Slinkties kelio reikšmės bei jų raiška

LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI XXXIII (1995) GRAMATIKA IR LEKSIKOLOGIJA ELENA VALIULYTĖ MEANINGS OF THE PATH OF MOTION AND THEIR EXPRESSION 1. Introductory Remarks 1.1. Word forms and constructions denoting spatial (locative) relations have the following generalized meanings: 1) the location where an action takes place or an object is situated (lives in the city, grows by the road, plows the field beyond the river), 2) the starting point of motion (returned from the homestead, fell off the table), 3) the endpoint of motion (went to the village, rose up to the clouds), and 4) the path of motion (walks along the country road, drives through the forest, crawls alongside the wall). Expressions of location form a semantic opposition to constructions denoting the starting and endpoint and the path (taken together), in terms of the stativity/dynamism of the spatial relations they express (for more detail, see Kilius 1980: 34 ff.; ГЛЯ 1985: 462). 1.2. The path of motion (hereafter simply path) is expressed by: 1) specialized means of expression, 2) non-specialized means of expression: a) regularly, b) irregularly (in certain contexts). The means of expressing the path are presented in Table 1. 1.3. Forms expressing path—cases and prepositional constructions—like means of expressing location, differ from one another in their orientational features; cf. walks through the forest / through the forest (a path inside an object—the interior meaning) and drives alongside the river, past the forest (a path along the outside of an object—the peripheral meaning). See Table 2. On the other hand, path constructions also differ in their transitivity features: some denote a constant path, others a transitory one (see Kilius 1980: 38). We will use the Lithuanian terms *visas (vientisasis) kelias* ‘entire (continuous) path’ and *tarpinis kelias* ‘intermediate path’. 2. Interior meaning 2.0. Constructions denoting a path through the interior of an object (landmark) have two kinds of meaning: some indicate a path extending along the object—over its surface, e.g.: sails across the lake, climbs up the pole; others indicate a path through the object, e.g.: went out through the door, a nail emerged through the board. These meanings can be represented graphically as follows: [→], [↑] and [↔], [↕]. In both cases, the position of the landmark itself (relative to the earth’s surface) can be either horizontal or vertical. 143 Table 1 Means of expressing path special examples non-special examples 1. instrumental case walks through the forest climbs up the rope runs through the pipe 2. through₁ I walk through the forest sails across the river 3. through₂ came out through the wall 4. through₁ goes through the cottage 5. through₂ went out through the door 6. through it rains through the roof 7. around/round walked around the tree 8. along goes along the river 9. across goes across the field/fields lengthwise diagonally 10. above/overhead flies above the city 11. higher flies above the clouds Occasionally, the path may also be marked by certain other forms of expression of location—prepositional constructions, e.g.: passed in front of the mirror, ran behind someone’s back, drove under the bridge “under the bridge.” Such constructions may be called situational forms of path expression. They are not regular (see 3.5). Note. The construction of the preposition po with the accusative, used with iterative verbs of motion, is considered a separate semantic unit, e.g.: walks around the meadow. For more on this, see the author, 1981: 21 ff. 2.1. Path across an object 2.1.0. The special means of expressing a path across an object are the instrumental case and the preposition per with the accusative, e.g.: travels through the forest / through the forest. Incidentally, the preposition per also has another path meaning, e.g.: a nail stuck out through the board “right through the board” (see 2.2.2.1). More specific path meanings are expressed by the prepositions skersai, išilgai, įstrižai, e.g.: walks across (along, diagonally across) the square / across (along, diagonally across) the square. (Incidentally, these prepositions are used with two cases, the accusative and genitive, without any difference in meaning.) On the other hand, constructions with the prepositions išilgai, skersai, įstrižai form a contrasting opposition to constructions with the preposition per and the instrumental case (taken together) with respect to the direction of motion in relation to the dimensions (width, length, 144 diagonality) of the location (landmark). The marked member of the opposition is the former construction, cf.: walks across (along, diagonally across) the yard – through the yard / across the yard. Orientational Path Meanings and Their Expression Table 2 Interior | Exterior | throughout | through | from one side | from all sides | instrumental | per₁ | crosswise | lengthwise | diagonally | per₂ | through | crosswise | along/ alongside | above/ higher than | other prepositions | (see 3.5) | (on) The instrumental case and the construction with the preposition per have the same orientational meaning—they denote a path of motion inside an object (its opposite is a path outside, close to the object). However, these forms differ in certain nuances of meaning: the instrumental case emphasizes more the continuity of the landmark (place), whereas the construction with the preposition per emphasizes the intersection of the place by the path of motion. J.Kilius (1980:43) nurodė ir minėtų konstrukcijų slankumo reikšmės skirtumus: įnagininkas žymi konstantinį kelią, o prielinksnio per konstrukcija šiuo požiūriu yra nežymėta: ji nurodo ir tranzitinį kelią, ir konstantinį, ir kelią apskritai. Each of the forms mentioned has its own characteristic domain of use. This is what will be highlighted first. 2.1.1. Instrumental Case 2.1.1.0. A concrete noun denoting a long, narrow object or stretch, i.e. one with a linear meaning, most often occurs in the instrumental case (a noun with the opposite meaning denotes an area or point, e.g., meadow, tree). Such nouns can be divided into two groups: 2.1.1.1. Nouns whose lexical meaning denotes linear objects. a) road, country road, path, highway; road verge, roadside; railway, tracks: A hay cart wobbles along the road by the forest. PūkAL 46. From afar one can hear wheels rumbling along the country road and horses neighing. MškŽG44. Rojes was already flying along the highway. GliauPR 370. A girl walked along a path that... wound along the edge of the valley. PaukštAK 283. Walk along the road verge so the car doesn’t hit you. Ktk. He raced along the roadside like a roe deer. ŽobŠV. I travelled by railway. Pn. I used to walk home from school along the railway tracks (standard usage). b) street, sidewalk, platform; tunnel, corridor: Meanwhile, the students were already walking along the streets of the town. BilR I 75. And water flowed along the sidewalks. SirGAI 216. On a warm summer night we walked along a narrow sidewalk. ŠkėmBD 50. He strides along the nearly empty platform. ŠkėmBD 7. Before the town, the train travels through a tunne- 145 liu (bk). Garšava walks along an underground corridor. ŠkėmBD 7. c) field boundary, furrow, track, embankment: And I climb the hill, and wade through the summer-crop field boundary. PūkAL 171. Alūkas would grab a book... and run along the furrow after the plowman. ŽobŠV 180. d) ditch, river, canal, strait: Water runs off the fields through the ditches. Ktk. The river carries rafts (standard language). The knechts rowed along the Nemunas in boats and ships. VienR IV 84. Ships sail along the canal in Klaipėda (standard language). e) stairs, ladder:The old count goes outside, descending the stairs with a clatter. Myk-PutR I 209. He climbed up the stairs. ŠkėmBD 7. They'll teach a cow to climb a ladder! Žvr. f) other objects:The nimble sailor climbs the masts. Jabl. The bean has grown, you see. And he thinks: I wonder who that bean will climb up to heaven. ŠŽ 212. Crooked little pines by the sea. Resin trickles down the trunk; the waves carry off the resin. ŠkėmBD 80. He climbed onto the roof by the drainpipes (standard language). [He] could confidently try to cross one floorboard lengthwise. KatilMAR 50. Constructions of such nouns with the preposition per usually mean “across,” e.g.: walks across the road, wades across the river, climbs across a ladder (laid flat). However, if the context does not allow the situation to be understood in two ways, both of the constructions mentioned are possible with some linear nouns of position. For example, the lengthwise path is denoted by the instrumental case of the nouns footbridge, bridge and by the construction with the preposition per (more commonly). We walk along the footbridge, while he wades straight through in his shoes and trousers. Rm. As I was already walking across the bridge, I heard the deep lowing of cows. PūkAL 13. I’m afraid to walk across the little footbridge on such a dark night (folk song). The liar lied, drove across the bridge, the wheels caught, the liar fell down—kerplop (folk song). 2.1.1.2. Derivative forms with the prefix pa- denoting an elongated place bounded on one side (sideways) (see LKG 1965:425). The young man goes farther along the riverside. ŠŽ 270. Everyone turned around and saw several Teutonic knights riding along the edge of the forest. VienR IV 103. A flock of sheep grazes along the lakeshore. BaltNV 39. That afternoon I walked alone along the seashore. ŠkėmBD 94. The magpie led the way for a long time along the edge of the bog, following the scout’s footsteps. VienR IV 28. The instrumental case of nouns formed in this way is entirely synonymous with constructions using the prepositions along/by and nouns from which the corresponding derivatives with the prefix pa- are formed; cf.: along the edge of the forest — goes along the forest, the forest — goes along the forest. For more on the latter constructions, see 3.1. 