus, the prepositions mentioned are distributed correspondingly across the sphere of human activity. The preposition iš is used to mark a cause consisting of the subject’s internal attributes, whereas the preposition nuo marks the subject’s external attributes. LEXICAL COMPOSITION OF CONSTRUCTIONS § 49. The use of the preposition nuo in its causal meaning is almost unrestricted with respect to the dependent noun. This preposition forms causal constructions with both concrete and abstract nouns, for example: My hands have become slimy from fish. Tvr; Horses deteriorate from ploughing. Kvr. The indicated semantic features of nouns (concreteness and abstractness) have differential significance for the construction with the preposition nuo. Linguistic literature has noted that concrete nouns are semantically insufficient for marking cause (see Попова 1956, 76). They indicate one of the most important components of the cause (for the speaker), usually an object closely associated with the real (direct) cause. In other words, concrete nouns reveal the cause incompletely, inadequately, not in its entirety. Causal constructions with this lexical composition, both with the preposition nuo and with other prepositions (dėl, per, už), are associated with a broader context from which the real, direct cause becomes clear. We shall call a cause expressed by prepositional constructions with concrete nouns indirect (its opposite is the direct cause, which is expressed by abstract nouns). 118 THE CONTEXTS OF CONSTRUCTION USE § 50. As already noted, the lexical composition of the causal constructions with the preposition nuo, unlike that of the preposition iš (see § 6), is varied and indefinite: they are formed with both abstract and concrete nouns, cf.: My legs already hurt from running. In Gs and O the earth thundered all around from the horses’ hooves. BorBM 114. Therefore, the causal meaning of these constructions emerges not from their lexical composition (as in the case of the preposition iš), but from the phrase or sentence. Causal constructions with the preposition nuo are used with verbs (or their combinations) denoting states or changes in them (Ice glistens from the sun; The horse grew tired from plowing), and spontaneous actions (The windows shattered from the impact). Henceforth, we will provisionally call both types state verbs, in opposition to verbs of voluntary action. The preposition in question is also used with some qualitative adjectives (wet from the rain, red from rowan berries). § 51. Unlike the preposition nuo, the preposition iš in constructions with verbs of voluntary, active action does not have a purely causal meaning (cf. Russian, Запорина 1961, 66). In certain cases it can express purpose with a causal nuance. They covered themselves with animal skins against frost and foul weather. Dauk. They smeared their hands with fat to prevent cracking. Ktk. Drink [this] stone remedy to prevent rupture. Užn(LKŽ I 79). The hut’s roof was covered with shingles, sheet metal, and straw, and braced against the wind with long poles. Cv R₁ I 304. She had stopped by our place to shelter from the rain. Lnkv. Because of the mole, they sometimes stick a herring’s head into the burrow, sometimes pour in kerosene. Imb(LKŽ VIII 899). Even the vegetable garden was left open; only the cucumbers were fenced off with twigs to protect them from the hens. Sluck GMN 103. That these combinations have a purposive meaning is shown by the possible paraphrases into subordinate purpose clauses, cf. They smeared their hands with fat to prevent cracking and Smear your hands with fat so that they do not crack or: The cucumbers were fenced off with twigs to protect them from the hens and The cucumbers were fenced off with twigs so that they would be protected from the hens. DIRECT CAUSE § 52. From a logical point of view, a cause is a property (its opposite is a thing, an object). Therefore, a cause denoted by words expressing properties can also be called direct. As already mentioned, the preposition nuo forms causal constructions with nouns denoting actions (grew tired from reading), states (became hunched from sitting), and properties (turned yellow from age). Such constructions have a direct causal meaning (its opposite is indirect cause). Constructions with the preposition nuo expressing direct cause divide into two groups according to whether the subject of the cause coincides with the subject of the consequence. The subject is the same § 53. The preposition nuo is used to mark causal relations between separate attributes of the same subject, e.g.: The child is tired from running (cf. the child was tired and the child ran). Depending on the nature of the subject, these constructions are of two kinds. 119 1. Constructions marking the cause of states or processes involving living things: The runner’s nose began to bleed from running for a long time. Btg(LKŽ I 717). The blister burst from walking. Dkš(LKŽ IX 366). His eyes swelled from crying. Ktk. Hands grow hard from work. Slm. From reading aloud for a long time, even the throat gets hoarse. Užv(LKŽ IX 429). The wheat-colored cheeks flushed from a pleasant smile. BaltPV I 154. From sitting in the office, he had become somewhat hunched at the shoulders. VencLGD 92. 2. Constructions marking the cause of states or processes involving inanimate things:The board wore down from lying around for a long time. Ktk. From being tied, it (the scarf) stretched considerably. VaižgRR I 103. The cardboard checkerboard is already worn from long and frequent use. CvR I 271. The clogs split from being jolted. Dkš(LKŽ IX 200). The constructions discussed are formed with nouns denoting external attributes. (The preposition iš is not possible with such nouns.) § 54. The preposition nuo (and not iš!) is used with nouns denoting processes or results of thought and perception: from reflection, from thinking, from thoughts, from dreams. At that thought I began to tremble as if with a fever. MikelŽS 183. Those thoughts made him grow thin and pale; he never again showed anyone a cheerful face. BilR I 232. She was tired from the memories. DovDĮN 68. From deep reflection, her gaze becomes fixed. GrušK 119. From listening for a long time, a ringing and roaring began in my ears. PietRR I 43. § 55. The preposition nuo is also used in a “non-native” environment: with nouns denoting inner states—usually emotions. The preposition in question was found used with the following nouns⁸: fear: Everyone turned pale from fear. Šn. One can become ill from fright. Ktk. fright: Ona is ill from fright. CvR₁ II 47. The poor old man went home, trembling all over with fright and wiping the sweat from his face. PietRR 43. His breath was caught by fright and tears. BilR I 163. Having done this, he froze in place from fright. LzPR II 105. happiness: Živilė watched herself from the outside in astonishment and fainted from happiness. MikelKLL 174. Then, intoxicated with happiness, she revealed her secret. Avyž. anger (fury): Poderis left together with Kazimieras, his face darkened with anger, gritting his teeth. BaltPV I 320. The vodka he had drunk earlier, and his anger—which had seized him so suddenly—made his head spin even more. KrėvRg 211. And so the dogs strained in every direction, rattling their heavy chains and choking with fury. BaltPV I 155. agitation: The agitation even began to give him a headache (cf.). Our lady faints at the slightest agitation. Varn(LKŽ I 89). Red blotches appeared on her cheeks from agitation. SluckGMN 236. distress: His head went bald from all sorts of worries. Up(LKŽ VI 600). laughter: I nearly died laughing. Jnšk(LKŽ VIII 899). shame: Even his ears turned red from shame. Dkš. 8The material available to us is not exhaustive. 120 The constructions with the specified lexical composition headed by the preposition nuo can be replaced (if syntactic circumstances do not prevent this) by constructions with the preposition iš, which are more common and typical; cf.: t r e m b l e from fear | with fear, from fright | with fright, from agitation | with agitation; b r e a t h e with difficulty from agitation | with agitation, from anger (fury, rage) | with anger (fury, rage), t u r n r e d from shame (embarrassment) | with shame (embarrassment). One contextual restriction on such substitution is the presence of the pronoun savo ‘one’s own’ in the noun phrase of a nuo construction, e.g.: From the vodka he had drunk earlier and from his own anger, which had suddenly seized him, his head began to spin even more. KrėvRg 211. The preposition nuo can be replaced by iš only if the pronoun is eliminated; cf. from one’s own anger = from anger. Different subjects § 56. Depending on the meaning of the noun, direct-cause constructions with the preposition nuo, which denote causal relations between properties of different subjects, can be divided into two more distinct groups. Constructions with nouns denoting properties § 57. The noun in constructions with the preposition nuo may denote: a) Striking, touching, or similar actions: The girl staggered from the painful blow and recoiled. VenclR II 203. My whole face ached and burned from the blows. BaltPV II 441. The iron gangway vibrates from footsteps. SluckGMN 13. The cat shivered from being stroked the wrong way. Cf. also: These glances made him uncomfortable. LankKS 91. At that look, we both jumped to our feet. BaltPV I 215. The forest scents made my head swim. Ktk. b) Sound-producing actions and sounds: Veronika flinched at every rustle of an object, at every crackle of a twig in the room. VienR I 173. Rokas started at that crash. LankKS 78. The whole bridge shook with laughter. KatMAR 243. The table bends and creaks; plates jump from the din. CvR VI 122. The noise, shouting, and laughter made it seem as though all the Tekonis’ houses would collapse. BaltPV I 24. The windowpanes were still vibrating from the explosions, whose echoes reached all the way here. LankKS 69. Constructions with nouns of speech and information also belong to the latter group. At these words, Jondas straightens up as if struck with a whip. BaltPV I 45. My heart sinks from those harsh little words. Dkš (LKŽ I 89). Saliamutė even gaped at their talk, struck speechless. BaltPV I 307. And from your vengeful, black lies, old wounds in our souls open again. Myk-PutR I 314. The children were frightened by those tales and are now afraid even to go outside. Gs(LKŽ, I 568). 121 c) States, qualities, events, or other facts: It used to be even harder for Jurgis because of Elena’s smile. VenclGD 10. Rokas felt sad because of his nephew’s such unfeigned kindness. MikelKLL 437. Other people’s troubles don’t give you a headache. LMD. When the breeze blew, tree branches broke under the weight of the snow. MG 1978 10 7. § 58. In constructions formed with the preposition nuo and nouns denoting sounds (cf. § 57b), when used with verbs of sound propagation (to ring, resound, echo, reverberate, etc.), the instrumental case is synonymous. Cf.: The bushes ring with songs. SNėrR I 71. Now the whole neighbourhood resounded with shouts, clapping, and calls. Myk-PutS T 68. The forest reverberated with birdsong. KatMAR 162. The whole Paduliukonys yard echoed with dogs barking, Paduliukonienė’s squealing… BaltPV I 105. They all laughed and frolicked, and were so cheerful that the whole grove rang with their laughter and talk. VienIMA 129. On the other hand, with the verbs indicated, both the instrumental case of concrete nouns and a prepositional construction can be used synonymously. Cf.: The hollow resounded with whistles that the children had made from strips of peeling willow bark. CvR II 408. The forest reverberated with birdsong. KatMAR 172. The nouns in these constructions denote sources of sounds. The use of the instrumental case is stylistically marked: it occurs in the language of fiction. § 59. Constructions with the preposition nuo and nouns denoting qualities (see § 57) can be expanded by adding a genitive expressing the subject. Tuktus started at Skirgaila’s sharp, unpleasant laughter. VenclR II 432. Saliamutė was so taken aback by their talk that she gaped, lost for words. BaltPV I 307. Constructions with nouns denoting natural phenomena § 60. Constructions with nouns denoting natural phenomena (such as wind, cold, heat, rain, dampness) express cause directly and sufficiently, without support from context. The fields opened up; trees and tall grasses swayed in the wind. CvR V 77. The post creaked in the wind like a gramophone, so it could even be heard at our place. Lš(LKŽ III 512). The road softened from the rain—it was hard to travel. Trs(LKŽ III 424). The cloak got damp from the night dew. BaltPV I 65–66. Half the village perished in the fire. Grž. The sky grew hot from the embers; the fire sites glowed fiercely. SNėrR I 316. The cut grass wilts at once in the sun. Brt(LKŽ III 408). Hands crack from the cold. Ut. He walked, trembling from the cold and damp. VenclR II 257. The lindens are scorched by the heat. Dgl. 122 § 61. Constructions nuo šalčio, nuo karščio, nuo kaitros, nuo šilumos, nuo sausros, nuo drėgmės are synonymous with the corresponding constructions with the preposition iš (see § 31). § 62. In certain contexts, the inessive case of some nouns denoting natural phenomena can also have a shade of causal meaning. In such heat, even the freshest meat can go off. SirGAJ 89. In such scorching heat, you can get baked during the day. Sdk(LKŽ V 82). In summer heat, everyone is somewhat limp. Kp(LKŽ III 407). I’m coming back half-naked; I caught an illness in the cold. The child was left outdoors, frozen in the winter cold. Nm. He dug a circular ditch around the long heaps of potatoes, dried out in the sun and wind… BaltPV II 521. The inessive forms in these expressions can be replaced by constructions with the preposition nuo, cf. can go off in the heat | from the heat, can get baked in the scorching heat | from the scorching heat, limp in the heat | from the heat, caught an illness in the cold | from the cold, dried out in the wind | from the wind. This raises the question: what is the semantic relationship between the forms being compared? Can they be regarded as synonymous? Relying on linguistic intuition, one can argue that the phrases formed with the indicated forms convey the same denotative situation. However, in each case it is construed somewhat differently: the inessive emphasizes the processual nature of the phenomenon it denotes, whereas the construction with the preposition nuo represents the same phenomenon as a boundary, as a point of departure. The syntactic meaning of the construction with the preposition nuo is clear and homogeneous (unitary)—it denotes pure cause (without additional shades of meaning). The meaning of the inessive, by contrast, is nonhomogeneous: it denotes time⁹ with an additional shade of causal meaning¹⁰. This latter semantic feature is determined by the nature of the context¹¹—the inessive itself is not a special means of expressing cause. Therefore, the inessive forms of the nouns indicated can conditionally be called contextual synonyms of the construction with the preposition nuo (their opposite would be systemic synonyms). (The possibility of substituting these forms for one another allows them to be considered synonymous.) § 63. The locative form saulėje (‘in the sun’) (a) and the construction prieš saulę (‘against the sun’) (b) can likewise acquire a shade of causal meaning in certain contexts and function as contextual synonyms of the construction nuo saulės (‘from the sun’) (c). Cf.: a) The day grew late, and his back was burning in the sun. BaltPV II 420. The rakes shone in the sun like gold. ŠRagSD 60. The town lay immersed in its gardens, with the church’s tin roof glittering in the sun. CvR₁ II 28. Shovels and saws gleamed in the sun, 9 By tradition, the inessive meaning of the nouns indicated and similar ones is called temporal or locative (see Laigonaitė 11). In fact, it is a distinct semantic category for which we have no suitable term. The meaning of such forms can be identified by asking: under what circumstances? In Russian linguistics, the term обстоятельство is used for this purpose. However, this term is ambiguous. 