Daiktavardžio „širdis“ semantika

LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI XXXVII (1997) LEKSIKOGRAFIJOS IR LEKSIKOLOGIJOS PROBLEMOS Zita ŠIMĖNAITĖ SEMANTICS OF THE NOUN HEART Today, the structuralist thesis about the systematic nature of language is universally accepted in linguistics (Ivič 1973: 71): language is viewed as a system, and the word as an element of that system. We might mention the claim, repeatedly made in the works of the French linguist G. Guillaume, that “language is a system of systems” (Gijom 1992: 6, 12, 53). A dictionary is also a system: words are presented and described in it in a certain order. Every explanatory dictionary is already a body of semantic knowledge. A dictionary entry in an explanatory dictionary marks the beginning of semantic analysis. Lexicographers conduct the initial study of word meanings; one could even say that “lexicographic practice<...> plays the principal role in describing lexical semantics” (Kotelova 1974: 48). The science of semantics draws on what lexicography collects and systematizes (Kasares 1958: 63; see also Kuznecova 1982: 48). All works in lexical-semantic analysis are based on the definitions of meanings given in dictionaries and on their illustrative material. The task of further semantic analysis is to view a word as part of the language as a whole and determine how it functions in relation to other elements of language. In volume 14 of the academic Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language, we lexicographically described the noun širdis (LKŽ XIV 850–897): we presented 23 meanings and identified about 500 phraseological units. In this article, we will attempt to examine the semantic relations of this word with other words, locate it within the language system, and clarify the semantic patterns of its meanings. We will indicate the most general semantic features (semes) that organize the micro-system of širdies, and discuss the motivation and hierarchy of its meanings, as well as issues of regular polysemy. The expression of language and the formal structure of words can be described quite systematically. Systematizing the content of language and the meanings of words is more complex, since most words are polysemous. In a text, however, a word is always used with one meaning (at most, two). The lexical-semantic system cannot be precisely defined, because words are not homogeneous and their relations are highly diverse. A universal lexical-semantic system has not yet been created (Paulauskas 1987: 6). One should immediately abandon the idea of constructing a semantic classification of words on the basis of any single criterion (Stepanov 1981: 46). Nor can the meanings of all words be described by a single method (Fillmor 1983: 50; Jakaitienė 1988: 102). It is not easy to formalize the many- 62 the semantic structure of a lexical meaning, since the same word may belong to several lexico-semantic groups. Meanings often have no precise boundaries, differ in their linguistic status (Nikitin 1983: 23, 49), and have different historical trajectories. Primary meaning 1. The noun širdis, when considered in its primary meaning (Š₁), belongs to the class of words with concrete semantics, the lexico-semantic group of names for body parts (somatisms). The entire vocabulary of a language is structured by genus–species (hyponymic) and part–whole (partonymic) relations (Nikitin 1988: 73). Names for body parts are linked by part–whole relations. Somatizmai yra “neskaidomos visumos” (“неразборного целого” Arutiunova 1980: 173, “неразъёмного целого” Ufimceva 1986: 122) dalys. Kūnas yra “neskaidoma visuma”, kadangi jo sudedamosios dalys iš tikrųjų negali funkcionuoti atskirai, nes priklauso nuo visumos: jas galime išvardyti – mąstymo procese jos iškyla kaip tam tikras sąvokos, – bet nė viena iš jų negali pakeisti visumos – kūno (Karaulov 1976: 133). There are partonymic relations between širdies and kūno: kūnas is the whole, širdis is a part of the body. This is a privative opposition (presence/absence of a feature), characteristic of hyponymy. Between the names of individual body parts there are equipollent oppositions (equivalent relations): they are partonyms denoting parts of a whole and are united by a common integral seme—“body part”. A “non-composite whole” is characterized by topographical, configurational, and functional divisions (Arutiunova 1980: 175): somatisms differ in their position in relation to the whole, their shape, and the function they perform. We can divide body parts into external and internal (internal organs). We could distinguish the following differential semes of the partonym širdis: “interior,” “center,” “function.” The primary meaning of širdies is “an internal part of the body, the central blood-pumping organ, resembling an inverted cone in shape.” 2. The name Širdies is important as the name of an object, but the attributes of širdies are no less important: “In deep structure, all attributes of an object can be defined in general terms as what belongs to the object—its existence, action, or property” (Paulauskienė 1994: 166). 2.1. On hearing the word širdis, one wonders: whose heart? A clarification is expected. Analysis of syntagmatic word relations shows which words or groups of words širdis can combine with. The most frequently recurring, typical combinations help identify integral semes. In frequent noun-based subordinate constructions, širdis is modified by the genitive case of another noun: the attributive relation of possession reveals part–whole relations, e.g.: H u m a n h e a r t is approximately the size of its owner’s fist LKŽ XIV 850 63 (V.Laš)*. Pakalausai, kapž v i r b l e l i o š i r d ė lė tik dilda, tik dilda LKŽ XIV 851 (Ml). K u m e l i o š i r d i e s duot suėstie, tai būsi sveika LKŽ XIV 850 (Lz). To b e r ž o š i r d i s jau supuvusi LKŽ XIV 865 (Krž). Iš l i n u t š i r d ž i ų marškinius, abrūsus audavo LKŽ XIV 865 (Ps). M o r k v o s š i r- d i s plona – gera morkvukė LKŽ K (Brb). Vieni lapai bebuvo, š i r d y s išimtos [k o p ū s t ų] LKŽ K (Tn). Pareisuot [namo], [išvagotų s ė t i n i ų] š i r d i k e s atkrępstysuot nū žemų LKŽ XIV 865 (Pj). K o p ū s t ų š i r d e l ė neažmėgzta LKŽ XIV 865 (Ml). Š i r d u k ė ž o l y n o pilna bičių LKŽ XIV (Drsk). Š i r- d i k e s [o b u o l i ų] kiaulei supyliau Dūn Ž 371. Pririša pri v a r p o š i r- d i e s strykelį LKŽ XIV 865 (M.Valanč). The genitive does not always directly indicate which whole the heart belongs to. Dependence is also indicated by other contexts, for example: Č i p o k a s ilgai gyvas: išėmi š i r d į, vipšt – kruta LKŽ XIV 850 (Aln). B u l b a nedidelė, liš š i r d i s liks, kap appjaustysiu LžŽ 197. Jau leida š i r- d e l e s žalias [prigijusios b r a š k ė s] LKŽ XIV 865 (Šll). Š i r d i s išėmus iš grikų g r ū d o, palinka vienos klienos LKŽ XIV 865 (J III 162). N a g a t k o s tos yra vaistingesnės, katros tura juodas š i r d e l e s LKŽ K (Tv). Tris suriša į š i r d į, o į tarpukus po du – devyni pédai [g u b o j e] LKŽ XIV 865 (Grd). Aplink š i r d į sukas m e s t u v a i LKŽ XIV 865 (Mšk). Ant š i r d e l e s užsimauna pumpurė LKŽ XIV 846 (Krkn). Nariniai buvo ž a m b r i a i, par vidurį š i r d i s ėjo DūnŽ 371. In the examples given, the dependent-member position is occupied by names of animals, plants, fruits, flowers, and objects. The primary meaning of heart (Š₁) should be specified by the semes “human” and “animal.” The definition would be: “an internal part of a human or other animal, the central blood-pumping organ, resembling an inverted cone in shape.” The word heart is the only name for this concept. 