2.1.1.3. The instrumental case of other nouns with concrete meanings can often alternate with a construction using the preposition per. It is easy to find examples of alternating usage with the same noun. Into the hungry night, into the cold night, you go into a field covered with snowdrifts. Myk-PutR I 354. — [Andrius] went trudging across the field bareheaded. 146 BubnŽDŽ 14; Anoj dienoj e i n u m i š k u, girdžiu — stuk sena genys. Ktk. — Štai p e r m i š k ą t r a u k i a žalčio karieta. SNėrR I 406; Sužvengė, subildo žirgelis toli: bernužis a t j o j a g i r i a... MairRR I 90. — J o j a jie p e r g i r i ą, žiūri — ant kelio auksinė pasaga. ŠŽ 247. Debesys pamažu kažin kur n u š l i u o ž i a palinkusiu d a n g u m. VaižgRR I 277. — Aš ne saulule p e r d a n g ų v a i k š č i o t i. Viln; Jis ėjo savo tevų k i e m u tvirtais ir džiaugsmingais žingsniais. RutP 12. — Juras e j o p e r k i e m ą, nulėidęs galvą. CvR V 121; S n i e g u lėtai p r a š l i a u ž i a rogės. Pū kAL 23. — Albinukė n u b r i d o p e r s n i e g ą lengva ir greita. BubnŽDŽ 13; E i d a m a s bažnyčios a i k š t e, Tadas susitiko su Baubliu. GliauPR 347. — N u ė j o p e r Katedros a i k š t ę (bk); Seniai neskusta v e i d u r i t o s i stambi ašara. BaltRn 91. — P e r raukšlėtą v e i d ą r i e d a dvi karčios dar užsilikę ašaros. BilR I 57; Merginos s k r u o s t a i s viena po kitos n u s i r i t o keletas skaidrių ašarų (rš). — Ko, ašarėle, ko tu p e r s k r u o s t ą kaip perlas riedi? MairRR I 129. He is old; his legs drag along the floor (/ across the floor). ŠkėmBD 98. He watches as the wall (/ across the wall) a blue fly crawls. Škėm BD 66. And through the sand (/ through the sand) I trudged home. ŠkėmBD 96. We are sailing across Lake of the Four Cantons (/ across the lake). ŠkėmBD 90. The boat heaves over the crests of the rough waves (/ across the crests). Pū kAL 48. And now, wading through the marshes from the town’s station, she thought about it. BilR I 77. The construction with the preposition per is used more widely, while the instrumental case is stylistically motivated. It is more characteristic of colloquial speech and literary writing. 2.1.1.4. Frequent plural instrumental forms of nouns denoting continuous areas across which movement takes place (rather than individual locations!). At first I g o a c r o s s t h e f i e l d s. Pū kAL 223. The horsemen r o d e f o r a l o n g t i m e a c r o s s t h e f o r e s t s and u p t h e s l o p e s. VienR IV 91. T h e y w a d e d a c r o s s t h e m a r s h e s past the swaying tussocks. ŠkėmBD 46. I r o a m e d a c r o s s t h e h i l l s, spent the night in a ravine, built a little nest in a willow thicket (tts). They w a d e d a c r o s s t h e m e a d o w’s s w a m p y p a t c h e s, sinking into the steep clay slides. KatilMAR 99. When a noun in the plural denotes separate locations, often distant from one another, the path is expressed using a construction with the preposition per or a construction with the preposition po (with verbs of repeated movement), cf.: The poor man went through the villages, begging for alms. — The poor man walked around the villages, begging for alms. These constructions mean ‘from one place to another’. For more on this, see the author 1981:25 ff. 2.1.1.5. Two instrumental forms of nouns denoting locations related to one another by inclusion may occur side by side, e.g.: Along that narrow, rutted r o a d a c r o s s t h e f i e l d s, fragrant grass is trampled every day by restless footsteps (Myk-PutR I 320). In such cases, one instrumental form can be replaced by a genitive dependent on the noun, cf. tramples the field-side road. The compared phrases differ not only in syntactic structure: the first is formed by parallel subordination (both constituents are linked directly to the verb), whereas the latter is formed hierarchically, but also in the nature of the information and the emphases of the situation described. In phrases with parallel subordination, equal emphasis is placed on both locations expressed by nouns 147 , whereas in phrases with hierarchical structure and gradual subordination, one location is foregrounded, expressed by the instrumental noun directly linked to the verb. 2.1.2. Through with the accusative 2.1.2.1. The construction with the preposition per, like the instrumental case, denotes a path of movement through the interior of an object. However, the use of these forms overlaps only partially. Each of the forms mentioned has its own characteristic domain of use and semantic combinability. 2.1.2.2. Constructions with the preposition per formed with nouns denoting linear features (e.g., road, river, ditch, etc.) mean ‘across’ and cannot be replaced by the instrumental case. I see some little animal running across the road. Ktk. I did not stop or find out who was calling there; I just walked across the dark street. Myk-PutR I 294. Kulvys had not yet made out the middle; he sees: a broad-antlered elk is swimming across the Nemunas toward the Merkinė bank. KrėvP 34. These constructions can be replaced by constructions with the preposition skersai, cf.: goes across the road / across the road (genitive), swims across the river / across the river (see 2.1.3). 2.1.2.3. Only constructions with the preposition per are used to express a path ‘over the top’ (with verbs such as fly, (per)jump, (per)climb, (per)step, (per)throw, etc.). Marcelė ran out onto the porch and saw a line of cranes flying over the lake. BorBM I 49. As she stepped over the threshold, she groped for the door. SimonP 103. [The people] jumped over the smoking, glowing beams. CvR V 205. 2.1.2.4. Constructions with the preposition per, with various lexical compositions, when combined with verbs containing the prefix per-, cognate with the preposition, are synonymous with the accusative alone. You will swim across the river, and my man will be waiting for you with two horses. ŠaltRD 136. Having climbed over the fence, the child began running toward the valley, limping. CvR I 289. He can still, probably, get across the wall. VendIGD 468. The fire jumped across the ditch. Katil MAR 369. He was about to step over the threshold, but did not succeed. Jurgis ran his hand over the huge map. LzPR I 85. SajND 19. I swam across nine rivers, but this tenth one I swam right across. RD 37. Having climbed over the fence, Anskis walks along the avenues. Simon. Vaišvilka, wearing a black fur coat over his armor, crossed the hall on unsteady legs, buckling with excitement. ŠaltRD 150. He wipes his hand across his face, and not a trace of a smile remains. BubnŽDŽ 17. The forms compared, i.e. the construction with the preposition per and the accusative, differ in certain nuances of meaning. The construction with the preposition per emphasizes movement itself more strongly (the preposition per also contains a movement seme in its semantics), whereas the accusative, as an object case, highlights the place traversed by the movement. 2.1.2.5. Only the construction with the preposition per is used to indicate a clear intermediate route, as the context shows. They travel from Vilnius to Zarasai via Utena. Ut. When I 148 returned home via Kuomiškės, I saw her coming out of the little forest, her green shawl fluttering. VienIMA 143. This time they did not travel along the Samogitian Highway via Šilėnai, but by the road alongside the Nemunas. VencIGD 64. However, when he returned home from cheerful, carefree Paris via Germany, he realized that something was going wrong in the world. VencIGD 112. The intermediate route is indicated not only by proper nouns but also by common nouns, e.g.: The last night herders rode out through the village, their iron shackles clanking. VienIMA 23. I used to walk to school through the little forest (part of the way; the instrumental case of “little forest” would mean “the whole way”). Ktk. Incidentally, proper nouns can also mean “the whole way,” but only with the preposition per (such nouns are not used in the instrumental case to indicate a route), e.g.: It got dark while traveling through Utena, but not *while traveling Utena. 2.1.2.6.To indicate a route through the interior of an object, the preposition per is usually used with concrete nouns of broad meaning, e.g.: A person travels through the world. Brazdž. Autumn strode through the homeland along the heather of the forest. SNėrR I 325. I walk across the springtime earth—and my heart is full of brightness. PūKAJ 223. And the children’s face [turns] earthward through the Maries—and promises to return whenever he wishes. SNėrR I 422. 2.1.2. The preposition per (not the instrumental case!) is used with plural nouns denoting objects situated at some distance from one another (the contrasting use is the plural of nouns denoting continuous areas; see 2.1.1.4). For the third autumn in a row, he traveled through the villages of the surrounding area. CvR₁ II 35. Go around the houses—you might find out who is selling a cow. Ktk. Once, a coin passed through people’s fingers. GliauPR 92. A glass [of champagne] went from hand to hand. RimkKK 335. These constructions denote a whole route divided into segments. Constructions with this meaning are formed not only with nouns denoting places or things, but also with nouns denoting people or events (processes). [The teacher] went from parent to parent, asking them to let their children study. RimkKK 138. A person can hardly manage to go to all the wakes. VencIPU 332. Every day he would go around to the work bees. BubnŽDŽ 11. These have synonymous counterparts with double prepositional constructions, cf. went from village to village / from one village to another (for more detail, see aut. 1981: 27). 