10 The possibility of replacing the inessive with an explicit causal construction indicates that it has a shade of causal meaning; cf.: withered in the heat | from the heat. 11 In the examples cited, the inessive occurs in the same lexical environment as the causal constructions with the preposition nuo, that is, with verbs denoting states. However, if the context changes, the inessive loses its shade of causal meaning, e.g.: left in the heat (when?), stands in the cold (where?). 123 the mountains moved closer to the river. TilvRn 111. The shards of glass caught the sunlight and the windows flamed, beckoning from afar. CvR₁ II 18. b) The windmills flash in the sun like fish. AvyžKK 409. The shirts steamed in the sun. MikelLE 40. Singing in a wondrous little voice, he flew upward, shimmering in the sun and sparkling like precious stones. The water glitters in the sun. ŠRagSD 110. Dkš(LKŽ₁ I 934). c) The fields gleamed from the sun. Rs. The ice is thawing from the sun. J. The cut grass soon wilts from the sun. Brt(LKŽ III 408). The blue cloth soon fades from the sun. Rm(LKŽ₁ I 950). § 64. A causal nuance may also be conveyed by temporal constructions with the preposition per, formed with nouns denoting natural phenomena and used in contexts analogous to those of constructions with the preposition nuo. Cf.: Many trees perished during the frosts. LKŽ III 277. They froze during the frosts. Everyone gets worn out during heat waves. Dkš. Gs. The crops dried up during the drought. The hay rotted in the rain. Tr(LKŽ V 575). Ktk. The constructions mentioned can be replaced by constructions with the preposition nuo without substantially changing the informational content, e.g.: perished during the frosts / from the frosts. The compared expressions convey the same denotative situation, but with different emphases (cf. § 62). § 65. Some temporal constructions with the preposition nuo may also serve as contextual synonyms of constructions with the preposition po. After the rain, the road stretched out. LankKS 90. After the rain there was a great flood: the river even inundated the meadows. Vy(LKŽ IX 378). After the rain, the barley lies flat. Trgn(LKŽ IX 601). After the frost, all the leaves drooped. After so much blood loss, he had turned completely pale. After his illness, the man was utterly wasted, just skin and bones. Pakrosnis glanced at the clock and, as if tired after a long journey, sank heavily into the chair. Ah, how exhausted I feel after all those silly jokes. After each opponent's shot, he would blink fearfully. After the house was whitewashed, the crickets disappeared. Vkš(LKŽ VI 211). Nmn(LKŽ I 718). Jnš(LKŽ I 561). MikelŽS 112. Ak, Myk-PutAŠ 368. Vaižg. Grg(LKŽ I 615). The constructions with the preposition po mentioned above can be replaced by constructions with the preposition nuo, cf.: stretched out after the rain / from the rain, wasted away after an illness / from an illness, etc. The compared expressions differ from one another in certain semantic nuances: expressions with the preposition po describe a sequence of two phenomena, one of which brings about the other by its very nature, whereas those with the preposition nuo denote the direct connection between the phenomena. INDIRECT CAUSE § 66. As already mentioned (§ 49), constructions with the preposition nuo formed with concrete nouns have the meaning of an indirect cause, e.g.: Hands blackened from potatoes; The shelf sagged from books. The causal meaning of this preposition nuo construction emerges in the word combination (whereas the direct cause is sufficiently evident from the lexical composition of the construction itself; see § 52 ff.). On the other hand, constructions with the preposition nuo denoting an indirect cause are also related to a context broader than the word combination, from which the direct cause of the state becomes clear. 124 Constructions with the preposition nuo denoting an indirect cause are also related to a context broader than the word combination, from which the direct cause of the state becomes clear. Constructions with the preposition nuo in the causal sense, formed with concrete nouns, are structurally incomplete, elliptical. Their full structure can be reconstructed from the context (or the speech situation), e.g.: He peels potatoes every day. His hands blackened from potatoes (peeling); His mouth turned bitter from the radish (bitterness); The shelf sagged from books (weight). In causal constructions with the preposition nuo the concrete noun is used metonymically. Depending on the type of metonymy, these constructions are of several kinds. Their noun may denote: 1) an object in place of an action: Hands blackened from potatoes (peeling) (cf. to peel potatoes), 2) an instrument in place of an action: It hurts more from the tongue (lashing) (cf. to lash with the tongue), rather than from the whip. LTs V 287; 3) a place in place of an action: He fell ill from the lake (cf. to bathe in the lake). Ktk; 4) an object in place of a quality: The forest turns red from viburnum (redness); 5) an object in place of a quantity: The table bends under the food (abundance). However, constructions with the preposition nuo formed with concrete nouns modified by an attribute denoting a relevant property of the object already have the meaning of a direct cause, i.e. they indicate the entire cause and require no contextual support. My head was spinning from the wine I had drunk. VienIMA 203. The settlers’ cattle, weakened by poor fodder, could not pull the ploughs. CvR II 414. The soul aches so, the body stings from bayonets thrusting in. The room lay in twilight, perhaps because of the many flowers blocking the windows. The throat turns bitter from an overgrown radish, too. One rotten apple spoils a sound one. CvR II 236. Pg. Tsk(LKŽ X 1126). § 67. Constructions with the preposition nuo and concrete nouns can denote causes of states in both living beings and inanimate objects. 1. Constructions denoting causes of states in living beings. The medicine did not relieve Veronika at all. VienR I 170. No one has ever fallen ill from a belt. Goslings get very sleepy from poppy leaves. Ds(LKŽ, I 28). My hands are sticky from handling fish. Tvr(LKŽ III 424). My palms are hardened from the rake. Slm(LKŽ V 762). Those berries leave a bitter taste at the back of my throat. Št(LKŽ I 37). His face is flushed from wine, and his lips are moist from melting snowflakes. Lank KS 143. Running water makes the hair smooth. Vdžg. 2. Constructions denoting causes of states in inanimate objects. The noun in these constructions is usually plural and can be expanded by a word denoting abundance (quantity). Before Advent the roads were rutted from carts (abundance). CvR I 42. The shelf bends under the books. Ktk. His jacket pockets are always sagging under the colored pebbles. Pillars of dust stood on the highway from the continual passing of vehicles. BaltPV I 11. PietR II 120. Besides the plural form of the noun, the quantity of objects can also be expressed by additional lexical means. 125 The tables were breaking at Kaniava under the weight of pork and turnips, which were piled high on the table without any dish. VaizgRR I 284. Constructions with the same meaning can also be formed with the singular genitive of nouns denoting a substance or a collection of things, e.g.: The roof is bending under the snow; The hall was roaring with young people. § 68. A separate group consists of word combinations with verbs or adjectives denoting colors (or other visual properties, such as shine, gleam, or glow) and constructions with the preposition from, whose nouns denote things possessing the same property as that denoted by the verb, e.g.: the cherry tree is white with blossoms. These combinations have a distinctive semantic structure. They express the “transfer” of one thing’s property to another thing (cf. Russian Финкель 1962, 12). That spring the cherry trees were white with blossoms, as they are with snow in winter. Maš MB 141. The fields are white with white clover. Prk(LKŽ I 623). Propped-up apple-tree branches were red and yellow with the apples weighing them down. LKŽ V 734. In the old days all the rye would turn red with poppies. Ds(LKŽ I 29). The orchards turned red with guelder-roses and rowan berries. JD 855. The slopes along the Nemunas turned blue with violets (trš). The earth was mottled with berries and mushrooms. BilR I 107. The hillside is red with rowan berries and guelder-roses. JD 929. The fields are yellow with dandelions. Ktk. The instrumental constructions are synonymous with these. The plum and cherry trees are white with blossoms. BM 422. The hills are yellow with ripening grain. KorsPj 57. The wall was mottled with papers. BaltPV II 432. She remembered how, on the night of Milda’s festival, the whole lakeshore lit up with bonfires. VienLP 11. At last the little room turned blue all over with smoke. LzP. This year is a good one for berries—the blueberry bushes are positively blue with berries. Lel(LKŽ VII 1034). The latter combinations are more vivid and characteristic of literary language (see Pupkis 1980, 146). Their instrumental case cannot always be replaced by a construction with the preposition from, cf.: As dusk fell, the sky shimmered with stars. SNėrR I 281. The green grass is mottled with daffodils, SNėr. The sea grew mottled with white sails (tsp). Many people ran with lanterns, and soon the whole threshing barn was mottled with lights, flashing with flames. Balč. Once, the smoke-blackened walls gleamed… their newly framed windows glistening. Balt Rn 143. Constructions with the preposition from used with adjectives cannot be replaced by the instrumental, cf. The cherry trees are white with blossoms / white with blossoms, and The cherry trees are white from the blossoms, but not *blossoms. GENERAL REMARKS § 69. 1. The causal meaning of the preposition nuo is derived from its spatial meaning and is isomorphic with the latter. 2. The principal distinctive feature of the causal meaning of the preposition nuo is its external character, its externality. On this basis, it forms an opposition with the preposition iš, as its positively marked member. 126 3. According to the completeness of causal expression, constructions with the preposition nuo are divided into those with direct and indirect meanings. On this basis, they form a privative opposition with the preposition iš as its unmarked member (the latter preposition has a direct causal meaning). 4. The use of the preposition nuo with a causal meaning (unlike the preposition iš) is almost unrestricted with respect to the dependent noun (the noun may be not only abstract but also concrete). 5. The constructions themselves are used with verbs denoting states and spontaneous actions (of both animate and inanimate entities), and with some adjectives. However, in a position with verbs denoting deliberate, active actions, constructions with the preposition nuo do not have a causal meaning. 6. Constructions with the preposition nuo describe two kinds of situations: causal relations between separate properties of the same subject, and relations between different subjects. Situations of the first type overlap with the sphere of use of the preposition iš. These prepositions may be synonymous. 7. Constructions with the preposition nuo formed with nouns denoting sensations and natural phenomena are synonymous with constructions with the preposition iš (see § 26, 61). These prepositions are also sometimes used synonymously with emotional nouns (see § 55). 8. In certain cases, constructions with the preposition nuo are synonymous with the instrumental case (see § 68). PREPOSITION DĖL GENERAL NOTES § 70. The preposition dėl (its longer form dėlei is also occasionally used prepositionally) is one of the few primary prepositions that do not have a concrete—spatial—meaning. Its semantic structure consists of abstract meanings, among which the following are distinguished in our linguistic works: cause (was upset because of the failure), purpose (came for the book), object-related (discussed the trip), and concessive (one can go despite such rain) (see LKG 1971, 590; DLKŽ₁ 1972, 112). The indicated meanings are very close: they share a common semantic feature that may provisionally be called a “logical basis”12. A logical basis is established through processes of reasoning, rather than by direct observation (as is a situational cause). § 71. The meanings of constructions with the preposition dėl are not always clearly distinct from one another. There are instances of usage in which it is difficult to say which meaning the construction under discussion should be assigned to. Therefore, we will briefly discuss all the meanings of the preposition dėl here and attempt to establish their boundaries. 12 Kai kur bendroji prielinksnio dėl reikšmė vadinama „priežastingumu“ (žr. LKM 1976, 216). Tačiau šis terminas nėra labai parankus, nes taip vadinama atskira prielinksnio dėl reikšmė, antra, priežastingumo semą sunku įžiūrėti objektinėje reikšmėje, plg.: kalbėjo dėl knygų leidimo. 