2.1.1. Other names in the dependent-member position refer to new things (other wholes) that do not contain the seme “body”; instead, the seme “center” is foregrounded. Nouns denoting wholes no longer refer to animals, but contain the semes “object” and “plant.” These and other secondary meanings will be discussed later (see p. 68). 2.2. Verbal subject constructions are especially numerous in which the heart occurs with verbs describing its activity. There is no special word to describe heart function. We usually say that the heart beats, for example: T h e h e a r t b e a t s – still alive LKŽ X 60 (Jrb). T h e h e a r t t h r o b s with irregular beats LKŽ X 792 (Ms). By taking the pulse we learn how often t h e h e a r t b e a t s LKŽ VIII 457 (rš). 2.2.1. When the heart beats calmly and rhythmically, we do not feel it. Only when its normal rhythm is disturbed do we feel and hear it. To describe an unusual heart- * Illustrative examples are taken from the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language, its card index, and terminology dictionaries. Examples collected by the author are also used. 64 the beating of the heart, we use comparisons, for example: The heart goes like a motor, my legs are all tangled up, my heart is racing LKŽ K (Slnt). The heart beats as if trembling LKŽ K (Trk). The heart quivers, tuk tuk tuk, like a sheep’s tail LKŽ K (Sd). The heart beats as if with a mallet LKŽ VI 774 (NmŠ). His heart thumped as if struck with a mallet LKŽ VI 776 (Rdž). The heart was already fluttering like a bird caught in a trap LKŽ XIII 554 (Vaižg). The heart jumps in the chest like a foal LKŽ K (Pc). The expression the heart beats does not always refer to the heart functioning calmly. In many contexts, the verb to beat describes a forceful heartbeat, for example: When I lift a bucket, my heart starts beating LKŽ VIII 457 (Sem). He died young: he had a beating heart (he suffered from heart disease) LKŽ VIII 447 (Šts). I had come down with an illness—a pounding heart LKŽ VIII 447(Imb). The same can be said of the meanings of the reflexive verbs muštis, plaktis, daužytis, trankytis, for example: My heart is pounding; I can’t move (work) LKŽ VIII 457 (Švnč). The heart is pounding, beating; it seems as though it will burst out LKŽ XIV 851 (Grv). The heart is pounding so—thump, thump, thump LKŽ XVII 23 (Jrb). The heart is banging but it doesn’t hurt LKŽ XVI 576 (Smln). A heart that beats forcefully and audibly is said to bilda, bukuliuoja, dunduliuoja, dunkčioja, dunksi, dunksnoja, kala, taksi, takši, tuksi, tunksi, tūzgena. These verbs for beating, which describe actions that produce sound, characterize various aspects of heart activity, for example: My heart started thumping, so I went to the doctor LKŽ K (Slnt). My heart is just thumping, thinking about a fight LKŽ I₂ 1146 (Gs). Your heart rumbles like a bride’s after the first night LKŽ II₂ 855 (Vlk). I’m looking to see what’s happening here, and my heart is already thumping LKŽ II₂ 857 (Užv). My heart thumped a few times, and I gasped DünŽ 79. I fell into the potatoes, and my heart was pounding; I was afraid someone might hear LKŽ XIV 851 (Slv). I got so tired that my heart started beating LKŽ XV 740 (Rod). When I found out that the matchmakers had arrived at my place, my heart started pounding LKŽ XIV 851 (Mrc). I got so frightened—my heart was thumping, my knees were shaking LKŽ XIV 850 (Gs). When I get tired, my heart starts pounding LKŽ XVII 22(Šil). He rejoiced beyond words; his heart thumped in his chest LKŽ XVII 198 (LC 1883, 40). 2.2.2. The onomatopoeic verb kvaksėti can also describe an irregular heartbeat, for example: My heart is just clucking when those shoes chafe [my foot] LKŽ VI 1036 (Gs). The heart clucks like a hen: cluck, cluck, cluck LKŽ K (Aln). 2.2.3. Many verbs of movement are useful for describing forceful, irregular heart activity: the heart runs, races, scurries, flutters, flaps, beats rapidly, flutters, surges, leaps, jumps, quivers, swings, sways, writhes, for example: But if something is wrong with your head—and with your head and heart—the heart starts racing and trembling LKŽ K (Lk). They say that a person is handsome when their heart races (is ill) LKŽ XIV 852 65 (Klk). I got so frightened that my heart just r a c e s, just r a c e s LKŽ XIV 851 (Rs). The heart is still b e a t i n g: it will recover, it is not dead yet LKŽ VII 308 (Plt). I got so frightened in my sleep that my heart was about to s t o p LKŽ XIV 850 (Pc). My heart is a c h i n g, a c h i n g; whether it is from my eyes, I don't know LKŽ VII 154 (Al). It even f l u t t e r s in my heart with joy LKŽ X 75 (Ėr). Pikčiurnas's heart kept on t h r o b b i n g LKŽ X 120 (I.Simon). The heart t h r o b s LKŽ XV 120 (Skrd). My heart b e a t s hard when I work DūnŽ 272. When I came out of the bog, my heart began to b e a t terribly fast LKŽ XV 229 (Užp). The fight is very bad; my heart is b o u n d i n g, pounding hard LKŽ K (Aln). My heart is t h u d d i n g LKŽ XVII 239 (Vdk). My heart is b e a t i n g away completely LKŽ XV 634 (Kv). The heart keeps p a l p i t a t i n g and p a l p i t a t i n g—that means the weather will change LKŽ XV 754 (Ml). My heart is a c h i n g, I stretch my legs DūnŽ 117. The verbs drebėti, virpėti, tirtaėti, dilgėti, truksėti, tvakčioti, tvaksėti, tvinkčioti, tvinksėti describe a trembling, restless heartbeat, for example: As soon as I lie down on my left side, my heart starts t r e m b l i n g! LKT 313 (Ob). My heart starts t r e m b l i n g, beating— I'm boiling strawberry leaves and peas LKŽ XIV 851 (Mlt). My whole heart t r e m b l e s, and the weather is like that LKŽ K(Rnv). How my heart used to t r e m b l e, and all my veins along with it LKŽ K(Trk). I drank the ninth; my heart t r e m b l e s LKŽ XVI 426 (LTR(Grš)). You listen: the little bird's heart just t w i t c h e s, just t w i t c h e s LKŽ II, 546 (Mlt). The heart t w i t c h e s badly and makes one feel short of breath LKŽ XVI 977 (Švnč). Listen to how my heart t h r o b s LKŽ XIV 850 (Skd). The heart t h u d s, even the chest moves LKŽ XVII 208 (Rod). Every heart t h r o b s when recalling the freedom of days gone by LKŽ XVII 294 (S.Dauk). I got frightened; my heart was t h r o b b i n g LKŽ XVII 295 (Vv). 