2.1.3. Constructions with across, lengthwise, diagonally 2.1.3.1. The prepositions across, lengthwise, diagonally are used without a difference in meaning with the genitive and accusative (see LKG 1971:637 ff.). With verbs of motion, these constructions denote the path of motion within an object (landmark). Incidentally, when used with verbs of placing or changing position, they denote the endpoint of motion, e.g.: lay down across the bed (cf. lay down in the bed). 2.1.3.2. The prepositional path constructions mentioned form a privative opposition to the construction with the preposition per in terms of the direction of motion relative to the landmark’s dimensions (the latter construction is the unmarked member). [Veronika] waded across the ground, came out into the meadow and 149 looked around. VienAS 33. Field strips ran lengthwise. Grž. He walked diagonally across the field. Mžš. I can swim diagonally across the Dubysa. Krtv. Go diagonally through the forest. Vkš. Picking up speed, you slide across a puddle. MašAMB 21. If a hare runs across the road, it will bring good luck. Vlk v. Run lengthwise across the meadow. Ukm. He swam lengthwise across the lake. Gs. When these constructions are replaced by the preposition per with the accusative, some information is lost; cf.: goes across (lengthwise, diagonally across) the meadow and goes through the meadow (in any direction relative to the meadow’s dimensions). 2.1.3.3. The constructions with the preposition įstrižai, usually in colloquial speech, can also denote a path alongside an object. In this case, they are synonymous with constructions using the prepositions pagal/palei with the accusative or with the instrumental of nouns bearing the prefix pa-, e.g.: go diagonally along the river/along the river/by the riverside. 2.1.3.4. The same words skersai, išilgai, įstrižai/ įkypai are used together with a construction containing the preposition per and function as adverbs, e.g.: Once a man, having wandered off the path in a foreign land and walking across the fields, had to crawl through a fence. Jrk 127. Go diagonally across the windrows and you will find it. Ds. These adverbs do not form a compound with the preposition per: this is shown by their ability to occur after the prepositional construction, that is, postpositively; cf. eina skersai per dirvą (a) ‘goes across the field’ and eina per dirvą skersai (b) ‘goes through the field diagonally’. The prepositional use of the aforementioned adverbs with the accusative may have arisen from constructions (a), by omitting the preposition per without losing information; cf. eina skersai [per] dirvą. 2.1.4. Concluding remarks 1) The instrumental case and the construction with the preposition per mark the path across an object in its entirety. These forms contrast with constructions using the prepositions pagal/palei and pro with the accusative, which denote a path alongside an object; cf.: eina mišku/ per mišką — eina pro mišką/ palei mišką. 2) The use of constructions with the preposition per and of the instrumental case partly overlaps. However, each of these forms also has a sphere of use characteristic of it. 3) Nouns with linear meanings are used in the instrumental, e.g.: eina keliu, gatve. The same nouns with the preposition per have a different path meaning—“across.” 4) The construction with per is used with verbs prefixed by per-. In addition, it is synonymous with the accusative, e.g.: perėjo per kiemą/ kiemą, peršoko per griovį/ griovį. 5) Only the construction with the preposition per is used to denote an intermediate route: when the context makes it clear that the place passed through is left as a waystation, e.g.: Iš Vilniaus į Uteną važiuojam per Molėtus. 6) When the entire route is denoted, that is, when approaching a place and moving away from it are not emphasized, the construction with the preposition per and the instrumental can be used side by side, synonymously, e.g.: eina per kiemą/ kiemu, važiuoja per mišką/ mišku. In this case, the instrumental is stylistically marked. 7) The construction with the preposition per and the instrumental (taken together) form a privative opposition to constructions with the prepositions skersai, išilgai, įstrižai, which denote— 150 …and the direction of motion relative to the dimensions of the landmark. 2.2. Path through an object 2.2.0. A path through an object is expressed by constructions with the prepositions pro ‘through’ (he went out through the door) and per ‘through’ (the bullet came out through the wall), as well as with skersai ‘across’, išilgai ‘along’, įstrižai / įkypai ‘diagonally’, and kiaurai ‘right through’ (the tusks protruding right through the cheeks). Path-through-an-object constructions contrast with other path constructions in terms of the direction of motion relative to the landmark: they denote motion perpendicular to the landmark, piercing through it, e.g.: the bullet went through the wall, went out through the gate (the gate is conceived of as a vertical plane). Other path constructions, by contrast, denote a path of motion parallel to the landmark, e.g.: goes across the square (the path is parallel to the object's surface), goes along the square (the path is parallel to the object's side), goes around the square (the path is parallel to all sides of the object). The meaning of path through an object is heterogeneous: constructions with the preposition pro generally denote a path through an empty, enclosed space, e.g.: goes through the door, crawls through a hole, whereas constructions with the preposition per denote a path through a solid object, e.g.: came out through the palm, soaked through the clothes. The use of the prepositions pro and per differs primarily according to the meanings of the nouns, and partly according to the verbs. 2.2.1. Pro with the accusative 2.2.1.1. Constructions with the preposition pro, denoting a path of motion through an object as an obstacle, may carry evaluative semes ‘with difficulty’ or ‘easily’ (cf. Russian СВПО 1972:131). This is evident from the verbs governing the constructions and the adverbs or particles attached to them, cf.: 1) the carriage passed through the gate with difficulty, 2) the carriage passed through the gate easily; 3) the carriage barely squeezed through the gate, 4) *the carriage squeezed through the gate easily; 5) the carriage slipped through the gate easily, 6) *the carriage slipped through the gate with difficulty. Verbs neutral with respect to the aforementioned semes can take both modifiers (see examples 1 and 2), whereas verbs that mark them take only one each (see examples 3 and 5). 2.2.1.2. The verbs used with constructions containing the preposition pro can be divided into several semantic groups (see author 1963:52). a) Neutral motion verbs: go, run, travel, carry, drive, etc. b) Verbs denoting movement with obstacles, i.e. containing the seme “with difficulty”: to force one’s way, break through, push through, squeeze through, struggle through, penetrate, etc. c) Verbs denoting acts or states of seeing or related to sight: to see, look, observe, appear; shine, glow, turn blue, shimmer; d) Verbs denoting acts perceived by hearing or through the sense of hearing: to hear, listen, speak, ring, etc. 2.2.1.3. The distinguishing force of constructions with the preposition pro depends on the lexical meaning of their noun; compare: He walks pro the garden, “past it,” 151 he goes pro the gate, “through it.” Incidentally, the latter construction can also mean “past,” but only in a particular context, e.g.: he drove past the gate but did not turn into the yard (without additional context, the construction pro the gate is associated with the meaning “through it”). The nouns that typically occur with the preposition pro in the meaning “through” denote: a) holes and openings (door, window, gate, crack, hole, gap, aperture, breach...; throat, ear, nose): And Brisius, saddened, trudges out through the door. BilR I 206. The two of us entered through the largest gate of the gymnasium. PūkAL 143. The kitten jumped through the window into the room where the princess was lying. An. What I saw through the little peephole rubbed in the glass, I still cannot forget... Vien. At night the prisoner’s pipe glimmered through the tiny cracks. Cv. Great wisdom emerges through a small throat. Ps. While I was young, I blossomed beautifully; when I grew old, I gained eyes, and through those eyes I myself emerged. Pkr. b) porous objects, objects with gaps or openings (fence, cart, net, grating, sieve...): One of them, already right by the little gate, tried to squeeze into the garden through a wattle fence and got wedged. Cv. My knife fell through the cart (through the gaps between its slats). Jabl. Small fish will get out through a net like that—it is sparse. Ktk. Rye trickles through the sieve. Vlkv. And the late flowers, with the variety and abundance of their blossoms, continued to push through the garden fence everywhere. KatilMAR 367. c) a mass of similar objects (crowd, group, people, foliage, leaves, branches, trees...): Prakapas pushed his way through the crowd without hesitation. Cv. A quick, nimble little woman squeezed her way closer through the people. Vencl. The sun shimmered through the branches of the trees. Cv. The blue sky shines through the dark green leaves. With a jug in her hand, the mistress ran in from outside and, squeezing through the crowd, having thoroughly blocked the