127 OBJEKTINĖ REIKŠMĖ § 72. Constructions with the preposition dėl are used with verbs of information, speaking, and thought, and denote content13, e.g.: discussed the trip, made excuses for not coming. However, this use of the construction is limited, since the primary means of expressing content is the construction with the preposition apie , e.g.: talked about books, told about the meeting. The domains of use of the compared constructions partly overlap. But there are several verbs that require only the preposition dėl. § 73. Combinations with the preposition dėl construction. The construction with the preposition dėl is regularly used with the following verbs of speaking: tartis, derėtis, lygtis, teisintis, aiškintis and their prefixed derivatives (pasitarti, susitarti). The lexical composition of the construction itself varies: its noun can be concrete or abstract, e.g.: discussed the land, the sale. 1. Combinations of the verbs tartis, susitarti, pasitarti with dėl and: a) with concrete nouns: Surely we’ll discuss the food separately? Baltr TK I 36. All that remained was to agree on the weapons and clothes. MašNA 54. The peasants need only to reach an agreement with the landlord about the land to be bought out. Myk-PutS 325. We’ll agree on the wages—I won’t cheat you. PaukštJ 260. I came specifically to discuss the forest. Šil. b) with abstract nouns: Justukas and Vytukas had already gone to bed, but were still discussing the next day’s expeditions and tasks. MašAMB 101. Vytautas and the knight Griežė discussed for a long time the strengthening of the castles along the Nemunas. VienR IV 207. He discussed with Sakalauskas the lending of a plough, over the most trivial thing. CvR II 331. It was agreed to float timber down the Nemunas (rš). Combinations of the indicated verbs with dėl and concrete nouns are semantically incomplete; they can be expanded on the basis of the broader context. Nouns with generalized meanings, klausimas, reikalas , are used with the indicated verbs in the instrumental case, which is extended in this position. There was enough time both for the young people to enjoy themselves and for the old castle and military commanders to confer with Kęstutis on matters of defending Žemaitija. TarasP 215. When the men began discussing military affairs, the two women, having set up thick candles, withdrew. VienR IV 44. These constructions are characteristic of written language. They can be transformed into constructions with the preposition dėl , cf.: discussed military affairs — discussed the war, conferred on matters of defense — conferred on defense. 2. Combinations of the verbs aiškintis, pasiaiškinti, išsiaiškinti with dėl and: a) with concrete nouns: And some young man was explaining himself about the bundle that had gone missing from the manor library. Gud-GuzKĮT 378. And he knew how to explain himself about Andriukas, too. MašAMB 371. But we never did get to the bottom of the letter! Paukšt NS 81. 13 Content is one of the object-related meanings. 128 b) with abstract nouns: Radušis had even to explain himself in Vilnius over the alleged wrongs done to the city. BorSVB 16. And I have to explain myself to Mr. Janavičius over all your little songs… BielDG 126. 3. Combinations of the verbs teisintis, pasiteisinti, išsiteisinti with dėl and: a) with concrete nouns: He is just what the Order’s policy needs—to justify itself later to foreign knights for the people killed unjustly. VienR IV 155. b) with abstract nouns: She could not justify herself on the grounds of cleanliness. Vaižg RR I 73. He is mistaken—and sincerely so; painfully, he had to recognize his errors, not justify himself for them (the errors) solely by the spirit of the times or by other circumstances. TLR II 255. 4. The verbs derėtis, lygtis form combinations with the preposition dėl construction: He negotiated for a long time over the price. LankKS 30. They haggled so much over the ruble—the whole lot warmed up and broke into a sweat. Krš. Father was always so strict with the workers… he would bargain over every cent. PaukštNS 125. Non-reflexive prefixed verbs suderėti, sulgyti form combinations both with the accusative (a) and with the dėl construction (b): a) The man bargained for a kid goat and bought it. SNėr. Did you strike a deal for the horse yesterday? Trgn. b) They finally reached an agreement over the sale of the homestead and the relocation of the buildings to the roadside from the government plot. MikelKLL 115. They reached an agreement on the price, the payment, and the working conditions. DLKŽ¹ 769. If we agree just over the salary, you won’t regret coming to me. PaukštJ 67. The compared combinations (see a, b) differ both lexically and semantically: in combinations with the accusative, the noun is concrete and denotes a direct object (bargained for a kid goat), whereas in combinations with the preposition dėl it is abstract and denotes a generalized object (reached an agreement over the sale). The latter combinations cannot be transformed into combinations with the accusative (cf. *reached an agreement the sale). § 74. Combinations with constructions involving the prepositions dėl and apie: The construction with the preposition dėl occurs with such verbs of speaking, communicating information, and thinking as commonly take the construction with the preposition apie. The contrasting constructions may differ in certain semantic nuances. 1. The construction with the preposition dėl is used to denote an object of narrower information, whereas the construction with the preposition apie denotes an object of broader, more detailed information. Cf.: As for the appearance of books, I would say that we need to establish at least several types of books. Myk-PutR VIII 37. It is true that he also liked beautiful women—we shall not discuss their intelligence; that is a secondary matter. Vencl GD 34. And as for Wilson, in whose idealism he once believed blindly, Sinclair states… The distinction between translated words and words formed within the Lithuanian language should be considered (editor’s note). It is possible and necessary to respond in good time to reproaches made by certain critics. VenclLI 181. Myk-Put R VIII 59. Much has been said, over a long period, about publishing world classics in Lithuanian. Vencl LL 76. Should he himself not also think more about tomorrow? VenclGD 42. 5. 120 129 However, the indicated difference between constructions with the preposition dėl and those with apie is not very pronounced. Constructions with dėl can be replaced by constructions with the broader-meaning preposition apie; the latter are also possible in contexts conveying limited information. I said a few words about those pictures (/about the pictures). ŽemR III 116. It also occurred to me then, those words that I had heard from her when I asked about that money. BilR I 212. Another time he would also mention the small plots of land belonging to the smallholders. VienR V 102. The sixth-grade teacher had just warned her pupils about the danger lurking on the ice (tsp). 2. The construction with the preposition dėl is used to provide information about matters concerning the subject that have not yet been realized and are anticipated. We will have to discuss Vasaris’s characterization separately. Myk-PutR VIII 72. Rodenai, have you thought about the doors for our planned Museum of Decorative Arts (vert). But soon he had to reflect not so much on his own future as on the children’s. VencIGD 13. Perhaps I should go ahead and ask about the seller’s location? PaukštJ 41. 3. This construction is also used with the infinitive of verbs of information, indicating purpose. Kaikaris met Veronika’s father in the town, treated him to vodka, and invited him to come and talk about his daughter. VienAS 69. We sent selected village men to the gentleman to talk about the forest. Jnšk (LKŽ IX 420). 4. The choice of the preposition dėl may be determined by the generalized meaning of the noun (cf. § 87). Second, this personal experience may have made Maironis more sensitive and prompted him to speak more clearly about one circumstance of public political life. ZabM 398. I would be very pleased if our writers in particular were to speak more extensively in the press about the issues I have raised here. VencILL 62. § 75. The meaning of constructions with the preposition dėl used with neutral verbs of speaking and informing is objective. This is also confirmed by their possible synonymy with constructions using the preposition apie, whose meaning is unequivocal; cf.: spoke about books and about books. The meanings of these constructions differ in certain semantic nuances: a construction with the preposition apie indicates an object of broader information (i.e., an object discussed from various angles), whereas a construction with the preposition dėl indicates an object of narrower information (i.e., an object usually discussed from a single perspective). However, in constructions with emotional verbs of speaking, the meaning of constructions with the preposition dėl is to be regarded as causal, e.g.: quarreled over trifles. § 76. Combinations with constructions using the preposition dėl and with the instrumental case. Some verbs form parallel combinations with constructions using the preposition dėl and with the instrumental case, e.g.: doubts his friends, doubted the future; cares for the children, worried about his health. Combinations of the verb abejoti (and its derivatives suabejoti, paabejoti) with a construction using the preposition dėl (a) and with the instrumental case (b). a) He had no doubts about the Samogitians—they had always been loyal to him. VienR IV 50. I had doubted the future more than once. Ndž. One may have doubts about 130 the evaluation of another linguistic phenomenon (tsp). There was no doubt about Skrodskis’s dishonorable intentions. Myk-PutR VI 420. b) No one has reason to doubt the professors’ objectivity. VencLLL 110. He had even doubted Vincas’s sincerity, goodwill, and desire to fight. Mikel KLL 234. Doubting one’s abilities demobilizes a person. DLKŽ 3. 2. The verbs rūpintis, susirūpinti, pasirūpinti form constructions with dėl (‘about/for’) (a), and with the instrumental case (b). a) The son cannot contain his joy, while his mother weeps and worries about the rascal. SimonR I 122. Alfonsas became concerned about his wife and began to be jealous of her. The Teutonic Knights became concerned not only about their horses, but also about their lives. And he became seriously concerned about her frequent rides with Murza. GrušK 123. b) I can’t; I’m looking after the house. Kps(LKŽ XI 995). He takes care of the old monuments. Všv. Don’t worry about me, my little sister, my young lad, my swift steed. BsO 191. Bees take care of the cleanliness of the hive (trš). The marshal himself also became concerned about that noise. VienR IV 145. Pšemickis became concerned by the news he had heard from the steward. Myk-Put. § 77. Constructions with the preposition dėl and the verbs listed above are characteristic of written language and can be replaced by the instrumental case; compare doubts about the Samogitians | doubts the Samogitians, doubted his sincerity | doubted his sincerity, cares about his son | cares for his son, became concerned about the rides | became concerned by the rides. A difference in meaning can also be discerned between constructions formed with specific nouns and the corresponding instrumental forms. A construction with the preposition dėl indicates that the object of the action is not so much the thing itself as matters related to it (as becomes clear from the context), whereas the instrumental refers only to the thing itself; compare: became concerned about the horses (about the danger threatening them) and takes care of the horses (the horses themselves), did not doubt the Samogitians (the people themselves). The construction with the preposition dėl is readily used with prefixed verbs; compare: had some doubts about the evaluation (but not: the evaluation), became concerned about the drought. PURPOSE MEANING § 78. The construction with the preposition dėl has a purpose meaning in combinations with verbs denoting active, deliberate actions, e.g.: came for the maiden, fights for freedom, drank for courage, works for bread, lives for the children (for a fuller discussion, see LKG 1976, 87). Such combinations can be transformed into complex sentences of purpose; compare: came for the maiden→came so that he could see the maiden, drank for courage→drank so that he would feel braver | be braver. CAUSAL MEANING § 79. As already mentioned, the preposition dėl belongs to the so-called abstract prepositions—it has no concrete spatial meaning. Its causal meaning differs from the corresponding meanings of the prepositions iš and nuo in its degree of abstractness. The prepositions iš and nuo describe causal relations among real-world phenomena established at the stage of empirical perception, whereas the preposition dėl denotes causal relations established through acts of thought (on the basis of 5• 131 available knowledge rather than direct observation), cf.: The tree bent from the wind and The stars appear small because of the great distances. Thus, the prepositions mentioned are used to describe the results of different levels of thought: the prepositions iš and nuo serve the stage of empirical perception, while the preposition dėl serves the stage of rational (abstract) thought. (Of course, this opposition is not symmetrical.) The prepositions iš and nuo generally denote causal relations between separate, elementary phenomena accessible to empirical perception, whereas the preposition dėl denotes relations between complex phenomena, sometimes even entire situations. These causal prepositions are distributed across speech styles accordingly. The preposition iš is characteristic of literary style, while the preposition dėl is characteristic of the language of scholarly literature. The preposition nuo may be considered stylistically unmarked. § 80. We called the causal meaning of the prepositions iš and nuo situational (they are used to describe elementary, concrete situations, usually perceived through the senses); the causal meaning of the preposition dėl, by contrast, may be called generalized: it is used to describe broad situations and the results of intellectual activity. § 81. The lexical-syntactic environment in which the preposition dėl functions has distinctive features that set it apart from the usage of other causal prepositions. Lexical composition of constructions § 82. The generalized character of the meaning of the preposition dėl is reflected in its choice of dependent noun. Unlike other prepositions, it is used with nouns of more general, broader meaning, cf.: because of a bad mood and out of grief. § 83. The preposition dėl is the only Lithuanian causal preposition that forms a construction with the noun priežastis ‘reason’, which has categorical meaning, i.e. denotes a genus concept14. This possibility shows that the preposition dėl has a highly generalized and indistinct causal meaning, which serves to strengthen or emphasize (cf. Russian по, Finkel 1962, 20). In constructions with the preposition dėl, the noun priežastis is always modified by other words, e.g.: for this reason, for a minor reason, for several reasons. Without a modifier, the construction mentioned would be semantically deficient, cf. *for a reason. It is precisely the presence of a modifier that prevents this construction from becoming lexicalized (cf. Russian по причине Finkel 1962a). The noun priežastis in the construction mentioned can be modified by agreeing words: adjectives (for a serious reason), participles (for unknown reasons), pronouns (for these reasons), numerals (for two reasons), or be governed by words expressing quantity (for hundreds of reasons, for many reasons). According to the nature of the modifier’s meaning, the constructions listed can be divided into several groups. 1. Constructions with modifiers having a qualitative (characterizing) meaning—adjectives, participles, and pronouns (e.g., some kind of, some). Mindaugas renounced Christianity not for religious but for political reasons. JurgIP 276. This poetry—the poetry of decadence, of ideological impoverishment—tu- 14 Dėl kategorijos ir giminės sąvokų žr. ФЛ 1977, 30. 132 had to fail even for formal reasons. VencLL 287. For easily guessed reasons, the duke ordered Lithuanians and Prussians to pray and learn to read Scripture in their native language. JurgIP 309. 