2.2.4. The secondary meaning of verbs relating to the beating and movement of the heart is determined by the distinctive subject heart. To describe more precisely the various differences in heart activity, verbs are selected whose actions can be compared with the heart's work. The nominative aspect predominates, rather than vividness, so these meanings are not considered figurative. The explanation of these secondary meanings as “to beat vigorously and irregularly” calls for clarification: it should specify that the heart is what is being described (as is most often done in LKŽ, though unfortunately inconsistently). In volume 15 of LKŽ, the meanings of the verbs taksėti and taksenti relating to the heart are incorrectly treated as primary. In the entry for Tuksėti, this meaning is given as secondary, while the primary meaning relates to a specific action that produces a sound. DŽ₃ explains taksėti as “to throb” and illustrates it with the phrases The heart ticks, The clock ticks, although DŽ₂ distinguished two meanings denoting different actions. The entries for the verbs tvinkčioti and tvinksėti in modern-language dictionaries are not entirely accurate. According to DŽ₁ (DŽ₂, DŽ₃), the heart throbs, beats rhythmically, and pulsates. In volume 17 of LKŽ, the primary meaning of tvinkčioti and tvinksėti is “to pulsate in a twitching manner,” while the secondary meaning is “to beat vigorously, throb (of the heart).” A sentence by A. Juška is noteworthy: The vein throbs, while the heart ticks. The clearest collocations would be: the heart beats, the blood pulsates, the veins throb. 66 DŽ₁ (DŽ₂, DŽ₃) the heart pounds, beats, pulsates, flutters, throbs, pounds, ticks, thuds, throbs, ticks, beats rhythmically, and pulsates. According to LKŽ, only A. Juška's dictionary has the heart pounding, beating faintly, beating faintly, throbbing, and thudding; only F. Nesselmann's has it rumbling; only Clavis has it fluttering (C II 245); and only F. Ruigys and K. G. Milkus have it beating (R 226, MŽ 301). In old writings, the heart coos, flutters, and throbs, for example: The heart does not c o o when it hears that it is being praised DP 440. Your heart will flutter with joy PK 94. And when [David] had cut off the edge of Saul's [robe], his heart gave a throb LKŽ XVI 982 (BB 1 Sam 24, 6). 2.2.5. Repeated sound-imitating interjections help express various features of heart activity: bluk, dunk, dunks, dunkt, dusku, dvakt, kadakšt, kiūst, klapt, kop, kva, lek, plast plupt, pur, put, tak, takš, tuk, tuks, tūks, tū(k)st, tunk, tunkst, tvak, tvaks, for example: As soon as I heard it, my heart went b l u k, b l u k! LKT 157 (Grz). My heart keeps going d u k t d u k t LKŽ II₂ 810 (Rd). Advikė's little heart beats: d u n k s, d u n k s, d u n k s! LKŽ II₂ 857 (I. Simon). When you run up that hill, you won't feel your heart, it seems, d u n k t d u n k t d u n k t LKŽ K (End). My heart went d u s k u d u s k u, and I gasped DünŽ 80. D v a k t d v a k t my heart began to beat LKŽ II₂ 935 (Šts). My heart just goes k a d a k š t k a d a k š t as it beats LKŽ X 42 (Kdl). K i ū s t k i ū s t the heart beats faintly, and the hair on one's head stands on end with fear LKŽ V 925 (J II 139). The heart beats so quickly: k l a p t, k l a p t, k l a p t LKŽ XIV 850 (Ant). You can only hear our hearts going: k o p, k o p, k o p LKŽ VI 345 (tsp). The heart quacks like a hen: k v a, k v a LKŽ K (Aln). When I strained myself with the cows, my heart went l e k, l e k, l e k, l e k—and I couldn't do anything LKŽ VII 297 (Plt). When you get frightened— the heart goes p l a s t p l a s t LKŽ X 74 (Skn). Mary's heart pounds terribly with fright: p l u p t, p l u p t... you can hear it from afar LKŽ X 364 (Sl 72). It comes over me—my heart goes p u r p u r LKŽ XIV 851 (Krž). My heart goes p u t, p u t like a sack of chaff LKŽ X 1117 (rš). My heart just goes t a k t a k t a k, just keeps lifting LKŽ XV 733 (Pv). My heart is in my chest, I can hear it myself: t a k š t a k š t a k š [beating] LKŽ XV 742 (Pt). My heart goes t u k t u k—it runs as if on threads LKŽ XVI 1071 (Prn). T u k s t u k s, my heart—it's very bad! LKŽ XVI 1074 (Mžš). T ū k s t ū k s—that's how the heart beats LKŽ XVI 1075 (Mžš). I fell into bed, and my heart goes t u n k t u n k t u n k LKŽ XVII 22 (Šts). The heart is pounding so: t u n k s t t u n k s t t u n k s t LKŽ XVII 23 (Jrb). The heart goes t v a k t v a k t v a k LKŽ XVII 208 (Gršl). My heart goes t v a k s t v a k s t v a k s! LKŽ XVII 208 (Žem). The most widely used interjection describing the beating of the heart is tuk LKŽ XVI 1071 (Dkš, Lkv, Krš, Ėr, Ssk, etc.), while the others are recorded only once or twice. The interjections bluk, kiūst, klapt and the meanings of the interjections dunkt, kva, pur relating to the heart are not included in the volumes of LKŽ. DŽ₁ gives only one interjection describing the beating of the heart, plast, but does not distinguish it as a separate meaning. In DŽ₂ and DŽ₃ it is listed as a separate meaning and explained by the synonym tuk, which is not included in these dictionary editions. Verbal collocations in which the nominative heart occurs with beating and 67 using verbs of motion (and corresponding onomatopoeic words), showed how the actions performed by the heart, the “organ that pumps blood,” are described. 2.3. Verb phrases should be noted in which heart occurs with stative verbs denoting pain: to hurt, ache, press, squeeze, stab, and so on. In such cases, the accusative (sometimes nominative) heart denotes the object experiencing pain-related states, e.g.: The heart hurts before bad weather LKŽ XIV 851 (SmIn). Whether your head or your heart will start acting up—you can’t call it back LKŽ XIV 851 (Klt). I worked harder—it’s squeezing my heart LKŽ XIV 851 (Klt). My heart is pressed; eat the rutabaga toppings with sour milk LKŽ XIV 851 (Tv). Pains stab the heart LKŽ XIV 851 (Krkl). 