cellar entrance, asked. KatilMAR 374. The sun here filtered through the branches of spreading trees. KatilMAR 308. d) long hollow objects (pipe, chimney, straw, sleeve, bottle neck): The water flowed out through the pipes (cf.). Smoke rises straight and thin through the chimney. PūkAL 79. A white steamer, sending smoke through its leaning chimney, moves farther and farther away. PūkAL 48. The rubber ball looked quite slender, and its head could easily pass through the bottle neck. Cv. She was sucking the drink through a thin straw... Vencl. The gentleman drinks mead through his sleeve. Lg. e) visible natural phenomena (fog, smoke, rain, clouds...): At the edge of the sky, the moon shone dimly through the fog. Vencl. Now he sat leaning back, already a little drunk, smoking, and through the smoke saw Marta’s flushed face... Vencl. At that moment, a blinding flash of lightning flickered, 152 for a moment, painfully green leaves appeared through the rain. Cv. But the sun broke through the clouds again. KatiIMAR 320. f) sounds (noise, buzzing, crying...): Before noon, through the hum of the threshing machines, you could hear sheep bleating incessantly. Cv. Through the rustling of the rain, he listened, hoping to hear a familiar thud on the stairs... Cv. It should be added that constructions with the preposition pro formed with nouns denoting visible natural phenomena (see e) or sounds (see f) have limited semantic combinability. cf.: the moon shone through the fog, he heard someone speaking through the rustling. 2.2.1.4. The preposition pro is also used in a “non-native” lexical environment—with nouns denoting solid objects as obstacles to be overcome, i.e. instead of the preposition per (see 2.2.2.1). Although the little house’s windows were covered, light seeped out from inside through the fabric, which was not thick enough... Vencl. The evening chill seeps through a thin dress. BubnŽDŽ 95. Pleasant coolness from the earth streams through his shirt, damp with sweat. BubnŽDŽ 82. It was believed that after eating honeycomb, the wax seeped through the skin of the abdomen. Ivan GU 121. His broad shoulders rise, and sharp shoulder blades jut out through his jacket. BubnŽDŽ 52. While still free, one prisoner taught her how to speak through a thick wall. Cv. Use of the preposition pro may be supported by its cognate prefix pra-: Water filtered through the shaft, while the gravel and fine sand remained... PožŽNSV 98. And the flame, bristling with plumes of smoke and clusters of sparks, had already burst through the roof of the barn. Vien. Redness broke through his tanned cheeks. KatiIMAR 189. The rye did not sprout; worms snipped its weakened shoots, which had not yet managed to break through the clods, as if with scissors. KatiIMAR 380. However, it is doubtful that the use of the preposition pro instead of the preposition per is tolerable in standard language with verbs taking the cognate prefix per-, e.g.: the wind filters through the barn (= through the barn). The dampness of the clay near the edge seeped through Garšva’s boots (=through the boots), and he trembled. ŠkemBD 36. From the perspective of standard language, constructions with the preposition pro formed with nouns denoting solid objects (not holes!), i.e. used instead of constructions with the preposition per, should be assessed in the same way as constructions with the preposition per used instead of constructions with the preposition pro (see 2.2.2.2): both the former (seeps through clothes) and the latter (went out through the door) constructions should be considered peripheral. To indicate a path through an empty space, the construction with the preposition pro predominates in standard language, whereas the construction with the preposition per is standard for indicating a path through a solid object. The use of these constructions side by side is stylistically motivated. Sometimes the choice of preposition is determined by a cognate verb prefix (see 153 2.2.1.4). 2.2.2. Per with the accusative 2.2.2.1. Constructions with the preposition per, denoting a path straight through an object, differ from constructions with the preposition pro in the lexical meanings of the nouns that make them up. The preposition per, unlike the preposition pro, is used with nouns denoting filled space—solid objects conceived as material (their opposites are cavities, gaps, and objects with spaces), e.g.: the bullet went through the wall, through the leg, through the wardrobe, through the ceiling, and so on. There is no point in grouping such nouns in greater detail. It is more relevant to discuss in greater detail the verbs with which these constructions are combined. Constructions with the preposition per, formed with nouns denoting solid objects, are usually used with the verbs: a) to crawl in/out, to come out, to pass through ‘to emerge’, to shoot through, to pierce, to stab through, to perforate: I didn’t crawl in through the wall—I came in through the open entrance. Lž. May your eyes pop out through the back of your head! Ds. The nail went through the wall. Prn. The bullets went through the wall. Ktk. The bullet went through the leg. Švn. He won’t shoot through the brick wall. Kri. He shot through three walls. Btg. He pierced the ball with a knitting needle. Ktk; b) to seep, to become permeated, to seep through, to soak through ‘also’, to get soaked through, to become drenched: The blood is seeping through even the shirt. Užp. He poured sand into the puddle—the water seeped through the sand too. Ktk. The coffee soaked through the tablecloth—and you couldn’t scrub it out even with your teeth. Ktk. The rain soaked me through even my raincoat. Ktk; c) to blow through, to strain through ‘also’: The wind blew through the ears through a thin kerchief. Ktk. The wind was blowing through the c l o t h e s. VienVŠ 196; d) to penetrate, to push through, to force one’s way, to break through: The soldiers boldly pushed through a wall of fire and explosions (rs). The cows forced their way through the bushes. Balt. He pushed his way through the dense roadside alder grove. RimkKK 187; e) verbs denoting actions perceived through hearing (to hear, to listen, to understand, to communicate...): I’m walking across the yard, I hear through the wall, our people are gossiping about us two. RD 61. It is possible to communicate even through a wall. Ktk; f) verbs denoting actions and states perceived through sight (to see, to glimpse, to seem, to turn red, to shimmer): He can still see, but only as if through smoke. Bil. 2.2.2.2. In fact, the use of the preposition per is broader. This preposition is used both in dialects and in written language with nouns denoting openings or having such a semantic feature, i.e. instead of the preposition pro (see 2.2.1.3). The carriage turned through the last gates at the end of the village, decorated with birch branches. Cv. Having saddled and bridled the swift horses, they rode out of their parents’ high manor through the copper gates. Krėv. The princess, per 154 having seen through the window, ordered him to be seized. An. As the robber was going through the door, the bird [struck] him with its sword. Vb. Before long, the bright dawn began to seep inside through the cracks in the barn. The wind roared, the wind whistled past the ears. KatilMAR 121. Through the hole they saw a large dark cave. Pšl. Fire burst from his nostrils and ears. Sml. You banked the stove [juška], when the wind blew all the heat out through the chimney. BubnŽDŽ 58. Lying down behind the hill, I could see the entire enemy fleet clearly through the binoculars. Balč. The use of the preposition per in a “non-native” environment, i.e. with nouns denoting openings, just as the use of constructions with the preposition pro instead of the preposition per, i.e. with nouns denoting solid objects (see 2.2.1.4), may be supported by the verb prefix related to the preposition—in this case, per-, e.g.: I crawl through a hole in the wall and, gasping for breath, rush into the shop. PūkAL 38 Thread the stick through the handles of the net and let’s carry it together—it will be easier. Ktk. However, with verbs bearing the prefix pra-, the preposition per should not be used in standard language instead of pro, i.e. with nouns denoting openings, for example: Blood broke through (=pro) the mouth. Crawled through (=pro) the hole. On the other hand, this prefix does not preclude using the preposition per with nouns denoting solid objects, i.e. in its characteristic environment, for example: drilled a hole through the stone. 2.2.2.3. In summary, it may be stated that: 1) the characteristic environment for the use of the preposition per in the meaning ‘through’ is with nouns denoting solid objects, for example: the bullet came out through the wall, the nail pierced through the leg; 2) the use of the preposition per in a “non-native” environment—with nouns denoting openings, i.e. instead of the preposition pro (e.g.: went out through the door, (the fish) came out through the net)—should be considered peripheral from the standpoint of standard language, as should the use of the preposition pro instead of the preposition per (see 2.2.1.4; 2.2.2.2); 3) there are contexts in which it is difficult to say definitively which preposition should be preferred, for example: heard through the noise / across the noise. 2.2.3. Constructions with across, lengthwise, diagonally 2.2.3.1. These prepositions differ from others in that they are used with two cases—the accusative and the genitive—without any difference in meaning (see LKG II 637—640). 