2. Constructions with words expressing quantity, e.g.: for several (a few, a dozen or so) reasons, for three reasons, for both reasons. Beets owe their popularity to several reasons: they are easy to grow and keep until the next harvest, and they are tasty and nutritious (tsp). This could have happened for many reasons. 3. Constructions with pronouns are particularly common: demonstrative (this, that, that very, such, just such), indefinite (another, different), and interrogative-relative (what, several). For that reason, you often see them in the preschools, rummaging in rubbish… IvanLP III 90. For these reasons, Daukantas, like his colleagues, struggled to complete Daugirdas’s philosophy course. MerkSD 75. He left his job for other reasons (tsp). In studying Lithuania’s history, S. Daukantas seeks to discover why the nation, having carried out deeds in the past renowned for their heroism and created a great, powerful state, diminished and weakened over time, becoming a nation of despised and enslaved serfs. ŽabM 57. Constructions with this lexical composition (i.e., expanded by pronouns) are less informative than constructions expanded by words expressing qualification (see 1)—the pronouns do not make the meaning of the noun reasons more specific, but only connect it semantically with the context, from which its actual content becomes clear. In general, constructions for that reason (for those reasons), for this reason (for these reasons), etc., are equivalent in meaning to the construction with a single pronoun for that, while the construction for what reason (for what reasons) is equivalent to the construction for what (see § 85). § 84. The preposition dėl forms a commonly used construction with the genitive of the demonstrative pronoun tas—dėl to (“for that reason”). The pronoun in this construction has an anaphoric, generalized referential meaning, as does the neuter form tai (Valeckienė 1974, 56). The construction dėl to (more precisely, its pronoun to) usually stands in for not a single word, but a broader context—a clause in a complex sentence, an entire sentence or group of sentences, or a paragraph, e.g.: I transferred the farm to you because you are my eldest son and the most diligent of all the others. SimonVK I 144. She likes to make fun of my swimming style. Sometimes that makes me angry and hurt. MikelŽS 403. The use of this construction is unrestricted with respect to its lexical environment (it can occur in sentences on a wide variety of topics), but is syntactically constrained. Three structural functions can be distinguished. 1. The construction dėl to functions as a connective in causal-resultative coordinate sentences (see LKG 1976, 775). The Noreikai live together harmoniously at home, and for that reason the whole village respects them. Myk-PutS I 33. It froze a little before dawn, and for that reason the ice crackled dryly underfoot now. BaltPV I 162. He is dressed and bundled up, and for that reason he is not even cold. Šmk. It can connect separate, independent sentences in an analogous relationship as well. In this case, it usually occurs at the beginning of the sentence and only rarely in the middle. 6. 120 133 After all, that feeling was still entirely new, unfamiliar. For this reason, it was experienced in the way that love can be experienced only by the young. ZabM 139. Tadukas felt as though he had found a beautiful object in a dream, but when he awoke, it was gone. He felt sad because of this. MikelŽS 426. For this reason, today it is already quite easy for him to remember. SimonVK I 18. In its very mode of representation, the naturalistic description thus coincides with a fatally menacing suggestiveness. SaukTSV 313. 2. The construction dėl to is used after certain conjunctions and helps express semantic relations between the clauses they connect. It performs this function: a) Sudedamojo sujungimo padarinio sakiniuose su jungtuku ir (žr. LKG 1976, 737) arba vientisiniuose sakiniuose su vienarūšiais tariniais, sujungtais tuo pačiu jungtuku. The sensitive responsiveness of a child’s soul to dramatic events is felt in almost every ballad, and for this reason the whole poem becomes an epic not only of the nation but also of the individual. LanktMDT 61. It was very slippery, and so we had to walk carefully. Ktk. This man performed the task entrusted to him and thereby earned even greater trust from the people. Myk-PutR VIII 612. But he did not make it home; on the way, he fell into a ditch. He could no longer get out and so cried for help. SimonVK I 188. b) Gretinamojo sujungimo nuolaidos sakiniuose su jungtuku bet (žr. LKG 1976, 763) arba vientisiniuose sakiniuose su vienarūšiais tariniais, sujungtais tuo pačiu jungtuku. It is true, Jarmala destroyed my child and ruined my life, but that is no reason for me to be so foolish as to light a fire. CvR V 211. Today his words came true, but that did not make things any easier. CvR II 158. He sees nature’s changes and diversity clearly, but does not take sentimental pride in this. KubJJ 24. c) In subordinate clauses, after the conjunctions although, that. Her rapprochement with the progressive Lithuanian intelligentsia… did not diminish Žemaitė’s folk character, although as a result she did move somewhat away from village life. Myk-PutR VIII 295. If he notices her when he comes back, let him notice; but she will not show that she is very glad about it. Paukšt ČMN 138. In all the cases discussed, the actual content of the construction dėl to is revealed by the context preceding it. 3. In causal or purposive subordinate clauses, the aforementioned construction functions as the correlative of the conjunction kad (see LKG 1976, 865, 888). He no longer wanted to keep us at his house because every morning we found a gold coin under our pillow. BalčBG 157. Kedulis was inclined to agree with Stašys for the sole reason that he hated anything new. Myk-PutS I 41. That is why I fed the little black lamb, so that it would be beautiful. JV 389. The content of constructions functioning as correlatives is revealed by the context that follows them—that is, by the subordinate clause. The construction dėl to is the most abstract of all constructions with this preposition. Its usage is therefore very broad: it helps express causal relations between clauses (or sentences), which may reflect situations of varying degrees of complexity. 134 § 85. The preposition dėl forms a construction with the pronoun kas – dėl ko, indicating an unknown or indefinite cause. This construction is used: 1. In direct-question sentences. – Why are you always so sad, Father? LT III 243. It may correlate with the corresponding construction in an answer sentence, cf.: Because... 2. In subordinate clauses of indirect questions (where it serves a connective function and acts as an adverbial of cause in the subordinate clause, as it does in a direct-question sentence). 1) Apparently, they do not understand why a man is keeping watch here beneath the huge clock. Mikel ŽS 110. 2) Then tell me frankly why our army is not advancing... forward? Gud-GuzKIT 635. These sentences are explanatory: their subordinate clause supplements the meaning of the head word in the main clause, occupying the positions of the corresponding cases (the nominative in sentence (1), the accusative in sentence (2); see LKG 1976, 812 ff.). The construction dėl ko may also be used in sentences whose subordinate clause occupies the position of a causal construction. 3) My mother and my old father scolded me, because of which the blackberries are dew-covered. VienažII 120. 4) Ignotas was angry because the steward did everything without explaining anything to him. Gud-GuzKIT 174. In these sentences, the construction mentioned above has, in addition to the previously indicated causal function (see examples 1, 2), another function: it expresses causal relations between the clauses of the complex sentence. The main clause denotes the consequence, while the subordinate clause denotes the cause. (The latter clause, taken separately, also denotes a causal situation, which in turn may serve as a component of another causal situation.) § 86. The causal construction dėl ko may indicate context, just like dėl to¹⁵. Meanwhile, it turned out that Vilkas of Šalteikiai had been elected chairman, which greatly surprised many of the people of Šalteikiai. SimonVK I 63. That is why he was fretting and could not forgive himself. CvR II 157. § 87. Only the preposition dėl forms causal constructions with nouns of general meaning such as: circumstance, condition, situation, feature, characteristic, attribute, character, manner, nature, form, content, time, lack, excess, attitude, function, etc. Moreover, in the specified position such nouns are always expanded by other structurally necessary words—attributive modifiers that agree (a) or do not agree (b) with them. a) In the 19th century, our literary life was generally too weak because of many unfavorable historical circumstances... ZabM 442. Because of its geographical position, Lithuania could not remain an isolated area, like northern Europe. SaukTSV 47. Because of these features, purpose clauses are close to clauses of functional subordination. LKG III 884. Because of this characteristic, many peoples gave the nightingale an appropriate name. IvanLP III 48. Because of their higher mental functions, they quickly become accustomed to captivity 15 Dėl įvardžio kas santykio su įvardžiu tai (tas) žr. Valeckienė 1976, 69 tt. 6* 135 with people and the whole environment. IvanLP III 73. In view of the great benefit woodpeckers provide to forestry by eating many tree pests, the damage mentioned is insignificant. IvanLP III 45. b) But, solely because of the nature of its subject, the poem cannot be classified among works of the historical genre. ZabM 105. Look, the production of various souvenirs is delayed because of a shortage of materials (tsp). Because of my character flaws, I cannot live this way. TLR II 228. As can be seen from the examples given, constructions of the specified lexical composition are used in sentences conveying broad information. § 88. In general, the use of the preposition dėl with respect to the dependent noun is unrestricted. It forms causal constructions with abstract nouns of various semantics (a) and concrete nouns (b). a) I couldn't raise my eyes all evening because of my brother's pranks. Užp. Because of my parents' inertia, because of the prejudices of ignorant fanatics, I renounced the most beautiful feeling—love. VienR I 255. Because of its tame nature and trustfulness, the tit often ends up in human hands. IvanLP III 227. He couldn't manage to tell what had happened, solely because he was short of breath. TreinTK 150. This situation arose not only because of past mistakes, but also because of chaos and strikes (tsp). Because of its day-to-day relevance, journalism is not as long-lived as fiction. JurgĮP 278. The poem is unforgettable because of its contrasts (vert). An excess of words in a sentence results from the frequent use of verbal nouns (trš). b) He was restless all the time because of the manuscripts left in Anykščiai. VienĮMA 228. These giants became famous above all for their horns. SakAP 71. In winter, such thickets were impassable because of the deep snow; in summer, they were impossible to get through because of the bogs and marshes. VienR IV 13. Finally, he cannot even put in an appearance as a father because of the police. Myk-PutR VI 425. — “No,” the parents replied, “I don't want another such suitor, one who abandoned me because of his horses.” BorBM 119. Constructions with personal pronouns are also common. Because of you, even your father's gray hair will be mocked!.. PetrR I 187. I gave her the tears she shed because of you. BalčBG 355. Our daily bread is so bitter that you don't even spare your own happiness because of it. Myk-PutR I 315. As for the sentences given, it may be said that their preposition dėl cannot be replaced by other causal prepositions. This demonstrates the distinctive nature of its usage. § 89. We shall try to indicate how constructions with the preposition dėl relate to constructions with the prepositions iš and nuo. 1. As already noted, the use of the preposition iš is restricted with respect to the dependent noun: it forms constructions with nouns denoting emotions (see § 12 ff.), sensations (see § 23 ff.), and character traits (see § 39). With nouns from the last semantic group, the preposition dėl is used more often (and only rarely with the others). 1) He managed to make his way among people only because of his great abilities and extraordinary diligence. MerkSD 97. 2) Because of his extraordinary learning, he quickly became famous. AvižAI 54. 3) However, because of his ideological limitations, the poet expressed those moods only in the broadest terms. Lank tM-P 282. 4) True, the superstitious, fantastic po- 136 Attitudes toward animals caused by people’s ignorance persist in everyday life for a long time. LT III 11. 5) Then the king gave him his youngest daughter, who, out of love for her father, did not want to resist. BalčBG 259. In these sentences the preposition iš ‘from’ is impossible because of their generalized content, and in some (e.g. 1, 2) also because of the lexical meaning of the noun itself: the use of the preposition in question with nouns belonging to the specified semantic group is limited. 2. Only the preposition dėl ‘because of’ is used to describe a situation in which the cause and consequence have different subjects. In this case, the degree to which the consequence is generalized is irrelevant: it may be either specific (episodic) or generalized. I left, too, because of his indifference. Sv(LKŽ I 15). Her son could not save her because of jealousy (she was jealous). Tt. Because of Šyvis’s timidity, his master kept him bridled at all times. CvR₁ II 68. The same nouns are used with the preposition iš ‘from’ in other contexts (when describing causal relations between separate characteristics of the same subject). It seemed to him that the dog spoke like that out of jealousy. BalčAP 311. People catch birds so they can enjoy having a little bird; another does it out of greed. MašS 56. 3. The construction with the preposition dėl cannot be replaced by a construction with iš in contexts where it is syntactically dependent on a word that necessarily requires this form (cf. § 97 ff.). I reflected on my helplessness; I felt pain for all those good, sincere people. BaltTIK I 164 (but: he spread his hands in helplessness). Viktoras was moved by such obliging kindness of his. MikelŽS 157 (cf. out of kindness, she forgave everything). 