2.4. One question remains unanswered: what kind of heart? In noun phrases, heart is characterized by adjectives denoting its physical properties: strong, unhealthy, weak, bad, good, enlarged, weakened, e.g.: My heart is very strong; I don’t feel my heart LKŽ XIV 851 (Kvr). The man was not in good health; his heart was unhealthy LKŽ K(Šts). My heart is weak, it hurts terribly LKŽ XIV 852 (Krž). There is a lot of blood in the heart; in the lungs—everything is deteriorated LKŽ K(Sdb). The heart is good, and so it is strong LKŽ XIV 851 (Ps). The heart is enlarged and weakened LKŽ XIV 852 (Pst). When discussing the meaning of heart as “the central organ that pumps blood,” we noted that it, as a physical object, is described by the actions it performs, the physical sensations it experiences, and its characteristic physical properties. Secondary meanings 1. Let us return to noun phrases in which heart occurs with a genitive expressing possession (see pp. 63–64). When nouns denoting a whole refer not to an animal but to plants or objects, the name heart is transferred to other objects on the basis of similarity in its position relative to the body. This gives rise to specialized meanings motivated by the primary meaning. The term heart denotes various central or middle parts of (a) plants, fruits, and flowers, and (b) objects: a) H15 – “the softer middle part of a tree,” H16 – “the central fiber of a flax stem,” H17 – “the central part of certain vegetables,” H18 – “the middle leaves of a sprout,” H19 – “the central part of a fruit, the core,” H20 – “the center of a flower,” H21 – “the grain kernel”, b) H22 – “the middle of a haystack—usually three bundles tied together,” H23 – “the central pole, or axle, of a loom,” H24 – “the millstone axle, spindle,” H25 – “the clapper of a bell,” H26 – “the central part of a plough, the ploughshare,” H27 – “a bar connecting the front and rear axles of a cart, a crosspiece, a shaft,” H28 – “the block of a horizontal spinning wheel that holds the crossbar with the spindle posts, the hub.” 1.1. The synonym for most of the meanings listed—H15–19, H22–25—is the word šerdìs. 68 K. Sirvydas called the central part of a tree the *šerdis* (SD¹²⁷) in his dictionary, but in “Punktų sakymai” he called it *širdis*, for example: And I shall take so much from the heart of a tall cedar LKŽ XIV 865 (SP I 310). In their dictionaries, F. Ruigys and K. G. Milkus translated “Mark im Baum” as *šerdis* (R 251, MŽ 335), and “Kern im.Holz” as *širdis* (R 222, MŽ 296). Already in the earliest dictionaries, the central part of a tree was given two names, but its principal name is *šerd(is)*. The meaning “heartwood” (Š₁₅) of the noun *širdis* is recorded in the earliest dictionaries, whereas the other secondary meanings (Š₁₆–₂₈) are more recent and arose later. In dialects, the meanings “heartwood,” “the central leaves of a sprout,” and “the middle of a haycock” are commonly used. “Grain kernel” is recorded in A. Juška’s explanatory dictionary (JII 162), and “the central part of a plough” in V. Vitkauskas’s “Dictionary of the Northeastern Farmers’ Dialects” (Dūn Ž 371). The crossbar and the hub of a spinning wheel, called *širdis* in the Gruzdžiai and Juodupė areas according to data from the “Atlas of the Lithuanian Language” (LKA I 91, LKA I 127), would be occasional meanings. In Žemaitija, “the middle of a haycock” is called not only *šerdis* LKŽ XIV 647 (Ms, Rs, Šts, Slnt, Erž), but also *jonis* LKŽ K (End, Plt), *krikštas* LKŽ VI 585 (MTt VIII 110) (Trk), and *tripedžius* LKŽ XVI 897 (Vž), while in Suvalkija it is called *boba* LKŽ I₂ 959 (Grl, PnmA, Prn, Vl). 1.2. The secondary meanings of *širdis*, denoting new objects—the central parts of plants and things—are neutral, so-called lexical metaphors (KTŽ 123), characteristic of many languages (Ufımceva 1986: 122). They are considered direct-nominative because they serve a referential function and are synonyms of other words (cf. Kėzytė 1961: 235). Such secondary nomination is also characteristic of other somatisms. On the basis of similarity in spatial position, special meanings are found for *galva, dantis, ausis, nosis, ranka, koja* and others, for example: P o p p y h e a d SD 140. C a b b a g e h e a d soft LKŽ III 79 (J). P i p e h e a d LKŽ III 80 (Šts). Makes a h e a d, t e e t h a n d r a k e t i n e s DrskŽ 92. T e e t h o f a r o a s t e r LKŽ II₂ 266 (B). Bend t h e s a w t e e t h, there’s no way along the path LKŽ II₂ 266 (Vvr). T h e c o m b t e e t h stuck out LKŽ II₂ 266 (Jnšk). Rarely b r u s h t h e t e e t h o f a c o m b, they comb the flax badly LKŽ II₂ 266 (Rdm). Knocked off t h e p o t h a n d l e LKŽ I₂ 502 (Gs). The edges broke off t h e s i e v e e a r s LKŽ I₂ 503 (Kb). B o o t e a r s LKŽ I₂ 503 (Ms). T h e d r i l l e a r stuck out LKŽ I₂ 503 (Pls). Don’t soften t h e n o s e o f t h e s a n d a l s – water will run inside LKŽ VIII 871 (Gdl). A n a x e n o s e the iron is put on LKŽ VIII 871 (Grv). B e d l e g R 69, MŽ 92. C a r t l e g R 342, MŽ 457. S c y t h e l e g, set into the scythe shaft LKŽ VI 291 (Srv). Wipe out t h e m i l l s t o n e l e g s, I’ve finished grinding LKŽ VI 291 (Pgr). P l o u g h h a n d l e broke off LKŽ XI 156 (Rdš). H a n d l e o f t h e w o o d e n b o w l LKŽ XI 156 (Kb). [M i l l s t o n e] h a n d l e made of two boards DrskŽ 295. 2. Various complex objects can occur in the dependent-member position of noun subordinate constructions, for example: The road from Užventis led toward Varniai, into the h e a r t o f Ž e m a i t i j a LKŽ XIV 69 865 (trš). Durnelis got the very heart of the estate: brick houses, extensive gardens (ps). LKŽ XIV 865 (Vlk). The heart of the ship is the nuclear reactor LKŽ XIV 865 (tsp). The name *širdis* is transferred on the basis of similarity of function and importance. We could distinguish the semes “function,” “importance,” and “center.” This meaning (Š14) is figurative, because it carries strong emotional evaluation and vivid imagery. 3. On the basis of similarity of form, figures resembling the blood-pumping organ are called *širdis* (Š29), for example: There was no master Jonas Draika to decorate the roofs with little horse figures and carve clovers and hearts into the shutters LKŽ XIV 866(K.Saj). A heart is carved in the middle of the crosspieces LKŽ XIV 866 (I.Simon). Some little hearts they had bought there LKŽ XIV 866 (Km). 4. The seme “form” is also actualized when hearts (Š30) names a suit of cards marked with heart-shaped symbols. This is a name that came with the realia, recorded in dictionaries of this century (Š, NdŽ). Synonyms are core LKŽ XIV 647 (NdŽ, Slnt), čirvas LKŽ II 131 (Dkš, Er, Kp, Lnkv), čirva LKŽ II 131 (Gs, Ss, Grž) and raudė, raudis (NdŽ). 5. K. Sirvydas assigned an abstract meaning to the heart: End of affairs... the completion of work, the purpose, the heart with which one makes every thing SD 102. In his dictionary, heart (Š31) means purpose; the “importance” seme is actualized. 