2.2.3.2. The prepositions mentioned can, among other things, also denote a path of motion straight through a solid object; unlike the preposition per, however, they also indicate the direction of motion in relation to the dimensions of the landmark. The bullet went diagonally through the wall. Plv. The spear pierced the tree crosswise (bk). The nail came out lengthwise through the board. Ktk. These constructions form a privative opposition with the construction containing the preposition per: the latter construction is its unmarked member. Replacing the former constructions with it 155 results in the loss of some information, cf.: the bullet went diagonally through the wall, the bullet went through the wall. 2.2.4. Constructions with right through, through and through 2.2.4.1. The preposition kiaurai and its synonym skradžiai have very limited lexical collocability: they normally occur with the noun earth and with the verbs sink through, plunge down, go “etc.”. May you go r i g h t t h r o u g h t h e e a r t h! Lp. I can’t find it anywhere—it may have s u n k r i g h t t h r o u g h t h e e a r t h! Slm. If only he would p l u n g e r i g h t t h r o u g h t h e e a r t h; he’s become so annoying. Užp. It’s very boggy here; it seems you could s i n k r i g h t t h r o u g h t h e e a r t h. Lš. May you d i s a p p e a r r i g h t t h r o u g h t h e e a r t h! Ds. These constructions do not alternate with the construction containing the preposition per unless their noun is in the plural, e.g.: There is no trace of it anywhere; it seems to have gone right through the earth (/through the earth). Pbs. It should be added that these constructions lack the seme ‘passing to the other side’ characteristic of the construction containing the preposition per: their meaning is closer to that of an endpoint, cf.: sank right through the earth, sank into the earth. 2.2.4.2. These prepositions are also used in the lexical environment of the preposition per (usually with the verbs crawl, crawl out, crawl through, pass through “etc.”): As if in the sand, he c r a w l e d r i g h t t h r o u g h e v e r y t h i n g and c r a w l e d t h r o u g h. Plv. If I give you the chance, you’ll c r a w l r i g h t t h r o u g h t h e w a l l. Ktk. These constructions belong to the colloquial style. 2.2.5. Concluding remarks 1) Constructions denoting a path through an object form a strong semantic opposition to constructions denoting a path through the interior of an object, with respect to the direction of movement relative to the landmark, cf.: a) goes through the doorway (↔), b) goes across the yard (→). In the first case, the direction perpendicular to the landmark is indicated; in the second, the direction parallel to it. 2) The meaning of a path through an object is heterogeneous and is expressed by two prepositions: pro with the accusative and per with the accusative, cf.: (He) went out through the gate and (the bullet) went out through the wall. 3) Each of these prepositions has its own characteristic semantic compatibility with nouns; the differences in meaning between the constructions themselves depend on this. 4) The preposition pro combines with nouns denoting openings, gaps, or spaces, or containing such semantic features, e.g.: went out through the gate, came out through the fence, looks through the window, smoke rises through the chimney, sifts through the sieve. 5) The typical usage context of the preposition per is nouns denoting solid objects, e.g.: (a nail) pierced through the board, (water) soaked through the clothes, the wind blew through the ears through a headscarf, hears through the wall. 156 6) These prepositions are also used in “nonstandard” contexts: per instead of pro (goes per the door, looks per the window, emerged per the fence) and pro instead of per (seeps pro the clothes, hears pro the wall, a chick hatches pro the shell). From the perspective of the standard language, such usage of the prepositions in question should be considered peripheral. 3. The meaning of passing alongside Constructions denoting a path alongside a landmark are the opposite of constructions denoting a path through the interior of a landmark; compare: goes pro the forest (meaning ‘alongside’), goes per the forest (meaning ‘through the interior’). Constructions denoting a path alongside a landmark have more than one meaning. Constructions with the accusative of the prepositions pro and pagal/ palei denote a path alongside a landmark, without specifying which side; constructions with the accusative of the prepositions apie/ aplink denote a path encircling an object on all sides (see 3.3), while other constructions indicate a path of motion in relation to some side (part) of a landmark (see 3.4; 3.5). The meanings of pro and pagal/ palei with the accusative are similar, but they also differ in certain respects (cf. Kilius 1980:44). The latter constructions indicate the entire (continuous) path of motion, whereas the former usually indicate an intermediate path, one segment of a longer route; compare: we drove palei the forest (the whole way), we drove pro the forest (for one stretch, but not: the whole way). In addition to these nuances of motion, the constructions mentioned also differ somewhat in their orientational meaning: constructions with pagal/ palei indicate a path of motion very close to the landmark (alongside it), whereas constructions with the preposition pro are unmarked in this respect; compare: He walked right past the windows and did not come in. Bsg. — Autumn clouds drifted past the mill sails. BorBM₁ 50. Each of the prepositions mentioned has its own characteristic semantic combinability. The use of pagal/ palei is more restricted (with respect to the noun). Therefore, these prepositions will be discussed first. 3.1. Along/ alongside with the accusative These prepositions are synonymous in the path sense. However, their overall semantics do not coincide entirely: the preposition pagal also has other meanings (see LKG 1971:622 ff.). 3.1.1. The typical usage environment of the prepositions pagal/ palei is nouns denoting linear objects (a river, ditch, embankment, fence, wall, bench). Their opposites are objects conceived of as points. And he goes farther along the stream. PūkAL 187. The lord’s young hemp was torn up as you walked along the Nemunas. ŠkemBD 78. The horse turns off the road and goes along the ditch—it might fall in. Lnkv. He walked along the garden fence. Tvr. Here come the girls along my furrow. Rz. Walk farther along the river and you will find the road. Prm. Look, it’s running along the wall. VIkv. 3.1.2. It should be noted that these constructions are not common: for the same purpose, we have another form—the instrumental case of nouns with the prefix pa-, e.g.: he went along the riverbank, along the ditch, crawls along the wall, along the fence. Such instrumentals can— 157 be replaced by constructions with the prepositions pagal/ palei and the corresponding nouns without a prefix, and vice versa, provided that the syntactic environment does not prevent this; compare: he went along the riverbank/along the river, along the edge of the forest/along the forest, crawls along the wall/along the wall, flies low over the ground/along the ground. However, these forms cannot be interchanged if they have a modifier; compare: From the forest, the ditch-diggers were dragging out logs from the riverbanks (KatilMAR 285) and He went along the garden fence. On the other hand, a prepositional construction cannot be replaced by an instrumental if no noun derived with the prefix pa- can be formed from its noun, e.g.: Here come the girls along my furrow. Rz. 3.1.3. The prepositions pagal/ palei are also used with nouns that do not have a linear meaning and denote particular areas (e.g., forest, garden, rye ‘rye field’, lake) or simply objects of larger size (e.g., buildings). Go along the rye field. LKK IX 162. A wolf passed along the village. Mrc. The two of us set off across the fields along the field boundaries, past a large puddle with three birches on its bank. MikelLE 87. I look—he is riding along the manor. Lp. I ride along the garden; the gardens have blossomed. Ktv. And such constructions can also be replaced by the instrumental of a noun with the prefix pa- (if such a noun exists and the syntactic environment permits it), e.g.: Aliukas carefully moved along the lakeshore. ZobŠV 78. (Compare also: A carefree little animal moved along the edge of the lake. ZobŠV 55). The fields always drew him, but one does not get to walk along the rye field every day. ZobŠV 15. On the other hand, such constructions with the prepositions pagal/ palei can be used alongside constructions with the preposition pro; compare: 1) we drove past the lake/along the lake, 2) he rode past the garden/along the garden, 3) he passed by the post/*along the post. The contrasting pairs differ in certain nuances of meaning contributed by the prepositions: the preposition palei emphasizes the proximity of the path of motion to the landmark (place), as well as the landmark’s extension: the preposition itself has the seme ‘linearity’ and can convey it to the adjacent word (a noun denoting a place), provided that the word’s meaning does not conflict with it. For example, with nouns denoting objects as points (see example 3), this preposition loses the seme ‘linearity’ and is therefore not characteristic with them. The preposition pro, by contrast, indicates an object (place) that is passed or left behind, without emphasizing the proximity of the path of motion to it. 3.1.4. With nouns denoting small objects, only the preposition pro is used, while the preposition pagal is used very rarely, e.g.: But one mischievous pupil threw a nut at my head, and it whizzed right past me. BalčGK 92. This usage environment is peripheral for the prepositions pagal/ palei. For examples with the preposition pro, see 3.2. 