4. There are occasional contexts in which both of the prepositions mentioned may be used interchangeably. Griežė and Knystautaitė would smile only out of politeness and then resume catching each other’s gaze. VienR IV 217 — Humor is foreign to him. He chuckles only out of politeness. TreinTK 222. He fell into such poverty because of neglect. And — Everyone believed that Vilius had not learned what he needed to through neglect. Simon. He fell ill because of his own fault. Ktk — I am hunchbacked through no fault of my own. Ds. The sick man could no longer cry out because of the pain. Vien IMA 153 — The goat can no longer find a place to put itself because of the pain… BsRP 284. I can’t get better again now because of old age (/ from old age). Stak(LKŽ XII 410). He goes nowhere because of fear. Ktk. This is wrong, because it encourages children to behave well not out of inner conviction, but in the hope of a reward (tsp). The inhabitants of this not-too-large town follow him, some out of hostility, others simply because they lack modesty (vert). It was only out of caution (/ because of caution) that we wanted a weapon! Vd (LKŽ I 344). All three came to this exhibition out of curiosity (vert). He turned around to look down and see whether he had slipped even a little through carelessness—he would immediately turn to stone. BilR I 146. A disease can take hold from not eating. Jnšk(LKŽ VII 461). Because of all that distress, my head even began to ache. ŽŽ(LKŽ VI 600). Because of that misfortune, the man also became angry (started) drinking. Grz(LKŽ IX 965). All their vices have arisen from ignorance of what is good and what is evil (vert). 137 § 90. The constructions with the prepositions nuo and dėl may coincide in their lexical composition, but they generally differ in the contexts in which they are used: the former occur with verbs denoting concrete, episodic states, whereas the latter are not subject to such restrictions. Constructions with the preposition dėl are often related to the sentence as a whole (usually to its predicate) and indicate the logical basis for conclusions or thoughts (whereas constructions with the preposition nuo are associated with reality itself, with its concrete situations). The young fellow even feared that his brother might think of drowning himself over those few bites. SajND 37. (cf. His leg swelled from a snakebite.) Because of the horse’s being shod, I could not ride for several days. Ds (cf. The horse limps from being shod.) Sometimes there was no light because of the bombing (cf. The city was destroyed by the bombing.) There is nothing to eat because of the drought that occurred the year before last and last year. SimonR I 233 (cf. The spring crops dried up from the drought.) In the sentences we have presented, constructions with the preposition dėl cannot be replaced by constructions with the preposition nuo, whereas the latter can in principle be replaced by the former, since its usage is broader; cf. might think of drowning himself because of the bites (but not: from the bites) and his leg swelled from a bite / because of a bite. § 91. There are contexts in which the aforementioned constructions are used synonymously, that is, interchangeably. He wrinkled his forehead because of (/ from) the smell of onions. Mrk(LKŽ VI 1044). Her hair also fell out because of the many troubles. Kt(LKŽ₁ II 319). Ordinary people went mad because of hunger GrušBR 71. He died because of blood loss. Kp(LKŽ₁ I 718). My hands ache because of waking up to gather (rye). Šts(LKŽ₁ I 546). Baltaragis grew ever weaker because of that sadness and grief. BorBM 61. Because of the crush, the weaker women—unable to breathe—fainted. TreinTK 124. Because of a slight jolt (“blow”), she cries. Rdm(LKŽ₁ I 828). My father became hard of hearing because a bull gored him. Grg (LKŽ₁ I 546). He died of heart failure (rš). The constructions with the preposition dėl in the cited sentences are associated with verbs of states or processes—which is why they can be replaced by constructions with the preposition nuo. The constructions we are comparing consist of abstract nouns, and their semantic difference is very slight. They differ in the perspective from which the same situation is viewed. The preposition nuo conveys causal relations established through empirical perception (observation), that is, it denotes the situation in reality itself. The preposition dėl, by contrast, reflects the same situation as recalled in memory (thus denoting relations among thoughts, rather than among phenomena in reality itself). § 92. Constructions with the preposition dėl may be synonymous with constructions using the preposition už and the accusative, which are used only with words of a specified semantic type (see § 102 ff.). Cf.: Standing by the stove, Marijona began to get angry at such talk. Paukšt J 100. Reinhal had gone out onto the lake several times because of its unrest (trans.). Frank scolded the correspondents because of the poor transport connections. CvR₁ IV 20. You like to blame evil spirits for your misfortunes… BilR I 51. She loves me for my patience, for my good nature, or because I do not love her. VienR I 121. Indeed, small birds probably hate them because they resemble the goshawk. IvanLP III 16. 138 Gerulavičienė was angry with Gliaudielienė and her daughter because of Alfonso’s privilege. VencIR III 135. He cursed the farmhand for mutilating the horses, and scolded the girl for staring instead of working. ŽemR III 380. He blames selfish rulers for people’s poverty… BalčGK 297. And everyone loved Meiluzė for her cheerful nature, for her kind heart… KrėvP 33. She hated that woman for her sharp tongue and her scheming. BilR I 229. The compared constructions differ in certain semantic nuances. § 93. Constructions with the preposition dėl are semantically related also to constructions with the preposition per and the postposition dėka. The causal meanings of these constructions are marked for modality: the former express a negative cause (i.e. the cause of a negative consequence), while the latter express a positive cause (i.e. the cause of a positive consequence); cf.: One cannot fall asleep because of the flies, and the patient recovered thanks to the doctor. § 94. Constructions with the preposition per are formed with concrete nouns denoting people (and other living beings) or things (a), and with abstract nouns that generally denote human traits—negative character traits, states, and actions (b). a) There’s no life left because of those women! BaltPV I 346. Because of those children, I can’t set foot outside the cottage. Srv. I was a princess, and I ended up here because of bad people. An. Because of that dog of yours, it won’t even be possible to come in anymore. Trg. And you are drowning Jurga in tears because of your roan horses. BorBM₁ 138. I won’t be home because of the fishing (I’ll be out fishing). Als. He left the mill because of the shoes (he stole them and had to leave). Tl. I don’t have time because of those apples. Jrb. He stumbled only once, and only because of vodka (dial.). b) He even lost his health because of his greed. Als(LKŽ III 469). Perhaps the children really did not know and understand the language of their forebears, or perhaps they pretended so at first deliberately, out of pride. PietRR 186. A person always has to suffer because of his blindness. Grg(LKŽ₁ I 78). I cut my finger because of carelessness. SlucGMN 398. Because of that recklessness, the madman will break his neck too. Mžš(LKŽ IX 476). Because of that woman’s insolence, I stopped speaking even to Onikė. Krš. Because of the landowner’s charm, she forgot that she had vowed never to set foot there as long as she lived. CvR V 98. Bees hardly ever sting him, and if one happens to sting him by chance through sheer carelessness, he never swells up. MikelKLL 279. Causal constructions with the preposition per are synonymous with constructions using the preposition dėl. Cf.: Anė had to go out among people, and that was only because of her sister-in-law (/ through her sister-in-law). SimonAŠL 358. So, Algiukas, were you late for school because of those rafts (/ through the rafts)? MašAMB 160. I bought my life back with my hundreds, but now, because of your stinginess (/ because of your stinginess), I don’t have a bite to eat. ŽemR I 86. Only because of his grievous little sin (/ because of his sin) will the maiden have to endure great hardship. KrėvP 73. Constructions with the preposition per and abstract nouns denoting human traits, when used to express causal relations between separate traits of the same subject, may be synonymous not only with constructions using the preposition dėl, but also with constructions using the preposition iš. 139 Cf.: Through carelessness, he would have burned the house down with that loaf of bread. Gs(LKŽ I 344) – People would think that the fire had started through carelessness or some other cause. MikelKLL 427– Through carelessness, one could have scalded one’s eyes. Gs. Plačiau apie prielinksnį per žr. aut. 1977. § 95. The lexical composition of constructions with the postposition dėka is defined: they are formed with nouns denoting persons (a) or their positive qualities (b), and are used to convey positive information. a) 1) I have money, as you can see, but not thanks to you. Vilkv(LKŽ II 262). 2) Only thanks to him did I remain alive. Dr(LKŽ II 262). 3) Thanks to educators like you—modest, with rich souls and generous hearts—citizens and artists continually grow and mature (tsp). 4) Thanks to traveling musicians, lively cultural exchange took place not only farther afield but also in Lithuania’s immediate neighborhood—in Poland, Germany, and Prussia. SaukTSV 31–32. 5) Thanks to A. Tučis, mourning has already been called off throughout the kingdom! SajND 152. b) 6) And it was only thanks to his strong talent that he managed to create works of poetry with lasting value. LanktM-P 131. 7) At present, thanks to their diligence, the girls are scoring far better than the boys (tsp). 8) Thanks to this resolve, evil is overcome, and goodness and truth reign. ZabM 119. 9) Thanks to the scientists’ great efforts, a herd of European bison appeared in the reserve (tsp). 10) The danger was averted thanks to a courageous deed (tsp). Thanks to this wonderful gaze and vision, even inanimate things become alive. SaukTSV 395. 11) It is precisely thanks to acquired experience that we usually perceive things so easily and quickly, recognize them, and understand them (trš). 12) Even the simplest, most everyday events that happen to young people often seem extraordinary solely because of their age (tsp). In not all the utterances we have presented can a construction with dėka be replaced by a construction with the preposition dėl. Such substitution is impossible in contexts where the latter construction would imply purpose (see examples 1–5). This shows that the construction with dėka has an autonomous sphere of use, only part of which overlaps with the use of the preposition dėl. It should be noted that the sphere of use of the postposition dėka is being expanded ever further. It is used not only with nouns denoting persons or their qualities, but also with other, generally abstract, nouns. The manuscript survived thanks to a lucky coincidence. ZabM 96. Only thanks to language can abstract thought exist. FŽ 198. Thanks to metaphor, blind pain became artistic truth. SaukTSV 205. Every grammatical form becomes a form of lived language only thanks to poetry. ČiurlŠ₁ 18. The grammatical adjustments and clarifications in the three-volume grammar are made precisely thanks to those monographs (trš). Relations such as “a brother’s friend,” “a mother’s mother,” and so on are obtained thanks to the composition of relations.composition LĮ 83. That subtle and complex work takes place thanks to the central nervous system. This no longer says anything about the objective causes thanks to which numerous individual tales exist. SaukTSV 54. 140 Although these statements are considerably removed from the core instances of use of the construction in question (see examples 1, 2), what they have in common is that they, too, help express the basis for positive information and can therefore be justified. However, the occasionally occurring use of this construction in contexts with negative content is entirely unacceptable. It is incompatible with the meaning of the word dėka itself. Kunigėliai nelabai Anupras tepatiko, gal kad buvo Sidabro dėka prieš jį nusiteikęs. Čiuršis, 96. Irano aviacijos veiksmų dėka Irako kariuomenė patyrė pralaimėjimą (tsp). Laivas žuvo nelaimingo atsitiktinumo dėka (from television speech). The construction mentioned above is also unsuitable for expressing means, cf.: Prieš 100 metų žmogus 90 procentų visų darbų atlikdavo savo raumenų dėka (tsp). The usage environment of constructions § 96. The lexical usage environment of constructions with the preposition dėl is indeterminate. They are most often related to the sentence as a whole and indicate the logical basis of the information it conveys, e.g.: Because of its enormous distance, Saturn shines in the sky much more faintly than Mars, which is 17 times smaller (trš). However, there are some words of a particular semantic type that require the construction in question. We will try to discuss them separately. Word combinations with the preposition dėl construction § 97. As has already been noted, some verbs of speaking require constructions with the preposition dėl, with which they form word combinations expressing an object relationship (see § 72 ff.). This construction is also used with some emotional verbs, e.g.: worries about loved ones, complains about a failure, loves her for her good character. In this position, the construction with the preposition dėl has a causal meaning: it indicates the basis for the emotions. In terms of their syntactic properties, emotional verbs are not uniform. Some occur only with the construction involving the preposition dėl (to worry, to get nervous, to be anxious); others, besides this construction, form combinations of similar meaning with other forms as well: with the genitive (grieves over his father, was ashamed of his words | his words), with the instrumental (rejoices over the success | the success), and with a construction involving the preposition už and the accusative (loves her for her good character | for her good character, quarrels over trifles | over trifles). Accordingly, we will divide combinations of emotional verbs with causal constructions into three groups. Compounds with the preposition dėl construction (and a single genitive) § 98. Emotive verbs16 (as well as nouns and adjectives derivationally related to them), used with the preposition dėl construction, can be divided into several semantic groups, or synonym series17. 16Alongside emotive verbs, we will also discuss their semantic equivalents—idioms. 17 Dėl emocinių veiksmažodžių grupavimo žr. Lyberis 1980. 141 1. Verbs jagudintis, jausmintis, judtrintis, nervintis, nerimti, nerimauti, nerimastauti, nekantrauti, dūsauti; nerasti vietos, neturėti kur dėtis, laužyti (kvaršinti) galvą. Jaudinas dėl kito nelaimių. Ktk. Valentas saw that Šiažienė was somewhat agitated by Birbilas’s shouting like that. PaukštČMN 194. The grand master himself was also worried about the failure TarasP 188. He sighs only for his youth, for his mistakes. LanktM-P 232. Try as he might to restrain himself, he was anxious about the next day. CvR II 158. I am so worried about you. (Cf.: He felt at ease about his fate. Myk-Put AŠ 198). There’s no need to worry about such trifles. MikeľžS 193. 