6. Verb phrases in which the instrumental case of the noun *širdis* indicates the cause of the state experienced by the subject are noteworthy: is ill with the heart, lies ill with the heart, died of heart disease (the same can also be expressed by corresponding modified phrases with the preposition *su* ‘with’), for example: When someone has a heart ailment or something around the heart, these remedies are good LKŽ XIV 853 (Klt). The woman had suffered from a heart ailment DūnŽ 355–356. She was in hospital with a heart ailment LKŽ XIV 853 (Krš). I was in hospital with a heart ailment LKŽ XIV 853 (Kb). There she goes, takes a turn for the worse, and dies with this heart condition DrskŽ 375. That heart kept beating and beating nonstop—and she died of a heart ailment LKŽ XIV 850 (Kpc). In the last sentence, *širdis* is used in two meanings: the primary one (Š1)—“the central blood-pumping organ”—and the secondary one (Š2)—“heart disease.” The secondary meaning is also illustrated by noun phrases in which the head is the name of a medicine or medicinal herb, while the preposition *nuo* ‘for’ followed by the genitive *širdis* indicates the purpose of the head, for example: These [m e d i c i n e s] are [used] for the heart LKŽ K(End). Ratiliai are for the heart LKŽ XIV 854 (Dgč). They drink herbal remedies for the heart DrskŽ 231. 6.1. The distinctive metonymic relation “body part” – “disease of that body part” is characteristic of many somatisms. This is an example of regular polysemy. Similar combinations are found with the names of body parts eye, mouth, head, kidneys, liver, neck, bones, belly, lungs, atrium, stomach, snout, abdomen, side, paunch, intestines and others, e.g.: He had never been sick in the eyes in his whole life LKŽ XII 576 (Všv). What are you 70 saying? – Get well from the eyes LKŽ VIII 902 (Brt). I got sick in the mouth LKŽ XII 577 (Kps). His head fell ill LKŽ XII 574 (Kp). He suffers from kidney disease LKŽ IV 117 (OG 215). Sage was for the neck DūnŽ 363. The pig died of a neck disease LKŽ V 92 (Skr). The old man fell ill in the bones LKŽ V 430 (Ds). People used to die from belly ailments LKŽ IX 1025 (Ck). What was he ill with, his lungs or liver? – First, with the lungs LKŽ X 15 (Šts). He died of his lungs LKŽ X 89 (Prk). The illness is evident from the rash; the children suffer from an atrial condition LKŽ XI 341 (Šts). But such children suffer from stomach ailments LKŽ XII 896 (Brs). Ajiero roots are good for the stomach LKŽ XII 896 (Kv). [The cows] had snout and hoof diseases and nail diseases LKT 152 (Žg). Krilauninkai are good for the stomach well DūnŽ 331. He died of a stomach ailment LKŽ XII 1039 (Skdv). This year I fell ill in the side LKŽ XIV 737 (Lnt). I suffered from a little paunch ailment, yet ate everything LKŽ K (Ant). He died of a paunch ailment LKŽ K (Klt). The nobleman, from his intestines, is reduced to bones DrskŽ 356. For the intestines, for the liver that herb LKŽ K (Pls). An example of this metonymy is already found in J. Bretkūnas’s Postil: How we see one person ill in the head, eyes, ears, hands, legs, another in the heart, another in the belly, and another in the whole body, so that he can neither walk nor work BP I 89. He fell ill in the intestines, as his whole body swelled BP I 112. In LKŽ, the regular derived meaning of somatisms, motivated by the meaning “disease of a body part,” is distinguished only in the entries for heart (a shade of meaning) and atrium (a separate meaning) (it is poorly represented in explanatory dictionaries of Lithuanian and Russian; see Babickienė 1985: 234). The existence of this meaning is confirmed by the fact that it gives rise to names for people characterized by a condition, with the suffix -ininkas, -ė: širdininkas, -ė; kaulininkas, -ė; plautininkas, -ė; skilvininkas, -ė; skrandininkas, -ė; inkstinin-kas, -ė, e.g.: People with heart disease are his whole family DrskŽ 375. There is now a sanatorium for tuberculosis patients and bone patients in his home LKŽ V 433 (Rm). A lung patient is as thin as a nail LKŽ X 117 (Rdn). I am a stomach patient: ground with good birch charcoal LKŽ XII 896 (Skdv). People with stomach ailments showed one another their tongues and argued over whose was whiter LKŽ XII 1039 (trš). There are now many kidney patients LKŽ K(Rdn). It is worth mentioning the meaning of the verb turėti ‘to have contracted an illness or ailment, to be suffering from something’, which is realized in object constructions when the dependent constituent is the name of a disease, e.g.: He must have some illness, since he spits like that LKŽ XVII 104 (Pn). I’m sick; I have a cold LKŽ XVII 104 (Trk). You never know whether you have cancer or not LKŽ XVII 104 (End). I have palpitations LKŽ XVII 104 (Rš). He was writing a letter and then died at the table: he had heart disease LKŽ XIV 853 (Vž). He was so unwell; he had a little stomach ailment LKŽ K(Antr). And I didn’t know that he had that stomach ailment LKŽ K(Yl). The verb turėti in this meaning also forms combinations with the somatisms discussed 71 metonymic meaning “disease of a body part,” e.g.: They operated on one woman; she did not recover—she had a heart condition LKŽ XIV 854 (Kv). He got up in the morning and fell—he had a heart condition LKŽ K (Grv). The child has heart disease LKŽ X 700(Šts). Whoever has liver disease cannot even drink a shot LKŽ XVII 104 (Nmk). The metonymy “disease of a body part” is elliptical (Pikčilingis II 273–274): we say has heart disease, lung disease, bone disease, or, more briefly, has a heart, lung, or bone condition. 7. In verbal phrases, the prepositions prie and ant with the genitive of širdis may function as locative adverbials. When the head word is a verb denoting contact, such as glaũsti (or the ideophone glust), spausti, dėti, segti, then the genitive širdies indicates the location where the action takes place, e.g.: I press the old little wooden horse against my heart B.Braz. You would want to sing only of love, embrace the world, draw it to your heart, and sweetly kiss it with love! Mair. Love-love, squeeze, snuggle close to the little heart (said while cuddling a child) LKŽ XIV 854 (Grž). He pressed his head tightly against his heart Vaižg. We will lay a sprig of rue for you, we will pin it to your little heart LKŽ XIV 854 (Drsk D 145). With your hand on your heart, at least tell yourself: “It is not true, it is not true!” LKŽ XI 159 (V.Bub). We come back—the soldier lies shot, his hands folded over his heart LKŽ XIV 854 (Lpl). Having first placed three fingers of his right hand on his forehead, then on his heart LKŽ XIV 854 (DK 16). In these phrases, širdies (Š₃) means “the chest area beneath which the heart is located.” Here, metonymically, one body part stands for another; the two are related by contiguity. The somatism krūtinė ‘chest’ may be used synonymously in similar contexts, e.g.: He drew him to his chest and wrapped his head in a shawl V.Krėv. I too would like to press everyone to my burning chest Mair. You will lose everything, fold your hands on your chest, and rest (die) LKŽ XI 152 (Aps). The metonymic relation “body part” – “the place beneath which that body part is located” is also found in the semantic systems of the somatisms viduriai ‘intestines’, pilvas ‘belly’, and inkstai ‘kidneys’, e.g.: We liked lying on our stomachs by the pond. Nėr. He got soaked up to his belly LKŽ IX 1026 (Pun). He will swear again, strike his belly, and promise this will not happen again Alk (Pikčilingis II 245). And everything that crawls on its belly LKŽ IX 1026 (BB3Moz11, 42). His insides cramped, and he began to scream loudly LKŽ K(Žb). Instead of a precious sash, they gird their kidneys with ropes LKŽ IV 117 (SP I 9). 