3.1.5. The prepositions pagal/ palei are used with plural nouns denoting objects arranged in a row or scattered about, for example: It was difficult to watch how the woman was running back and forth along the railway cars of the neighboring train. CvR₁ II 399. And when she gets up, she goes al 158 through all our beds, nudging one person’s pillow, fixing another’s kicked-off blanket. BaltPV II 322. Troubles go along the houses, not along the trees (tts). Such constructions can be replaced by double prepositional constructions, cf.: ran from one railway car to another, goes from one bed to another (for more on this, see the author 1981: 27). 3.1.6. Constructions with the prepositions pagal/ palei formed with the nouns earth, water and used with the verbs to fly, to glide have the meaning “near,” for example: They usually fly low, right along the water. IvanPP 191. The swallows just dart back and forth, back and forth along the ground. ČiurŠ1 48. I’ll swing the little scythe along the little patch of ground, cut the clover along the roots. DvD 96. For the same purpose, a construction with the preposition arti or the instrumental case of nouns with the prefix pa- is used, for example: Around midday, the swallows came out of their nests and began flying very close to the ground. ZobŠV 45. The swallows began flying even more along the ground. ZobŠV 46. 3.1.7. In summary, it should be said that: 1) the prepositions pagal and palei are lexical synonyms: their spatial meanings coincide completely, for example: goes along the river, walks along the house; 2) the most characteristic context for the use of these prepositions is with nouns denoting linear features, for example: river, ditch, fence, wall, field boundary, and so on (the preposition pro is not used with these nouns); 3) these prepositions also occur with nouns denoting certain areas or larger objects, for example: goes along the forest, garden, square (the preposition pro is also used with these, but with a somewhat different meaning; see 3.1.3); 4) the prepositions pagal/ palei are sometimes used in “non-prototypical” contexts as well: with nouns denoting objects conceived of as points (in contrast to objects conceived of as lines or areas), for example: ran past a post, whistled past an ear (in this position, the preposition pro is characteristic); 5) constructions with the prepositions pagal/ palei can be complete synonyms of the instrumental case of nouns with the prefix pa-, for example: goes along the river / along the riverbank, along the wall / along the wall, along the fence / along the fence, drives along the forest / along the forest edge. 3.2. Pro with the accusative 3.2.1. The meaning of the preposition pro is described in general terms by the adverbialized construction pro šalį (its noun means “side,” which DŽ₁ lists as the first meaning, p. 803). The actual content of this construction, that is, the object being passed, becomes clear from the context, e.g.: And he looked not at me, but somewhere past me (past me). BaltPV I 28. And Juozas passed by, without speaking at all to his beloved guest (past the guest). LzP II 18. Here rafts come toward us: a steamer quickly draws level with them. As if reluctantly, the rafts’ bow slowly turns away from the steamer toward the middle of the river—and the rafts, carried by the water, glide past (past the steamer). BilR I 133. Now the inhabitants no longer fled from it (the hill) as from disease and plague; instead, as they went past (past the hill), they bowed their heads with respect and love. 3.2.2. The use of the preposition pro to denote a path is broader and more varied than that of the prepositions pagal/ palei. 159 3.2.2.1. Constructions with this preposition combine not only with clear verbs of motion, but also with: a) sound verbs, e.g.: Bees keep buzzing over your head, while bullets whiz past mine. Plv. Echelons rumbled past us for a long time. BaltRn 88; b) verbs of seeing (and the like), e.g.: Broad fields, meadows, and trees farther off can be seen past the barn. ŽemR III 178. He lights his pipe and looks out past the village barns, past the stables. KrėvAP 86. In lexical environments (a), the preposition pro is possible because the prepositional construction’s meaning is felt to contain a motion seme (pro is used to denote a path and not to indicate location). Verbs of seeing themselves, however, have faint motion semes: žiūrėti “to direct one’s gaze somewhere,” matyti “to perceive by looking.” Constructions with the prepositions pagal/ palei are undifferentiated with respect to direction and location. Therefore, their distinguishing meaning depends on the verb. For example, with the verbs specified above (a, b), constructions with these prepositions have a locative (not path!) meaning, e.g.: bees buzz along the head, a meadow can be seen along the barn. 3.2.2.2. A typical environment for the use of a construction with the preposition pro is verbs with the related prefix pra-, e.g.: he went past the garden, drove past, past the houses, roared past the town. Two cases should be distinguished. a) Verbs derived from intransitive verbs of motion (e.g.: to pass, to run past, to sail past, to glide past) form combinations with a construction containing the preposition pro, which can alternate with the bare accusative (or genitive—if the verb is negated with ne-). Passing the linden tree (/the linden tree), you sense the scent of the village and feel at home. Myk-PutS I 23. Why did you go and pass through the gate without stopping by? Lnkl. As it darted past the bee-hive, the little bee stirred a twig of the hive (tts). Often when passing through Marijampolė, if I find a spare hour, I stop by the cemetery to visit the grave of my beloved writer. VenclLL 370. Rapolas drove and passed through the yard, driving the horses along the field road. BaltPV II 351. I passed between two spruces to the carved swing. RadzPV I 23. He drove up to the village and drove past the pine forest. ZobŠV 77. After passing Seredžius, the sun is setting. PūkAL 46. No one, whether walking, riding, or driving, passed, rode, or drove past his tall gate without having gone in, delighted in the riches, and spent the night. Krėv. The bare accusative differs from a construction with the preposition pro in certain shades of meaning: in the former case, greater emphasis falls on the object (place) left behind or passed (passed the linden tree), whereas the prepositional construction emphasizes passing by that object (passed by the linden tree). b) Only the construction with the preposition pro combines with derivatives of the prefix pra- formed: 1) iš tranzityvinių veiksmažodžių (pvz.: pravesti, pravežti, prav yti, praginti; prapilti, pramesti): Risčia pro šaltą dūšą pravarė — ne visi ir sušlapti suspėjo. SruogR V 79. Pro mane pravežė baltą, iš lentų sukaltą karstą. BilR I 212. Pyliau patamsy ir prapyliau pro puo- 160 dynę. Ktk; 2) from sound-imitating verbs (e.g.: praūžti, pradundėti, prašvilpti, prašnyPšti): The airplane roared past the town (bk). The train has already rumbled past the lake. Ktk. The bullet whistled right past his head (bk). In the first case, the prepositional construction cannot be replaced by the accusative because of the verb’s syntactic valency: the accusative position is occupied by another noun, e.g.: he threw the ball through the basket. In the second case, this is precluded by the meaning of the verb: for sound-imitating verbs, the meaning of motion is secondary, and a locative construction is needed to make it salient. Moreover, the accusative is not used with vivid or figurative verbs containing the prefix pra-, e.g.: the fox trotted past the barn (not *the barn), the neighbor trudged past our house, the rider raced (whistled, flew, darted) past the castle, slipped past the windows. On the other hand, the irreplaceability of a construction may also be determined by its own lexical composition. For instance, the construction with the preposition pro and personal pronouns cannot be replaced by the accusative, e.g.: A group of people passed by me (bk). He never passes us without stopping for a chat. Many cars drove past us. Ktk. Likewise, nouns denoting people are generally used with the preposition pro, and less often with the accusative; cf.: Now it happened to Severiutė more and more often that she passed by the fiddler. VaizgR I 44 — He would pass the guests and, stopping by the throne, unhook that strange little box. JurkVT 40. 3.2.3. The preposition pro forms constructions with various concrete nouns denoting both places and objects, except for nouns with a linear meaning, which are characteristic of the usage contexts of the prepositions pagal/ palei (see 3.1). As we drove past the lake, Father showed Mother where the wolf had killed the foal. VienIMA 157. He walked across the wide market square. As they passed the cottage, they heard a terrible scream. I chased the cat across the fields. The soldiers turned around and raced straight past the apple trees into the open fields. One is afraid to walk past the bathhouse in the evening. CvR I 101. CvR I 94. ZobŠV 106. KrevAP 69. I dodged around the support. Mother tilts her head past the tuft of tow. Then he struck the flint with the striker so hard that a handful of sparks burst out past his fingernail. Again you could clearly see him through the backs of the sheep. PūkAL 30. BaltPV I 15. Myk-PutS I 170. CvR₁ V 12. 