2. Verbs sielvartauti, sielotis, kankintis, kentėti, graužtis, krimstis, gailėtis, nuliūsti, nusiminti; graudentis, skaudėti (sopėti) širdį: I grieve for my son. PaukštČMN 214. Even now, he walks about grieving over his father’s death. Žg. It is unknown how long the Bernotai would have tormented themselves over those rumors, had it not been for the dream. Paukšt NS 194. Masalskis suffers from his own dualism like every mortal. Lankt MDT 171. He is distressed by his own passivity. LanktM-P 232. The pain over his dying father slowly retreats into some barely noticeable corner of the heart. Simon VK II 154. The Lithuanians’ hearts ached over the misfortune of Duke Kęstutis. TarasP 133. (Cf.: I’m not worried about anyone else. Sln.) 3. Verbs baimintis, būkštauti, ba ginti, nuogąstauti, krūpčioti (figurative), drebėti (figurative), kinkas drebinti: They all regretted their misdeeds and feared the consequences. VIkv (LKŽ I 464). He was afraid of an uncertain future (rš). Don’t be timid like a little child; if you get into the habit of being afraid over nothing, you’ll be afraid of everything. PnmR(LKŽ I 564). He fears condemnation and mockery. Avyž. Sometimes older outsiders would come by too: to fish for perch, discuss politics, and relax without trembling at every rustle outside the door. BielDG 81. § 99. Some emotive verbs—liūdėti, gedėti; gėdytis, susigėsti, sarmatytis, susisarmatytį; bijoti, išsigąsti, baugintis, baimintis—are used both with the genitive and with the preposition dėl construction. However, the lexical composition of these constructions usually differs. 1. The verbs liūdėti, gedėti form constructions with the genitive of concrete nouns, usually denoting persons (a), and with the preposition dėl construction, whose noun is abstract (b). a) Duchess Birutė and her children grieved for their beloved husband and father. TarasP 181. Don’t fret and grieve so over your late wife. Balč. And more than one father grieved for his son. JD 1169. And shall I grieve for the bay horse? JD 1088. b) He would rejoice at your joys and grieve over your failures. BinkRn 314. She felt that one could neither mourn nor grieve over Karolis’s departure. Gud-Guz. The genitive in the expressions listed in (a) can be replaced by the preposition dėl construction; cf.: grieves, mourns for his father / grieves, mourns over his father. However, a single genitive cannot replace a preposition dėl construction formed with abstract nouns; cf. *grieves his father’s death. The same verbs are also used with the accusative in dialects and folklore. Her songs will ring out… in the green cherry orchard, where she mourns her young man. Krėv. My maiden, my dear, I shall mourn you after you’re gone. Tvr(LKŽ III 195). 142 2) The verbs bijoti, išsigąsti; gėdytis, susigėsti, sarmatytis, susisarmat-yti, drovėtis, varžytis are also used with the genitive (a) and with the construction involving the preposition dėl (b). In both cases, nouns may be either concrete or abstract. a) Fear the wolf, and don't go into the forest. Erž. The child is very timid—he is ashamed of people. Ktk. He is most bashful around men; he doesn't dare even open his mouth. Žem. Raulys was always intimidated by a large audience. Avyž. She was ashamed of her weakness. MikelKLL 178. He was frightened by his own footsteps. Ktk. He is self-conscious about his appearance. b) I am worried about my parents all the time (in case something happens to them). Ktk. Don't worry about me—you couldn't get a word out of me even with a bully. Snt (LKŽ IX 878). For the first time in his life, he became afraid for his heart. TreinTK 97. The man was ashamed of his words (lk). He was self-conscious about his origins. Comparative constructions with concrete nouns differ semantically: the genitive indicates a specific cause, whereas the construction involving the preposition dėl conveys a generalized cause. This difference is particularly pronounced in constructions with the verbs bijoti, išsigąsti, cf.: he fears his father (the person himself) and he fears for his father (in case something happens to him). With abstract nouns denoting qualities, however, the genitive is generally synonymous with the construction involving the preposition dėl, cf.: she was ashamed of her weakness | because of her weakness (but only: she was ashamed because of such a question). With the verb varžytis, the forms cited have distinct meanings: the genitive highlights the meaning “to be bashful,” while the construction involving the preposition dėl means “to compete” (competed for first place). However, the latter construction appears to be possible also with the verb in its first meaning, cf.: He was self-conscious about his conduct. 3. Verbs forming parallel constructions with the preposition dėl (a) and the genitive (b) include dejuoti, verkti: a) The women gathered along the border hear the fences crackling and lament for their loved ones who have gone off to fight. CvR VI 133. It was no young man cooing, but a father lamenting for his young sons. Pkr. He begins to lament over his little axe. Jrk 21. The young girl wept bitterly over a clay pot (tts). b) There, more than one sister laments her brother. KlpD 49. The queen laments the ring—she had lost it. Lnk(LKŽ II 385). People lament the rain. Ktk. She wrung her fair little hands and wept for her son. Lb(LKŽ III 451). There appears to be no semantic difference between the compared constructions. However, abstract nouns in the indicated position are used only with the preposition dėl, cf.: laments over hardship, over the future, over health, over misfortune. Combinations with a construction involving the preposition dėl and the instrumental § 100. 1. Verbs of similar meaning form combinations with a construction involving the preposition dėl (a) and with the instrumental (b): skųstis, nusiskųsti, pasiskųsti, guostis, pasiguosti, bėdoti, pasibėdoti, nusibėdoti: a) There is nothing to complain about regarding the light. CvR₁ IV 58. More than one reader complains in the press about the obscurity of the new poetry (trš). Apparently, his heart too was yearning 143 to find comfort regarding the state of the navy. LzPR II 20. And people complain (= complain) about the merest trifle! Grg(LKŽ I 577). b) The parents complain about their son—he has been utterly disobedient. Ktk. Would one complain to the wolf about his children? Krėv. The old man Vasaris complained for a long time about the hardships of the new life. Myk-PutAŠ 480. Then, approaching the green linden tree, he complains of his misfortunes. DrskD 197. He be-gins to weep and to lament to him about his oppression. Dauk. And now they too complain about hard times. Pkp. The father complained about his children. Ds(LKŽ I 579). It is difficult to discern a difference in meaning between the compared constructions. Prepositional constructions are more characteristic of written language. 2. The verb skųstis in the sense “to indicate that something hurts,” and its synonyms guostis, dejuoti, bėdoti, aimanuoti, vaitoti form combinations with an instrumental noun denoting a part of the body. The old man complains of his heart. Ktk. Our horse complains of its front leg. Užp. She laments with one hand—the one that had been shot. Užv(LKŽ III 740). The horse complains of its leg. Als (LKŽ III 740). People groan with their teeth. DLKŽ₁ 112. For several days now, he has been groaning with his side. Lkm(LKŽ₁ I 38). Aniutė keeps moaning with her teeth. Km. In spoken language, it seems that in such cases one would not use a construction with the preposition dėl. With prefixed verbs, a construction with the preposition su is also used for the same purpose. I spent the whole winter lamenting over my arm. Gs(LKŽ₁ II 386). I'll have a bit of a moan over this leg. Gs(LKŽ₁ II 386). She spent the whole evening groaning over her tooth. Rm(LKŽ₁ I 32). The verb prefix prevents this construction from being replaced by a single instrumental. 3. In dialects, the verbs skųstis, guostis, bėdoti (usually prefixed) occur with the accusative of abstract nouns, which highlights the “tell” seme of the indicated verbs. Oh, I will go up to the high hill and complain about my troubles. Mrk. The old man recounted (= recounted) his troubles. Ds. Coming into the yard, he told everyone about his troubles. Jtk 62. In literary language, the instrumental or a construction with the preposition dėl would be used in such cases. § 101. Verbs forming parallel combinations with the indicated forms include džiaugtis, didžiuotis, stebėtis. a) They rejoiced at our victories. He is proud of his origins. She is surprised by such talk. I was quite surprised by the surname: not Karosas, but Karosa. BaltD II 244. b) Not everyone rejoiced at the good fortune of the nobleman Kirkla. KrėvP 27. Everyone was astonished by his behavior (Įk). Because of such horns, the people of Ačolė are very proud of their cattle. SakAP 59. 144 Junginiai su prielinksnių dėl ir už konstrukcijomis § 102. There are verbs of a certain semantic type that form causal constructions both with the preposition dėl and with the preposition už, for example: scolds for not listening / for disobedience, likes because of a good nature / for a good nature. These are verbs expressing evaluation in a broad sense. They can be divided into several semantic groups. 1. One group consists of verbs expressing negative emotions or opinions: scold, shame, curse, blame18, criticize, ridicule, despise, belittle, reproach, humiliate, insult, condemn, report, reproach, be angry19. Besides indicating the basis (cause) of the action, these verbs also require forms with an objective meaning: the verb reproach (and its variants find fault with, reproach) takes the dative of the object (reproaches the neighbors), be angry takes a construction with the preposition ant (is angry at friends), while all the others take the accusative (scolds children, blames the leaders). The basis for the action of the verbs listed is expressed by constructions with the preposition dėl (a) or the preposition už (b). The latter constructions are more frequent. a) First Frank scolded the correspondents for the poor transport connections. CvR₁ IV 20. We must not laugh at such old people or shame them for their ignorance. Jabl. The Hare heard from people that the older ones had been put to shame for their conduct, and his wife had retorted… CvR₁ II 76. They cursed Dūda not for the theft but for his inability to expropriate. CvR₁ IV 260. Reinhalts cursed the lake several times for its stillness (rš). You like blaming evil spirits for your misfortunes… BilR I 51. Traditional grammar was criticized (quite rightly) for ignoring systemic relations. MK 1980 2 10. I fooled myself because of these feelings (rš). Surely one cannot insult a person for his love. VienR I 211–212. Why did our parents despise their native language! ŠRagSD 70. Do not grieve, poet, if today a stern judge condemns you for a mistake of the heart. Myk-PutP 163. Because of this he was reported even to the minister. GrušK 39. The writer liked my work, but she did reproach me for grammatical errors (trš). He thought she would start finding fault with him for not having visited for so long. Don’t be offended by an old-fashioned question: did you ride here from Königsberg? Gruš. b) The old father scolded his young daughter for the young lady’s talk. KrėvP 66. He shamed them for saying such things. LKŽ III 198. He cursed the lad for slashing the horses, and scolded the girl for gaping while working. ŽemR III 380. Vytautas blamed the Teutonic Knights for their attacks and the wrongs they had done (tsp). He does not condemn a person for mistakes (trš). The mother was very angry about such talk. ŽemR III 502. Constructions with the preposition dėl can usually be replaced by constructions with the preposition už, which are more frequent and more typical in the position in question. Sometimes the corresponding constructions may differ in certain semantic nuances. A construction with the preposition už has a definite, specific meaning, while one with the preposition dėl has a broader, more generalized meaning; compare: scolded the child for disobedience and scolded the correspondents because of the poor transport connections. 18 Dėl junginių su veiksmažodžiu kaltinti žr. aut. 1979, 32 tt. 19 Dėl junginių su pykti ir jo sinonimais žr. aut. 1978, 26 tt. 145 2. Parallel constructions are also formed by verbs expressing positive emotions or evaluation: love, like, respect, praise, worship, cherish, exalt, adore, glorify, value, please. a) She loves me for my patience, for my good nature. VienR I 121. The Noreikas get along well at home, and because of this the whole village respects them. Myk-PutS I 33. And because of all that turmoil, of course, no one can praise you. Old family things!.. you are precious because of the hands that touched you (trš). Above all, he valued Chekhov for his talent (rš). No, he did not like himself for such thoughts. MikelKLL 397. b) All the workers loved her for her cheerfulness, openness, and mischievousness. LzP. In the village everyone liked her for her frank nature, plain speech, and cleverness. I respect ants for their industriousness. And indeed, Stonis and Stonienė were praised by everyone for their industriousness. That is why the mistress cherished her. Myk-PutS I 30. SajND 18. ŠRagSD 121. VienR V 125. The semantic relation between constructions in this group is the same as in those discussed above (see 1). A construction with the preposition už cannot replace one with the preposition dėl when the latter clearly has a generalized character; compare No, it is only because of the meat that we praise the voice of your “roosters.” Donel. I wonder what he was thinking about: the beautiful countess, or the garden that he had come to love only because of his lady. JasiukR I 119. 