8. In subject phrases, širdis may occur with verbs describing the states it experiences, e.g.: My heart sensed that you were in Raseiniai LKŽ XIV 854 (Rs). The heart senses—you will be unwell LKŽ K(Varn). My little heart knows I will not be here long, I will not frolic for long LKŽ XIV 854 (DrskD 74). And so my heart had foreseen… 72 …that trouble LKŽ VII 34 (Ut). Nujėgti nujėgė my little heart sensed that it would be so, but did not say so LKŽ IV 334 (Tr). The heart is afraid, I don’t want that Joni, he doesn’t suit me LKŽ XIV 855 (Trk). The heart was frightened by those talk about war LKŽ XIV 855 (Šts). If I hadn’t married you, my heart wouldn’t rejoice! LKŽ II₂ 1014 942 (KrvD 17). Though the parents’ hearts might yearn to provide them with at least some education, unfortunately there are no resources, not a penny to spare LKŽ XVI 942 (Žem). Is this the kind of love my heart longs for? Žem. Here, in the subject position, heart does not mean a body part, but denotes the “whole” person. In this case, we have a classic transfer of meaning based on quantitative relations between things, the so-called synecdoche: the whole is expressed by a part (Pikčilingis II 261–263). The same situation can be described more simply with the verbs feel, intuit, sense, fear, be frightened, rejoice, long, without the noun heart—simply by using words for people (or pronouns replacing them, or forms of verbs expressing person alone), for example: Can you feel where that little fellow lives? LKŽ IV 318 (Kp). I had guessed it would be so LKŽ VII 834 (Trgn). He can tell who might have done it LKŽ IV 334 (Žl). They’re afraid like the devil is of the cross LKŽ I₂ 557 (LTR). I got frightened, and that’s what made me ill LKŽ I₂ 558 (Šts). You rejoiced, looking at the girls LKŽ II₂ 1014 (Als). I longed for learning so much LKŽ XVI 941 (Grd). The girls long for marriage LKŽ XVI 941 (Pv). Metonymic expressions with heart convey thought more emotionally and sincerely. The different modes of expression are evident in folk songs, for example: You will weep, little daughter, your little heart will weep LKŽ XIV 854 (DrskD 142). My little heart knows in which land the maiden is LKŽ XIV 854 (KrvD 137). When speaking about a person’s feelings and moods, the locative case of the noun heart usually indicates the place where feelings, experiences, and thoughts reside, for example: I feel pain and heaviness in my heart: as if a great burden were pressing on my chest LKŽ XIV 857 (J.Bil). I even feel ashamed that such feelings could have arisen in my heart LKŽ XIV 857 (J.Jabl). So what will lessen the desire for revenge in a person’s heart? A.Mišk. And in my heart it is so dark and dreadful V.Myk-Put. Oh, dear mother, old dear head, you did not know what was in my little heart LKŽ XIV 857 (D 117). I say painful, unpleasant things. They have long been bottled up in my heart, and they need to be said aloud, at least to myself M.Mart. I thought to myself, what good will come of those chaff grains LKŽ XIV 857 (Krž). A word remains in the heart for a long time—be more careful LKŽ XIV 856 (Krš). The heart is not only the place of feelings: it means more—the whole range of experiences, the entire spiritual world, for example: I will not live longer with your life, but if only someone knew my heart... R.Gran. How dearly I loved the poor thing—if only you knew my heart! LKŽ XIV 856 (Erž). What must that heart have become, in such a state of dissolution (in a family unable to live together) LKŽ XIV 856 (Klb X 126) (Krtn). The principal semantic feature “inside” of the somatism heart is activated and trans- 73 is transferred from the physical world to the spiritual world: this organ becomes a symbol of human feelings and dispositions, the center of experiences (Š₄). This is the most indeterminate, the most open-ended meaning: it cannot be described simply by isolating the seme “spiritual”; both metonymic and metaphorical uses of the word are interwoven in it. This meaning is a symbol: that is, it is not only a transfer of meaning, but also an “expansion of the meaning of the transfer” (Daujotytė 1984: 96). Metaphors are common in which the genitive of heart, functioning as an attribute, denotes the quality of a phenomenon: the voice of the heart, the language of the heart, the word of the heart, the warmth of the heart, the light of the heart, the tears of the heart, the wound of the heart. Such metaphorical epithets abound in poetry. The importance of the heart in poetic language is demonstrated by its frequency of use. Through this noun, people express everything that constitutes their essence—in both physical and spiritual terms. In Maironis’s “Voices of Spring,” heart is the most frequently used word, occurring more times than any other (in more than half of the poems, 54 out of 100) (Jurgaitienė 1970: 136). It is also the most frequent word in S. Nėris’s lyric poetry (475 occurrences; see Alekna 1980: 171, 382). 8.1 The figurative meaning of heart is vividly revealed by comparing pairs of antonymous words—reason – feelings, reason – heart, head – heart—for example: 1) My feelings are confused and reason no longer tells me anything V.Myk-Put. If only someone would come and calm her, clear his reason and feelings A.Mišk. 2) Oppression weighs on hearts and minds like a stone; oppression shackles hands and feet Vaižg. The idea of Lithuania, having taken possession of his mind and heart, seemed to raise Mindaugas above his epoch J.Marcin. People’s faith will be weak, wavering; it will reach neither heart nor mind LKŽ XIV 308 (A.Baran). So many times the experience of reason has advised my heart to be silent Mair. 3) The heart filled with feelings, the head with thoughts LKŽ XIV 856 (A.Vien). The heart often says what the head does not understand LKŽ XIV 854 (J.Bil). In youth the heart rules us, in old age the head LKŽ XIV 858 (Pln). With reason in your head and love in your heart, you will never perish LKŽ XIV 858 (Sim). In a family, the father was the head, the mother the heart LKŽ XIV 858 (Sri). Semantic oppositions used in the same context bring out the content of the figurative meanings of head and heart, and reveal the same basis for their transfer. The head is a part of the body in which the brain conditions human thought and forms the basis of mental activity. Thus, the semantic links between head and mind are grounded in the relationship between the physiological functions of the organism (a metonymic relation, “a body part in place of its function and the action it performs,” Pikčilingis II 251). There is no direct functional link between heart (Š₁)—“the organ that pumps blood”—and heart (Š₄)—“the center of human feelings, dispositions, and experiences”—because it does not “produce” feelings. However, the connection between the psyche and the (somatic) changes occurring in the body has long been recognized. Heart rhythm is disturbed not only by illness or strenuous work, but also by fear, agitation, and great joy. The heart is the organ that responds most sensitively to a person’s spiritual experiences. 