3.2.4. Phrases with constructions using the preposition pro have variant (similar) verb phrases with the prefix ap- and an accusative, e.g.: Go around the manor from afar—you’ll avoid a lot of trouble (tts). Whether you want to or not, you have to go around the bog. Dkk. The six of us scrambled back into the boat and safely went around the rock. Balč. 3.2.5. To summarize, 1) unlike pagal/ palei constructions, constructions with the preposition pro have only a path meaning (and cannot denote a location); 161 2) constructions with the preposition pro are used not only with verbs of explicit motion, but also with verbs of perception, sound, and others that have motion semes; 3) a typical environment for the use of constructions with the preposition pro is verbs with the related prefix pra-. With derivatives formed from intransitive motion verbs, this construction alternates with a single accusative argument (without a preposition), e.g.: praėjo (pro) šulinį, praėjo (pro) dvarą. With other verbs, such alternation is impossible (see 3.2.2.2. b); 4) constructions with the preposition pro take various nouns denoting concrete entities, except for linear ones (these are characteristic of the usage environment of the prepositions pagal/ palei); 5) constructions with the preposition pro can alternate with pagal/ palei constructions when they contain nouns denoting broader areas (rather than points in space), e.g.: eina pro ežerą/ palei ežerą// paežere. 3.3. Around with the accusative 3.3.1. These constructions denote a path that encircles an object on all sides and, on this basis, contrast with other constructions expressing the meaning of a path alongside a landmark; cf. he went around the lake and went past the lake (into the forest), flew across the lake. Around constructions with the accusative denote both a path without contact with the landmark and a path involving contact (e.g.: winds the thread around a finger). By the way, in the latter case, we have both a path and an endpoint. 3.3.2. A path without contact is expressed by combinations with motion verbs (a), which may also have the prefix ap(i)- (b). a) A wide detour is formed when travelling around the lake. Kk. Together with the Earth, I too travel around the sun. MasMP 11. The hawk, flying around the farmsteads, had spotted [it]. MašAMB 225. The prankster chased [him] around the cottage three times. SajND 38. b) The sorceress’s sash tied the newlyweds’ hands together and led them around the stone. VienLP 41. With your health, you couldn’t even run around the house. Nmn. She flew around the lake like the wind. Švnč. 3.3.3. A path involving contact and an endpoint are denoted by prepositional around constructions in combinations with the verbs wind, turn, tie, become tied. a) When the flax has dried, they wind it around a finger: the straw breaks, the tow comes away—enough. Ant. Domininkas long ago twirled the charred moustache around his pipe stem (rš). These constructions are synonymous with constructions using the preposition ant. [The] uncle found a piece of string and began winding it around [his] finger. MikelLE 43. My girl, my young one, did you kill [them] to wind the braids around [your] little hands? Pg. [He] winds the warp onto the roller (rš). b) With verbs bearing the prefix ap(i)-, prepositional constructions with apie/ap-link are more usual, though ant with the genitive is also possible. The doctor wrapped the reins around the sleeves. VienAS 147. [He] presses the reins tightly and wraps them around [his] arm. Basan. The birch log wound itself around the antlers, and [there was] a wreath. Sug. 162 The man tied the wolf’s tail around his hand. Jš. A napkin is wrapped around the neck of the bottle (rš). c) With verbs bearing the prefix už-, only the construction with the preposition ant is used. Having ordered [someone] to take a tuft of his hair and wrap it around his left index finger. Slanč. Wrap something around your neck—don’t go out naked. Jrb. Put all those works around the loom beams and tighten them: first onto the warp, then onto the reed. Antr. 3.3.4. Similar combinations are also formed with reflexive intransitive verbs vynioti, vyti, riestis, suktis (cf. 3.3.3). a) The grass winds around the neck. AvyžKK 194. The hop bine (hop) twines tightly around the pole. K II 163. Hop bines (hops) twine around the stake (rš). b) The whip coiled around the neck. Rimk. They say that in pastures where there are snakes, a snake coils around a cow’s leg and suckles. Šil. Why are you curled up here like a snake around a stump? Pp. A horsehair rope, wound twice around the waist (rš). Look—golden snakes coiled around the chairs. Rk. So that plants would not wind around the shaft of the winder, a protective tube is loosely fitted over it (rš). Later a former diver went down into the bottom of the lake to look at the bell, and found it; but a snake had coiled around its heart. Basan. Your snakes will coil around your neck. Sutk. c) They used to say that one must not go gathering nuts through the grassy area, because a snake would coil around one’s neck. Dt. 3.3.5. The verbs under discussion also form more complex word combinations, for example: The hop bine that grew in the forest winds around the trees with its long, rough stem (rš). One of the largest of them [elephants] coiled its trunk around the trunk of the tree where I was hiding. BalčTVN 65. Šarūnas wrapped his arms around his brother’s neck. AvyžŠK 140. 3.4. Constructions with virš, aukščiau, per 3.4.1 Constructions with the prepositions virš (viršum, viršui), aukščiau, per denote a path of motion above an object (without touching it) in combinations with certain motion verbs—verbs of flying, gliding through the air, and of something being launched or tossed. Each of these prepositions has its own characteristic usage. 3.4.2. The construction with the preposition virš is used to describe a path: a) in relation to the earth's surface or objects on it, e.g.: The airplane flew over the South Pole. LaurVS 7. An old crow flew over the bare, empty fields. CvR VII 67. Flocks of wild ducks would fly over the forest without touching down. VienR IV 20. The airplane burst over the city (standard language). Starlings fly over the houses. CvR₁ I 187; b) in relation to objects located above the earth (in the air), e.g.: The airplane flew above the clouds. A fighter jet swooped above the squadron. A hawk dived above the flock of birds; 163 c) in relation to a person, e.g.: An arrow whizzed over his head (standard language). A stork glided over their heads. RimkKK 167. 3.4.3. The preposition virš is close in meaning to aukščiau. They differ in certain nuances of meaning: the former indicates that objects are situated along the same vertical line, while the latter indicates that they are along adjacent vertical lines. This difference can be represented graphically as follows: □ (virš), □ (aukščiau). In certain cases—when speaking of objects that have risen from the ground or are located in space—the preposition aukščiau is also used to denote a path of motion, e.g.: The airplane flew higher than/above the clouds (per debesis ‘through the clouds’ would mean something else). The arrow whistled past above the roof (perhaps over the roof, or perhaps alongside it). But this preposition is not used when speaking of the path of flight or gliding in relation to areas of the earth's surface, e.g.: The bird flew over the fields/ across the fields (but not: higher than the fields). 3.4.4. The special path preposition per is also used with verbs of flying or gliding through the air; in this context it means “a path above an object” and may be synonymous with the preposition virš, e.g.: A little swan flies over (per) the lake. (Recorded.) There’s no point flying across the water to visit daughters-in-law. (Lnkv.) If a cuckoo sings as it flies over a house, that house will burn down. (Auk.) The pellets fly like bees over the colorful flower garden. KlpD 30. However, in certain cases, with these verbs too, a construction with the preposition per may denote “a path inside an object” and alternate with the instrumental case; compare: The bird flies through the forest/through the forest (standard language). The cuckoo flew through green forests, the pike swam through the seas. (Kps.) — And I would turn into a speckled little duck, and fly along the green forest. JV 865. On the other hand, the phrase flies through the forest can also mean “above the forest,” e.g.: the airplane flies through the forest, the bird flies through the forest. 3.4.5. With iterative motion verbs skrajoti, skraidyti, the construction with the preposition virš is generally used. Multicolored butterflies flutter over the flowers like living blossoms. ŠRagSD 34. Lapwings fly over them (the low-lying meadows) and call cheerfully. MikelLE 154. [The female] lured her into flying around above the green forests. CvR VII 74. [The bat] quietly swooped, swaying, above the potato patch and gardens. MikelKLL 26. 3.4.6. The path of motion above an object is also marked by constructions with the preposition per in combinations with verbs of (jumping) over, (climbing) over, and (stepping) across, e.g.: jumped over the ditch, stepped over the threshold, climbed over the fence. If the verb has the prefix per-, the construction with the preposition per may alternate with the accusative alone (without a preposition), e.g.: jumped over a puddle / jumped a puddle, climbed over a fence / climbed a fence (for more on such combinations, see 2.1.2.4.). 3.4.7. 