3. Constructions of the same form are also formed with the antonyms of the verbs love, like: hate, detest. a) Indeed, small birds probably hate it because of its resemblance to a goshawk. IvanLP III 16. b) They hate that woman for her tongue and her seductions. Bil R I 229. § 103. Verbs or word combinations denoting punishment or its undergoing (punish, take revenge, try, imprison, be imprisoned, sit in prison), as well as concrete verbs or word combinations used with the same meaning, generally use a construction with the preposition už (b) to indicate the basis of the action. A construction with the preposition dėl occurs much less often in this position (a). a) After spending a few days in his homeland, he was arrested by the Hungarian police for a minor violation of passport regulations (tsp). He was again expelled from the final year of the teachers’ seminary in Marijampolė because of his firm political action. Vencl LL 103. For what offense did you end up in prison? LKŽ V 159. Over nothing, brother throttles brother and stabs him with knives. CvR V 59. The book was banned, and the author spent some time in prison because of it. VenclLL 189. Because of such carelessness, Šyvis has to lie in the barn for a couple of days. Because of his distorted dream, an innocent man has to rot in prison. TreinT K 261. b) People were punished for transporting books. MašAMB 44. Milton calls upon God to avenge the slaughter of the Protestants. VenclLL 187. For resisting the authorities, three young men were shot by the German occupiers. The soldier’s son was in prison for political activity. In my childhood, Antanas Pečiūra was sentenced for stealing horses. They behead him like a cabbage for his beloved girl. They had shut him up in the pigsty for disobedience. Švnč. I slaughtered a rooster for not crowing. VienR III 10. VenclGD 433. VienMA 29. TŽ I 223. Šts. 146 Constructions with the preposition because of are used to describe a generalized, less definite situation (cf. [someone] was arrested for a minor offense), whereas constructions with the preposition for describe a definite one (was awakened for transporting books). However, the use of the latter construction with words from the indicated semantic group is broader. It can be replaced by a construction with the preposition because of. Structural features of sentences with constructions involving the preposition because of § 104. Constructions with the preposition because of occur in sentences with the most varied lexical composition, generally conveying causal relations between phenomena established through acts of thought, i.e., conclusions and their logical basis. These constructions are often associated not with a single word, but with an entire sentence, usually with the predicate or its group, e.g.: Owing to the scope and depth of his artistic generalization, he placed the fool from the fairy tale alongside the greatest monuments of belles-lettres. SaukTSV 81. The Lithuanian nation, having created a distinctive pagan culture, remained isolated from the current of general European culture because of the constant attacks of the Teutonic Knights. ZabM.59. § 105. The construction with the preposition because of may be semantically governed not by the predicate itself, but by a word in its group that is communicatively salient, e.g.: a) manner adverbials: It is said that science is difficult for “locals” to access because of their innate backwardness. SkliaŠ 172. Because of its swift, nimble flight, birds of prey rarely catch it. IvanLP III 16. And because of the creature of the crisis, they are somehow unable to settle more spaciously in Kaunas. Myk-Put AŠ 461. b) quantity adverbials: Because of his youth, he is less corrupt than I am (trans.). Unfortunately, because of hard times, the manuscript lay for a long time in his desk drawer. VendLL 203. c) place adverbials: At last, he cannot show himself in his native village, either, because of the police. Myk-PutR VI 425. d) time adverbials: Because of that mishap, I could not travel by horse for several days. Ds. e) complement: Because crocodiles are exceptionally greedy, they are easy to catch with a fishing rod. Ivan TMB 144. The semantic connection of the aforementioned construction with a word to which it is not syntactically related shows that it belongs to the sentence as a whole. The construction with the preposition dėl can also be semantically linked to a subordinate explanatory clause (for such clauses, see LKG III 806), e.g.: Because of the ongoing interaction between the standard language and dialects, it is often difficult nowadays to say whether a word is a dialectalism or already belongs to the common lexicon. JakLKL 68. It has been established that, in spring, male larks return separately from the females. IvanLP III 189. § 106. The aforementioned construction is often used in sentences with verbs denoting acts of human mental activity or their results (perception, knowledge, memory)20. 20 Dėl psichinės veiklos veiksmažodžių klasifikacijos žr. Васильев 1981. 147 However, owing to the great diversity of onomastic material, universal classification criteria applicable to all names have not yet been established. JakLKL 89. Because of this lack of differentiation between lexical and grammatical meaning, many linguists believe that function words have no lexical meaning... JakLKL 21. Many people do not recognize the golden oriole, but anyone who sees it once always remembers it because of its vivid colors and distinctive appearance. IvanLP III 30. Because of the sense of loneliness in Mykolaitis-Putinas’s poems, we scarcely feel any contact with the reader. LanktM-P 297. He entered into no compromises for any calculations. VencLL 103. But the poem, simply by virtue of the nature of its subject, cannot be classified among works of the historical genre. ZabM 105. However, because of its ideological limitations, the poet expressed those moods only in the most general terms. LanktM-P 282. I would not call this bird common in Lithuania, but, of course, one must bear in mind that it is very difficult to see because of its secretive way of life. IvanLP III 350. The European pied flycatcher, because of its lovely song, beautiful colors, and pleasant disposition, is said to be among the most delightful birds kept in captivity. IvanLP III 267. Because of this interaction between genres, individual tale types are classified differently. LT III 24. § 107. The construction with the preposition dėl is characteristic of sentences: 1) with a nominal predicate whose copula is either a pure copula (a) or a non-pure copula (b) (see LKG 1976, 382): a) I was happy about my success (tsp). In these respects, the sentences are close to sentences of functional subordination. LKG III 884. Because of a foolish head, even the feet get no rest. Tgn. b) The child himself, whom fate would yet toss and turn, became part of the peasantry from an early age, not only because of their shared legal and material circumstances, but also because of their shared spiritual life. MerkSD 24. Moreover, Daukantas became very dear to most teachers because of his persistent educational work and the difficult lot of a dedicated intellectual. Merk SD 313. If food becomes insufficient because of unfavorable atmospheric conditions, the parasites are said to be destructive. IvanLP III 369. Yet because of its concision and the thesis-like presentation of some problems, “Donelaitis” remained something like a sketch poem. LanktMDT 51. Because of its dense feathers, it looks stocky and fat, as if plump. IvanLP III 139. Because of its sweetness, maple sap was considered better (trš). That is why she herself called it a “starling chick.” MašAMB 201. This construction is especially common with negative predicative adjectives or participles denoting qualities. Beyond this line, conditions for it are unfavorable because the snow cover persists for a long time. IvanLP III 193. Daukantas was most dissatisfied with Lelevel’s unionist tendencies. MerkSD 58. Because of the great benefit woodpeckers provide to forestry by devouring large numbers of tree pests, the harm mentioned is insignificant. IvanLP III 45. In winter, such thickets were impassable because of the deep snow; in summer, they could not be traversed because of bogs and marshes. VienR IV 13; 2) with negative verbs, e.g.: The guests are not coming because of the rain.A negative verb states not only that the action did not take place and remained unrealized, but also that the action was expected, likely, desired, or even to be 148 (i.e., the speaker’s attitude toward the information is also expressed). The construction with the preposition dėl is used in sentences: a) with non-modal verbs that are negated: The grain did not ripen because of the clear or rainy weather. Dauk. In July he failed both examinations—for the written French exam in particular (rš). This book has still not been printed, all because of a lack of funds. JurgIP 318. The wolf knows this, and because of it he still does not go home. PietLGM 4. b) with negative modal verbs and another verb in the infinitive or participle: Because of the lack of time, we could not see the entire museum. IvanTMB 24. I cannot recover now, if only because of my age. Stak. Because of my character flaws, I am unable to live this way. TLR₁ II 228. Because of these tits’ ill intentions, they should not be kept in captivity in a cage together with other birds. IvanLP III 227. Because of such characteristic details, one does not regret having read another page or so of more tedious text (tsp). The aforementioned construction is used with the fixed verbs nebūti, neturėti, nerasti, forms of the pronoun kas, or pronominal adverbs kaip, kur, kada, as well as infinitive constructions21. There is nothing to eat because of the drought of last year and the year before. SimonR I 233. Because of her, there is no time even to lie down in the shade. VaičiūnD 420. § 108. Among the distributional features of the preposition dėl construction, verbs with generalized meanings such as atsitikti, įvykti, atsirasti, kilti, egzistuoti and others may be noted. This always happens because of absent-mindedness! BalčAP 232. Because of the poor condition of the railways in the United States of America, more and more accidents occur (tsp). In such a derivative, the meaning of the result of an action is usually secondary, having arisen from the concretization of the original meaning of the action. LKG I 368. It is not the image itself, but only the emotion of the song arising from the image that connects its experience with the external world. Myk-PutR VIII 89. The characteristic walking gait of larks, in steps, is a secondary phenomenon that developed because of life in deserts. It nevertheless seems that their numbers decrease every year, perhaps because of a lack of suitable nesting trees. IvanLP III 195. IvanLP III 36. In general, the contexts in which constructions with the preposition dėl are used are very broad and indeterminate. They cannot be described in semantic terms, as, for instance, the uses of the prepositions iš and nuo can. The aforementioned construction is generally used in sentences with generalized, broad content. Concessive meaning § 109. The prepositional dėl construction has a concessive meaning when used in contexts marked for modality, e.g.: Because of such rain, one can haul the hay—it didn’t get soaked (Ktk). In this case, the construction in question indicates the basis for a possible action, or the possibility of an action— 21 Dėl šių junginių plačiau žr. Oginskienė 1978, 119 tt. 7. 120 149 whose weak intensity (effectiveness) is insufficient to prevent the realization of the intended, expected action. The concessive meaning may be regarded as a variant of causality. The prepositional dėl construction has a concessive meaning in sentences: a) with words expressing possibility: Because of such a father, the children can do whatever they want. Slk. Because of me, you can stop working. Ktk. Because of the heartburn, he can eat, but apparently no longer wants to. Kp (LKŽ I 40). b) with future-tense, conditional, and imperative forms denoting actions that have not been realized but are anticipated in the future: Because of such damage (frost), the cucumbers will grow. Rdm (LKŽ III 8). — “Because of my tongue, the daughter-in-law will fit,” she retorted. ŽemR I 66. Because of your workdays, we would have long since frozen to death with all the children. AvyžKK 61. GENERAL REMARKS § 110. 1. The causal meaning of the prepositional dėl construction is general in nature—it denotes causal relations between phenomena usually established through acts of reasoning (logically), or the logical basis for conclusions. 2. This meaning is not clearly distinct from the other meanings—objective and purposive: all of them are united by the general seme of a logical basis. The construction in question denotes one type of object—the content of speech and thought (see § 72 ff.). The purposive meaning also belongs among the logical meanings (purpose is a stimulus for conscious human activity). 3. The lexical composition of the prepositional dėl construction has distinctive features. This preposition is used with the categorical noun cause, with the demonstrative pronoun that, with nouns of generalized meaning such as circumstance, condition, feature, and so on. On the other hand, it also occurs with abstract and concrete nouns of narrower meaning, which are also used with other causal prepositions, but in different contexts. 4. The lexical environment in which prepositional dėl constructions are used is highly varied. They are usually related to the sentence as a whole. However, there are verbs with certain meanings that require this construction and form word combinations with it (see § 97 ff.). 5. Because of its generalized meaning, this preposition is semantically related to all causal prepositions, though to varying degrees. It forms systematic synonyms with the prepositions per, už, dėka, and occasional synonyms with the prepositions iš and nuo. 6. The use of the preposition dėl is stylistically marked: of all causal prepositions, it is most often found in scholarly language (whereas the characteristic domain of use for the preposition iš is literary language). SYSTEM OF OPPOSITIONS AMONG CAUSAL PREPOSITIONS § 111. The analysis presented shows that each preposition has specific semantic features that reflect different aspects of causal relations themselves. Causal prepositions (and the instrumental case without a preposition) are distributed in a certain way across the semantic field of causal relations and form a system among themselves. Each expression— 150 We shall attempt to bring out the structure of the system of causal prepositions: we will identify the oppositions and the relations among those oppositions. § 112. Causal prepositions have the following distinctive features22: 1) internal cause (preposition iš), 2) external cause (preposition nuo), 3) generalized cause (preposition dėl), 4) positive cause (postposition dėka), 5) negative cause (preposition per), 6) cause of recompense (preposition už), 7) non-discrete23 cause (instrumental case), 8) specific (situational) cause (prepositions iš, nuo), 9) modal cause (preposition per, postposition dėka). Some of the features listed are determined by the semantics of the forms themselves (1–7), while others are determined by their systemic relations (8–9). § 113. As already noted, the system of means for expressing cause consists of 7 forms. If all were set in opposition to one another, there would be 7·6/2 = 21 oppositions, e.g.: iš – nuo, dėl, dėka, per, už, instr. (6 oppositions); nuo – dėl, dėka, per, už, instr. (5 oppositions); dėl – dėka, per, už, instr. (4 oppositions), and so on. However, not all oppositions are equally important or significant. We shall attempt to determine the principal oppositions and present them in a table: Oppositions among causal prepositions (and the instrumental case) I | Specific (situational) cause | Generalized (non-situational) cause | II | Non-discrete | Unmarked | Modal | Unmarked | III | instr. | Internal | External | Positive | Negative | Recompense | Unmarked | iš | nuo | dėka | per | už | dėl As we can see, the means of expressing cause form a three-level system of oppositions, organized hierarchically: oppositions at lower levels are included in oppositions at higher levels. The lowest level comprises (3) oppositions: 1) iš – nuo (the distinctive feature is “internal cause”; the marked member is the preposition iš); 2) dėka – per (the distinctive feature is “positive cause”; both members are marked: the first positively, the second negatively); 3) už – dėl (the distinctive feature is “cause of recompense”; the marked member is the preposition už). The second level of the system consists of two oppositions: 4) iš, nuo (1) – instr. (the distinctive feature is “non-discrete cause”); the marked member is the instrumental case), 5) 22 Here we have indicated only the relevant features of each preposition. Some features, such as “internal / external” cause, are shared by all prepositions, but are significant only for the prepositions iš, nuo. 23 Cause expressed by the instrumental case is inseparable (non-discrete) from its effect with respect to time (and existence), e.g.: akys spindi laime, šlaitas mėlynuoja žibutėmis, miškas skamba dainomis. 