8.2. The noun soul can also be used to express a person’s inner, mental world. In the Gospel of Matthew we read: You shall love the Lord your God, 74 with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your mind Skv Mt 22, 37. Heart and soul are joined in M. Daukša’s Postil: If our heart or soul does not accuse us, then we have confidence before the Lord God DP 223. How beautifully you kept your heart and soul DP 307. Heart and soul are near-synonyms: in some contexts they replace one another, in others they complement each other. Heart is a tangible designation for the soul, the inner world of the human being. Soul is a semantically broader word; it encompasses the indeterminate content of the heart and, when used alongside the heart, specifies it, for example: All movements end tragically if a person forgets that they have a heart and soul, an ineffable essence, perhaps sensed only in music and poetry (and prayer) S.Geda. They watched over them and cared for them, and that gentle influence of the woman refined and softened their character, heart, and soul Vaižg. I beg that lightning strike me, that the wind tearing at my cloak and baring my body might bare my heart and soul B.Radz. Oh, my whole heart, my whole soul I would offer you, noble one!.. Mair. Ooh—groaning, the wind penetrates heart and soul S.Ner. Here are several examples of the use of heart and soul to express the same content, for example: The human heart is like a leaky sack: malice, love, beauty—everything fits B.Sruog. On such nights everyone feels what boundless power to love, suffer, and rejoice lay hidden in the soul B.Radz. Forgive me, Aleliumas... Not in words—deep in my heart, forgive me LKŽ XIV 857 (K.Saj). In the depths of my soul, I understood at once that it was a deception LKŽ XII 518 (A.Vencl). 8.3. The authors of the earliest Lithuanian writings also used the noun heart to denote feelings and the inner world of the human being, for example: My heart rejoices in your salvation Mž 530. Let me feel you in my heart Mž 482. Ask your own heart, person, what your life is like LKŽ XIV 859 (BP II 285). But the king’s heart is inscrutable BB Pat 25, 3. Sorrow filled your hearts DP 215. The prayer of the heart, not of the mouth, rises to heaven DP 538. I sleep, but my heart is awake DP 79. The earliest dictionaries also recorded this figurative meaning, for example: The heart hopes for something SD 449. I think, ponder in my heart SD 391. Grief, vexation, anxiety, anger, concern of the heart SD 63. The heart throbs R 86, MŽ 113. It hurts my heart LKŽ XIV 855 (B). What the heart is full of, the mouth speaks LKŽ XIV 859 (C II 623). Religious writings emphasize the importance of a person’s spiritual life, and thus the word heart is quite common in them; they speak metaphorically of the soil of the heart, the seed in the heart, for example: And here let each person look into himself and see what kind of soil his heart is DP 101. We have... the soil of our own heart, well tilled, bearing the seed of God’s word LKŽ XIV 858 (SE 47). The seed took root in his heart LKŽ XIV 858 (MP 101). I will take away that word which was sown in their hearts1 Ch¹ Mr 4, 15. 75 In the writings of M. Mažvydas, heart occurs 118 times (Urbas 1996: 363–364), while in M. Daukša’s Postil about 600 times (Kuzinowski 1977: 282–284). 8.4. In the earliest Bible translations, somatisms kidneys, womb, entrails are also used to express the meanings ‘inner self’ and ‘spiritual world’, for example: My kidneys greatly long to shelter me LKŽ IV 117 (ChJob, 19, 27). And my womb (in the margin: kidneys) rejoices when your lips speak the truth BBPat 23, 17. And Joseph hurried, for his entrails were stirred within him for his brother LKŽ K (Ch 1 Moz 43, 30). This meaning of these somatisms is characteristic of other languages and is not used in our dialects; therefore, it should be listed in LKŽ as a foreignism. In the most recent Bible translations, it is rendered with the somatism heart; cf.: That is what my heart in my breast desires ST Job 19, 27. I will rejoice with all my heart when your lips speak rightly ST Prov 23, 17. And he hurried out, for his heart was moved for his brother Skv Gen 43, 30. 9. In some contexts, the meaning of heart as a symbol of feelings narrows and becomes more specific. The locative of heart may denote a place that contains not feelings but a loved person, for example: Until you close your eyes, the child will be in your heart LKŽ K(Rdn). A maiden is in the heart here LKŽ XIV 857 (JD 155). All your little words are in vain, for a young man is in your heart LKŽ XIV 857 (BsO 61). Though I spoke with others, I kept you in my heart (song) LKŽ XIV 856 (Mlk). Hey, my lad, my young man, will you love me, will you keep me in your heart? LKŽ XIV 856 (KlvD 20). Can it be that there is no room for me in your heart anymore V. Krėv. The genitive of heart may denote not a thing’s or phenomenon’s quality, but a person’s. Its meaning then becomes strongly adjectival and semantically approaches the adjectives dear, beloved, for example: For you know, dear lad, I’m not sitting at the manor LKŽ XIV 857 (KlvD 275). Don’t cry, dear child, lullay, lullay... The restless dear child cannot fall asleep S. Ner. Širdies prietelius Lex 48. The noun heart becomes a symbol of love, goodwill, and affection (Š₅). Verb phrases in which the accusative of heart occurs with the verbs promise, dedicate, talk into, attract, entice are highly metaphorical and approach the level of idioms, for example: You talk to me, promise me your heart, but when you get drunk, you give your hand to another LKŽ III 653 (Žž). You’ve probably already given your heart to someone LKŽ XIV 859 (J.Dov). Remember, young lad, how sweetly you spoke until you talked my little heart into loving you (song) LKŽ XIV 859 (Plv). The girl will smile and win your heart DrskŽ 375. Don’t pin a rose to your hair: it will entice a young heart Mair. When speaking of a young, ageless heart, the idea of love is likewise expressed— 76 and the eternity of this feeling, e.g.: You are old, but your heart is still the same; it does not grow old LKŽ XIV 859 (Krš). Though old, the heart is young LKŽ XIV 859 (Rdn). I know, my cheeks need ask for nothing now that