1) To summarize, the path of linear motion above an object is expressed by: a) a construction with the preposition virš (viršum, viršuj); b) a construction with the preposition aukščiau (less often); e) a construction with the preposition per; d) in certain cases, these constructions are used interchangeably, e.g.: flies above the city / flies over the city, 164 flies above the clouds / higher than the clouds, an arrow flew past overhead / higher than the head / over the head; 2) The path of nonlinear (repeated) motion is usually expressed by a construction with the preposition virš, e.g.: butterflies fly above the flowers, above the vegetable garden; 3) With verbs meaning to jump over or climb over, a construction with the preposition per or the accusative alone is used (if the verb is prefixed), e.g.: jumped over the ditch, but jumped over the ditch / jumped the ditch. 3.5. Other constructions In certain contexts, path can also be marked by locative prepositional constructions (cf. Kilius 1980:41—42). in front of — behind: The orator walked past the grandstand (bk). Images of the recent past flashed before his eyes (bk). Someone quickly ran past behind him (bk). between: Cursing, he crept between the stumps, while the branches scratched his face. ZobŠV 132. He walked along a path between snowdrifts, like a raised causeway between bogs and marshes. GliauPR 226. near, beside: Around midday, the swallows emerged from their nests and began flying very close to the ground. ZobŠV 45. Someone walked past my uncle (bk). by: A bee buzzed past his head. under/beneath: The car drove under the bridge/past the underside (bk). The passenger walked under the streetlamp (bk). The diver swam underwater (bk). He ran beneath the branches, where the rain was not so heavy. ZobŠV 68. As the examples show, path is usually expressed by non-typical means with verbs of motion bearing the prefix pra-. 4. Concluding remarks 4.1. The path of motion is expressed by: 1) special means of expression—the instrumental case and prepositional per and pro constructions (walks through the forest/through the forest, drives past the lake, went out through the gate, emerged through the wall); 2) non-special means: a) regularly—constructions with the prepositions apie/ aplink, pagal/ palei (went around the garden, drives along the river); and b) irregularly—other locative constructions (see 3.5.). 4.2. The meaning of the path of motion is not unitary. It divides into finer units according to orientational features: 1) a path through the interior of an object (walks through a meadow, drives through a gate) and 2) a path alongside an object (walks along the river, ran past the houses, went around the well). 4.3. A path through the interior of an object is twofold in terms of the direction of motion: 1) a path traversing the object from end to end (walks through the yard/through the yard) and 2) a path passing right through (perpendicularly across) the object (emerged through the wall, looks through the window). Each of these meanings has two means of expression, which distribute the semantic field they “serve” in their own way, intersecting in some places. 4.4. 1) Nouns with a linear meaning are used in the instrumental case, as are derivatives with the prefix pa-, e.g.: walks along the road, along the riverside. 165 2) The preposition per is used to denote an intermediate path when the context makes it clear that the location in question is approached and then left. 3) Nouns with a non-linear meaning are used to denote a continuous path alongside the preposition per or in the instrumental case, e.g.: drives through the forest/through the forest, (a tear) rolls down the cheek/along the cheek. Incidentally, the instrumental case is stylistically marked. It places greater emphasis on the continuity of the location, whereas the preposition per emphasizes crossing it. 4) Linear nouns with the preposition per have a different path meaning—“across,” e.g.: walks across the road, swims across the river. 5) In combinations with verbs of motion bearing the prefix per-, prepositional per constructions can alternate with a bare accusative (without a preposition), e.g.: crossed the road/across the road, swam across the river/across the river, flew across the Atlantic/across the Atlantic. 4.5. A path passing right through (perpendicularly across) an object is expressed in two ways: with the preposition pro and the preposition per. Each of these prepositions has its characteristic semantic combinability, on which the differences in meaning between the constructions themselves also depend. 1) The preposition pro is used with nouns denoting openings or gaps, or containing such semantic features (went in through the door, emerged through the fence, pushed through the thicket), whereas the preposition per is used with nouns denoting solid objects as material (the nail came through the board, water seeped through the clothes). 2) However, both prepositions are also used in place of one another, that is, in contexts that are “not their own”; cf.: went in through the door, looks through the window, sifts through the sieve (rye grains) and hears through the wall, the wind blows through the clothes. From the standpoint of the standard language, this use of the prepositions in question should be considered peripheral. 4.6. A path alongside an object is denoted by constructions with the prepositions pagal/palei and pro. 1) Nouns with a linear meaning are characteristic of the usage contexts of the prepositions pagal/palei, e.g.: walks along the river, crawls along the wall. 2) When used with nouns having a non-linear meaning, these prepositions can alternate with the preposition pro, e.g.: drives along the forest/through the forest. 3) A construction with the preposition pro is used to indicate an intermediate path of motion, e.g.: we used to walk to the town through the manor. In this case, it cannot be replaced by constructions with the prepositions pagal/palei. 4.7. The constructions with the prepositions apie/aplink and virš express a route passing beside something, with additional nuances; cf.: drove around the forest and flew over the forest. 4.8. Constructions with the prepositions skersai, išilgai, įstrižai denote a route traversed from end to end (goes across the meadow) and straight through (a nail pierced through the palm). Abbreviations BaltNV — B a l t u š i s J. Nežvyruotu vieškeliu. V., 1971. bk — standard language. BubnŽDŽ — B u b n y s V. Alkana žemė. Po vasaros dangum. Nesėtų rugių žydėjimas. V., 1977. JurkVT — J u r k u s P. Ant Vilnelės tilto. Chicago, 1968. GliauPR — G l i a u d a J. Perlojos respublika. Chicago, 1979. LaurVS — L a u r i n č i u k a s A. Varinė saulė. V., 1972. MašMP — M a š i o t a s P. Mokslo pasakos. V., 1973. 166 MškŽG — Miškinis A. Žaliaduonių gegužė. V., 1977. RadzPV — Radzevičius B. Prieaušrio vieškeliai. T. 1–2, V., 1985. RūtP — Rūta A. Priesaika. Chicago, 1962. PožŽNSV — Požėra J. Žuvys nepažįsta savo vaikų. V., 1985. PūkAL — Pūkelevičiūtė B. Aštuoni lapai. V., 1992. SajND — Saja K. Už nevarstomų durų. V., 1983. SirGAI — Sirijos Gira. Atlanto idilės. V., 1973. SV — Sužeistas vėjas. Lietuvių liaudies pasakos. K., 1985. SŽ — Stebuklingas žodis. Lietuvių liaudies pasakos. K., 1985. ŠaltRD — Šaltenis S. Riešutų duona. V., 1972. ŠkėmBD — Škėma A. Balta drobulė. V., 1990. VienVŠ — Vienuolis A. Viešnia iš šiaurės. V., 1989. ZobŠV — Zobarskas S. Per šaltį ir vėją. V., 1989. Other abbreviations are as in the academic three-volume Lithuanian Grammar. LITERATŪRA 1. Jablonskis J. Linksniai ir prielinksniai. — Rinktiniai raštai. T.1, V., 1957, p. 551–672. 2. GNDV — Paulauskienė A., Tarvydaitė D. Gramatinės normos ir dabartinė vartosena. K., 1986. 3. Kilius J. Dėl prielinksnių pro ir per. — Mūsų kalba. 1973, Nr. 4, p. 27–31. 4. Kilius J. Dėl vietos reikšmių sistemingumo. — Mūsų kalba. 1973, Nr. 5, p. 35–40. 5. Kilius J. Orientacinių reikšmių struktūra lietuvių kalboje (Apie vietos prielinksnių ir linksnių reikšmes). — Kalbotyra. T. 28(1), 1977, p. 40–49. 6. Kilius J. Slankumo reikšmių struktūra lietuvių kalboje (Apie vietos prielinksnių ir linksnių reikšmes). — Kalbotyra. T. 31(1), 1980, p. 34–56. 7. LKG — Lietuvių kalbos gramatika. V. T.1, 1965; T.2, 1971; T.3, 1976. 8. Pupkis A. Kalbos kultūros pagrindai. V., 1980. 9. Rasimavičius A. Dėl vietos įnagininko vartojimo. — Kalbos kultūra. Nr. 2, 1962, p. 11–15. 10. Šukys J. Linksnių ir prielinksnių vartojimas. K., 1984. 11. Valiulytė E. Iš sintaksinės sinonimikos (Galininkas su apie, aplink — kilmininkas su ant). — Kalbos kultūra. Nr. 24, 1972, p. 21–23. 12. Valiulytė E. Prielinks­nio po su galininku konstrukcija ir jos sinonimai. — Kalbos kultūra. Nr. 41, 1981, p. 21–40. 13. ГЛЯ — Грамматика литовского языка. В., 1985. 14. СВПО — Веселоводова М.В., Владимирский Е.Ю. Способы выражения пространственных отношений в современном русском языке. Москва, 1982. BEDEUTUNGEN DES FORTBEWEGUNGSWEGES UND IHR AUSDRUCK Zusammenfassung Es gibt einige Bedeutungen des Fortbewegungsweges:1) der Weg dem Ding entlang wird mit dem Instrumental und mit der Präposition per mit Akk. ausgedruckt (eina keliu ”geht den Weg entlang” važiuoja per mišką/mišku ”fährt durch den Wald/den Wald entlang”, grįžo per Vokietiją iš Europos ”kehrte durch Deutschland aus Europa zurück); 2) der Weg durch den Ding wird mit der Präposition pro mit Akk. (wenn das Substantiv eine Öffnung, Höhlung bezeichnet: išėjo pro duris ”ging durch die Tür hin”, žiūri pro grotas ”sieht durch das Gitter”), mit der Präposition per mit Akk. (wenn das Substantiv das ganze Ding bezeichnet: kulka išėjo per sieną ”die Kugel ging durch die Wand aus”, vanduo persigėrė per drabužius 167 ”das Wasser durchsickerte durch die Kleider“); 3) der Weg neben dem Ding — mit den Präpositionen pagal/palei mit Akk. (wenn das Substantiv eine Linienbedeutung hat: eina pagal upę „geht den Fluß entlang“), mit der Präposition pro mit Akk. (praėjo pro šulinį „ging am Brunnen vorbei“); 4) der Weg herum das Ding — apibėgo apie/aplink namą „lief das Haus herum“; 5) der Weg über das Ding — lėktuvas skrenda virš miesto „der Flugzeug fliegt über die Stadt“. 168