7* 151 thanks to, through (2) – because of, for (3) (the differential feature is “modal cause”; the marked member is the words thanks to, through). The highest level of the system consists of the opposition (6) inessive (4) – because of, thanks to, through, for (5) (the differential feature is “specific / generalized cause”; both members are marked). The latter opposition encompasses all the elements of the means of expressing cause. However, not all members of the system are functionally equally important. It can be argued that the system is based on four members: the prepositions out of, from, because of, for, since the inessive can be replaced by constructions with the prepositions out of or from (i.e., opposition (4) is neutralized24, see § 17, 68), while the preposition through and the postposition thanks to can replace the preposition because of (i.e., opposition (5) is neutralized, see § 94 ff.). The construction with the preposition for (its use is lexically restricted to verbs of a certain meaning, see § 102 ff.) can partly be replaced by a construction with the preposition because of, cf.: he scolded him for disobedience / because of disobedience, she loved her for her good character / because of her good character. In such a position, the construction with the preposition because of is less common. The domains (contexts) of use of these prepositions are related by intersection, whereas the domains of use of the inessive and the prepositions out of, from (opposition 4), and of the prepositions through, thanks to, and because of (opposition 5) are related by inclusion. The main oppositions (6), both members of which consist of several elements (cf. out of, from, inessive – because of, through, thanks to, for), may, in particular isolated cases, have their distinctions neutralized in the following pairs: out of – because of (see § 89), out of – through (see § 44), from – because of (rarely, see § 91). PAPILDOMI SUTRUMPINIMAI BaltD — Baltušis J. Su kuo valgyta druska. – V., 1973 – t. 1, 1976 – t. 2. BubnBV — Bubnys V. Baltas vėjas. – V., 1974. BorSVB — Boruta K. Skambėkit vėtroje, beržai. – V., 1975. DrskD — Druskininkų dainos / Užrašė J. Balčikonis. – V., 1972. FŽ — Filosofijos žodynas / Redagavo M. Rozentalis. – V., 1975. JakLKL — Jakaitienė E. Lietuvių kalbos leksikologija. – V., 1980. JasiukR — Jasiukaitis K. Raštai. – V., 1959, t. 1–2. JurgIP — Jurginis J. Istorija ir poezija. – V., 1969. KubJJ — Kubilius V. Julius Janonis. – V., 1970. LankKS — Lankauskas R. Klajojantis smėlis. Žiaurūs žaidimai. Balta, juoda ir mėlyna. – V., 1967. LanktM-P — Lankutis J. V. Mykolaičio-Putino kūryba. – V., 1961. LanktMDT — Lankutis J. Justino Marcinkevičiaus draminė trilogija. – V., 1977. LĮ — Plečkaitis R. Logikos įvadas. – V., 1978. LKG — Lietuvių kalbos gramatika. – V., 1965 – t. 1, 1971 – t. 2, 1976 – t. 3. MarŽŠG — Marukas K. Žaliakalny šluoja gatves. – V., 1962. MašMŽ — Durova V. Mano žvėrys / Vertė P. Mašiotas. – V., 1972. MašNA — Mašiotas P. Nepaprastos atostogos. – V., 1970. MašS — Mašiotas P. Sparnuočiai. – V., 1972. MerkSD — Merkys V. Simonas Daukantas. – V., 1972. MG — Mokslas ir gyvenimas (žurnalas). MikelKLL — Mikelinskas J. Kur lygūs laukai. – V., 1981. MikelŽS — Mikelinskas J. Žiupsnelis smėlio. – V., 1982. 24 We provisionally call the neutralization of oppositions between causal constructions the identity, or coincidence, of their lexical composition and context. 152 MškŽG — Miškinis A. Žaliaduonių gegužė. — V., 1977. P — Pergalė (journal). PaukštČMN — Paukštelis J. Čia mūsų namai. — V., 1974. PaukštNS — Paukštelis J. Netekėk, saulele. — V., 1963. PetkAA — Petkevičaitė-Bitė G. Ad astra. — V., 1967. PietRR — Pietaris V. Rinktiniai raštai. — V., 1973. Psich — Psichologija. Vadovėlis pedagoginiams institutams. — V., 1960. ŠajND — Šaja K. Behind Unlatched Doors. — V., 1978. ŠakAP — Sakalauskas V. Afrikos perlas. — V., 1983. ŠaukTSV — Sauka D. The Distinctiveness and Value of Folklore. — V., 1970. ŠirGAI — Sirijos Gira V. Atlanto idilės. — V., 1973. SkliuAŠ — Skliutauskas J. Aukso šaknelė. — V., 1977. ŠŽ — Lyberis A. Lietuvių kalbos sinonimų žodynas. — K., 1961. ŠaltRD — Šaltenis S. Nut Bread. — V., 1972. ŠeinVVK — Šeinius I. Vasaros vaišės. Kuprelis. — V., 1970. TarasP — Tarasenka P. Escape. — V., 1957. TLR — Tarybų Lietuvos rašytojai. — V., 1977, t. 1–2. TreinTK — Treinys P. Parents and Godparents. — V., 1972. VenclLL — Venclova A. Literature and the People. — V., 1974. LITERATŪRA Bitėnas J. Lietuvių kalbos prielinksnių mokslas. — K., 1930. Fraenkel E. Syntax der litauischen Postpositionen und Präpositionen. — Heidelberg, 1929. Jablonskis J. Linksniai ir prielinksniai. — Kn.: Rinktiniai raštai. V., 1957, t. 1, p. 551–672. Kilius J. Orientacinių reikšmių struktūra lietuvių kalboje (Apie vietos prielinksnių ir linksnių reikšmes). — Kalbotyra, 1977, t. 28(1), p. 40–49. Laigonaitė A. Vietininkų reikšmė ir vartosena dabartinėje lietuvių kalboje. — V., 1957. Lyberis A. Sinonimų žodynas. — V., 1980. LKG — Lietuvių kalbos gramatika. — V., 1965, t. 1; 1971, t. 2; 1976, t. 3. LKM — Jakaitienė E., Laigonaitė A., Paulauskienė A. Lietuvių kalbos morfologija. — V., 1976. Nitiņa D. Prievardu sistēma latviešu rakstu valodā. — Rīga, 1978. Oginskienė E. Dabartinės lietuvių literatūrinės kalbos neigimo junginiai su žodžiais „kas, kur, kada, kaip“. — Lietuvos TSR Mokslų Akademijos darbai, A serija, 1978, t. 1(62). Pupkis A. Kalbos kultūros pagrindai. — V., 1980. Rasimavičius A. Veiksmažodiniai žodžių junginiai su įnagininku dabartinėje lietuvių kalboje: Filol. m. kand. dis. — V., 1965. Šukys J. Prielinksnių vartojimas. — K., 1978. Teplovas B. Psichologija. — K., 1950. Valeckienė A. Bev ardės giminės forma tai ir jos santykis su kitomis įvardžių formomis. — Kn.: Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai, 1974, t. 15, p. 35–75. Valiulytė E. Veiksmažodiniai priežasties reikšmės junginiai su prielinksniu per ir jų sinonimai lietuvių literatūrinėje kalboje. — Lietuvos TSR Mokslų Akademijos darbai, A serija, 1977, t. 4(61), p. 155–165. Valiulytė E. Veiksmažodžio pykti bei jo sinonimų junginiai su prielinksniais dėl ir už. — Kalbos kultūra, 1978, sąs. 35, p. 26–30. Valiulytė E. Kaltinti už ką, dėl ko, kuo. — Kalbos kultūra, 1979, sąs. 36, p. 32–37. Васильев Л. М. Семантика русского глагола. — М., 1981. Засорина Л. Н. Опыт системного анализа предлогов современного русского языка (предлоги со значением причины). — В кн.: Уч. зап. ЛГУ. Проблемы языкознания, 1961, № 301, с. 64–84. 153 Калнберзинь Р. Я. Синтаксическая синонимия предложных словосочетаний современного русского литературного языка с причинными отношениями. — Изв. АН ЛатвССР, 1957, 3(116), с. 43—62. Калнберзинь Р. Я. Соотносительное употребление предложно-падежных конструкций с причинным видом отношений в современном русском литературном языке. — Изв. АН ЛатвССР, 1958, 11(136), с. 51—67. Комаров А. П. Система средств выражения причинно-следственных отношений в современном немецком языке: Дис. … д-ра филол. наук. — Алма-Ата, 1973. Рукопись. Мустейкис К. Словосочетания с предлогом OT и их эквиваленты в литовском языке. — VVPI Mokslo darbai. Rusų kalba ir literatūra, 1959, т. 6, p. 39—60. Никитина С. Е. О семантическом варьировании русских предлогов. — В кн.: Семантическое и формальное варьирование. М., 1979, с. 108—147. Новак П. К вопросу о семантической сущности падежей и их так называемом целостном (общем) значении и локальности. — В кн.: Языкознание в Чехословакии. М., 1978, с. 265—275. Новиков Л. А. Семантика русского языка. — М., 1982. Попова Л. Н. Предлоги, выражающие причинные отношения в современном русском литературном языке, и их синонимия: Дис. … канд. филол. наук. — Л., 1956. Рукопись. Расимавичус А. Глагольные словосочетания с творительным падежом в современном литовском литературном языке: Автореф. дис. … канд. филол. наук. — Вильнюс, 1965. Финкель А. М. Производные причинные предлоги в современном русском литературном языке. — Харьков, 1962 (а). Финкель А. М. Предлоги, выражающие категорию причинности в современном русском языке: Дис. … д-ра филол. наук. — Харьков, 1962. Рукопись. ФЛ — Формальная логика / Отв. ред. Чупахин И. Я. и Бродский И. Н. — Л., 1977. Сведин В. Н. Предлоги немецкого языка. — М., 1963. Степанов Ю. Структура французского языка. — М., 1965. СТП — Семантические типы предикатов. — М., 1982. Э. ВАЛЮЛИТЕ СИСТЕМА ПРИЧИННЫХ ПРЕДЛОГОВ В ЛИТОВСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ Резюме 1. Причинные отношения в литовском языке выражаются предлогами iš „из, с“, nuo „от, с“, dėl „из-за, по“, per „из-за“, dėka „благодаря“ (послелог), už „за“ и творительным падежом (без предлога). Каждая из данных форм отличается своими дифференциальными признаками, отражающими разные аспекты причинных отношений. Данные формы образуют систему оппозиций с трехступенчатой структурой. Первую (низшую) ступень системы составляют оппозиции: 1) iš — nuo (по признаку „внутренняя причина“, маркированный член оппозиции — предлог iš, оппозиция в отдельных случаях нейтрализуется), 2) dėka — per (по признаку „положительность причины“, оба члена маркированы), 3) už — dėl (по признаку „причина возмещения“, маркированный член — предлог už). Следующую ступень системы образуют оппозиции: 4) iš, nuo (1) — тв. п. (по признаку „недискретность причины“, маркированный член — тв. п., оппозиция нейтрализуется), 5) dėka, per (2) — dėl, už (3) (по признаку „модальность причины“, маркированный член — предлоги dėka, per, оппозиция нейтрализуется). Высшую ступень системы составляет оппозиция 6) iš, nuo, тв. п. (4) — dėl, dėka, per, už (5) (по признаку „конкретность“ / „обобщенность причины“, оба члена маркированы). Не все элементы данной системы равнозначны. Основу системы образуют предлоги iš „из, с“, nuo „от“, с одной стороны, и предлог dėl, с другой. Остальные элементы системы — предлоги per „из-за“, послелог dėka „благодаря“ и тв. п. — являются семантичес- 154 кими вариантами основных и играют второстепенную роль в выражении причинных отношений. Они отмечены стилистически: употребляются чаще в стиле художественной литературы (per, тв. п.). Сфера употребления послелога dėka расширяется. 2. Причинные предлоги различаются условиями своего функционирования, т.е. лексическим окружением. Предлог iš „из, с“ сочетается с зависимыми существительными, выражающими такие признаки лица (или другого живого существа), как эмоции, чувства, ощущения и свойства характера; определяемые слова обозначают действия, состояние (или изменения состояния) лица / не-лица. Предлог nuo „от, с“ сочетается (в отличие от предлога iš „из, с“) с зависимыми существительными, обозначающими конкретные предметы, действия, явления природы, а также свойства; определяемые слова выражают состояние или его изменения (в позиции с глаголами активного, произвольного действия у предлога nuo обнаруживается не причинное значение, ср.: pasislėpė nuo karščio „скрылся от жары“ и pavargo nuo karščio „устал от жары“). Предлог dėl (в отличие от iš, nuo) сочетается с именами обобщенного, родового значения (в том числе со словами priežastis „причина“, kaltė „вина“, aplinkybė „обстоятельство“, ypatybė „свойство“, trūkumas „недостаток“, perteklius „излишек“ и др.), а также с именами абстрактного, но более узкого (видового) значения и с конкретными именами. Условия функционирования данной конструкции семантически не ограничены. Конструкция обычно бывает связана с предложением в целом. Выделяется группа глаголов, требующих конструкции с предлогом dėl (это глаголы, выражающие эмоции, напр.: jaudintis „переживать“, liūdėti „грустить“, pykti „сердиться“ и др.). Как правило, данная предложная конструкция употребляется в предложениях, передающих информацию о связях, которые установлены логическим мышлением, а не эмпирическим восприятием, ср.: Lėktuvas negalėjo skristi dėl rūko „Самолет не мог лететь из-за тумана“ и Medis sulinko nuo vėjo „Дерево согнулось от ветра“. Предлог per „из-за“ и послелог dėka употребляются в семантически ограниченных контекстах: первый указывает на отрицательную, второй — на положительную причину. Употребление предлога už ограничено глаголами со значением оценки в широком смысле этого слова (напр., bausti „карать“, barti „ругать“, kaltinti „обвинять“, pykti „сердиться“; girti „хвалить“, vertinti „ценить“, mėgti „любить“ и др.). E. VALIULYTĖ DAS SYSTEM DER KAUSALEN PRÄPOSITIONEN IN DER LITAUISCHEN SPRACHE Zusammenfassung Die Kausalverhältnisse drücken in der litauischen Sprache die Präpositionen iš, nuo, dėl, dėka (Postposition) mit dem Genitiv, už mit dem Akkusativ und der Instrumentalis (ohne Präposition) aus. Diese Formen haben in entsprechender Weise das semantische Feld der Kausalverhältnisse verteilt und bilden unter sich ein System. Die Struktur des Systems bilden 3 Reihen (Stufen) der binären Oppositionen, die durch hierarchische Beziehungen verbunden sind. Die niederste Stufe bilden 3 Oppositionen: 1) iš – nuo (differenzielles Merkmal ist „der innere Grund“, das gekennzeichnete Glied ist die Präposition iš, vgl.: verkia iš džiaugsmo (weint vor Freude) — linksta nuo vėjo (beugt sich vom Wind); 2) dėka – per (differenzielles Merkmal ist „der positive Grund“, beide Glieder sind gekennzeichnet: der erste — positiv, der zweite — negativ, vgl.: išsigelbėjau draugų dėka (ich rettete mich dank der Freunde) — pražuvo per draugus (er kam wegen der Freunde um); 3) už – dėl (differenzielles Merkmal ist der Grund der Belohnung“, das gekennzeichnete Glied ist die Präposition už, vgl.: kaltina priešus už skriaudas / dėl skriaudų (beschuldigt Feinde der Beleidigungen), gerbia skruzdę už darbštumą / dėl darbštumo (man ehrt die Ameise für die Arbeitsamkeit / wegen der Arbeitsamkeit). 155 Die zweite Stufe des Systems bilden 2 Oppositionen: 4) Instr. – iš, nuo (1) (differenzielles Merkmal ist der undiskrete (in zeitlicher Weise) Grund, das gekennzeichnete Glied – der Instrumentalis, vgl.: akys spindi džiaugsmu / iš džiaugsmo (die Augen strahlen vor Freude), vyšnia pabalo žiedais / nuo žiedų (der Kirschbaum wurde von Blüten weiß); 5) déka, per (2) – dėl, už (3) (differenzielles Merkmal ist „der modale Grund“, das gekennzeichnete Glied – déka, per). Die höchste Stufe des Systems bildet die Opposition (6), deren Glieder die Oppositionen (4) und (5) sind: iš, nuo, Instr. (4) – dėl, už, déka, per (5) (differenzielles Merkmal ist „der konkrete (situationale) Grund“, das gekennzeichnete Glied – das erste (iš, nuo, Instr.), vgl.: iš pykčio (vor Wut) – dėl blogos nuotaikos (wegen der schlechten Stimmung), nuo skausmo (vor Schmerz) – dėl blogos savijautos (wegen des schlechten Befindens). Nicht alle Glieder des Systems sind gleich wichtig in funktioneller Hinsicht. Ihre Grundlage bilden die Präpositionen iš, nuo und dėl, už.