they have turned gray—let at least the heart in my breast not grow old V.Myk-Put. 10. In noun phrases, adjectives functioning as dependent constituents can indicate not only physical (see 3.7) but also spiritual qualities of the heart, e.g.: After all, not everyone is born of gold, but with a good heart LKŽ XIV 860 (Stl). A person who is there in times of trouble, a kind-hearted person LKŽ XIV 860 (Dgč). That person is tender-hearted LKŽ XIV 861 (Dkš). He is compassionate, sympathetic LKŽ XIV 861 (Pv). He has a bad heart; he got angry LKŽ XIV 861 (Rsn). He is forgiving-hearted, that is, he will make peace with you even though he is angry LKŽ I₂ 391 (J I 131). They hired people to watch the children; they were frightful people Dunž 219. It seems there are many fools who, out of an evil heart, consider the poor peasant a silly oaf K.Donel. Here širdis has a meaning that helps characterize a person: we would regard it as a symbol of a person’s spiritual qualities, character, and inclinations (Š₆), e.g.: If all people had the same heart, it would be bad LKŽ XIV 860 (Skr). I don’t have the sort of heart that complains LKŽ XIV 860 (Vgr). I’m the sort of person who cannot forget a good person LKŽ XIV 860 (Skr). I love you more for your heart than for your crown LKŽ XIV 860 (J.Balč). 10.1. Š₆ is attested in the earliest dictionaries; it is found in old writings, e.g.: A heart like a mother’s R 262. A fatherly heart unassignable LKŽ XIV 860 (CI 396). Good will, a good heart SD¹ 22. Arm yourselves and be courageous of heart LKŽ XIV 861 (BB 1 Mak 3, 58). God does good to those who are of good and upright heart DP 30. 10.2. To describe a person’s character more vividly and emphatically, comparisons are used, e.g.: People’s hearts are like stones: they eat each other alive LKŽ XIV 860 (Krš). A man’s heart is stone, a woman’s is wax LKŽ XIV 862 (Erž). His heart is like iron: at night he took nothing, and no one spent the night there LKK XIII 124 (Grv). It is also said without an explicit comparison, simply that a person is stone-hearted, golden-hearted, hard-hearted, soft-hearted, or cold-hearted. The symbolic meaning of širdis in combinations with figurative adjectives describing a person’s spiritual qualities creates the conditions for forming idioms that characterize people in various ways. 11. Širdis, when used with adjectives denoting spiritual qualities, may synecdochically refer to a person distinguished by certain spiritual qualities (Š₇), e.g.: Oh, aren’t there all kinds of hearts in the world! LKŽ XIV 862 (Skr). Well, hear- 77 dis, that the thunder should strike him—lying down! LKŽ XIV 862 (Žl). Thus the walls collapse, growing sadder each day, grieving her stormy heart, not just one Mair. A wicked heart does not like songs LKŽ XIV 862 (TŽ V 602 (Al). 12. Heart without a modifier can simply designate a human quality. In that case, it denotes good spiritual qualities: sincerity, kindness, sensitivity, compassion (Š₈), for example: When there is no heart, the homes are чужі, the fields are чужі LKŽ XIV 862 (Dkš). Thank you, thank you for your heart LKŽ XIV 862 (Bb). Heart for heart, stone for stone LKŽ XIV 862 (An). I taught my children to have heart D.Mušinskas. A very good person may be likened to a heart, for example: Oh, auntie, you’re a heart, not a person—you’re so good, so good B.Radz. 12.1. The metonymic relation “body part in place of a quality” (Pikčilingis II 251) is also characteristic of other somatisms: head can mean intelligence or knowledge, nail—skill, tongue—eloquence, for example: You need a head for that job LKŽ III 78 (Jnšk). Whatever that fellow’s nails could do, he could make! LKŽ VIII 498 (Mžk). Some earn their bread with their nails, others with their heads LKŽ IX 773 (PPr 55). Oh, she has a tongue LKŽ VII 458 (KlvrŽ). Her little tongue—why, not even the devil could out-talk her LKŽ VII 458 (Ukm). 13. The heart has particular value, which is why people say, for example: Love him as your own brother, as your own heart LKŽ XIV 858 (Tat). Loves like a heart, swaddles like a thief (wraps up a child) LKŽ XIV 859 (LTR). The seme of value is activated when heart is used in an attributive position as a permanent epithet (Š₉) and performs the function of an attribute, for example: Dear little grandmother, dear little heart, did you have a great hardship raising me? LKŽ XIV 864 (Niem 4). Dear little sister, guest, share out the gifts: for dear little father, a grey ox; for dear little mother, speckled cows LKŽ XIV 864 (VoL 392 (Onš). She accompanies her dear little mother, a bud of white silver (song) LKŽ XIII 556 (Mrc). Such generalized diminutive use of heart is characteristic of folk songs: diminutives of heart are usually emotional companions of mother dear and father dear. 14. The seme of value is especially prominent when heart is used as a term of address (Š₁₀), for example: My heart, gather for the feast: your eldest sister is getting married LKŽ XIV 864 (LB 168). Dear little sister, dear heart, rue, dearest flower, precious gold, sew for Saint Ona, sew! LKŽ XIV 864 (Lp). I did not call them by their names—little heart, darling, my comfort LKŽ XIV 864 (JV 880). Affectionate diminutives of heart are used figuratively as terms of address to express fondness and tenderness. The affectionate term-of-address meaning, formed on the basis of the diminutive meaning of endearment, is generalized to persons of both genders (Šimėnaitė 1995: 150). 14.1. Similarly, a close, dear person is addressed metaphorically with diminutive names for birds, berries, flowers, gold, silver, or other pleasant, beautiful, valuable things (Šimėnaitė 1990: 66–67). Such affectionate forms of address are recorded 78 already at the beginning of the 18th century in J. Brodovskis’s handwritten dictionary: Mano širdel, mano sakalėl, mano auksel LKŽ XIV 864 (B 690). 14.2. The vocative meaning of “heart” provided grounds for nicknaming a person of a good, gentle disposition, or someone who habitually uses this form of address, Širdele, Širdelynu, Širdyte, Širduku, Širduke, Širdute and even Širdeliene (L Pr 406). The surname Širdukas (LPŽ II 936 (Kv)), recorded in the “Dictionary of Lithuanian Surnames,” would have a similar origin. 15. A dear, precious, beloved person may simply be called širde le, šir­dute (Š₁₁), for example: I will not see my little sweetheart swaying home across the fields LKŽ XIV 863 (Grk). There are, there are three little weavers; there are none, there are none of my little sweetheart LKŽ XIV 863 (D 29). Synonyms for these examples would be beloved; dear one. 16. Interestingly, heart does not always mean love or kindness. In combinations with the verbs (pa)imti ‘take’, užeiti ‘come over’, and pereiti ‘pass over’, it (Š₁₂) can be synonymous with anger, for example: At such work, one’s last bit of patience runs out LKŽ XIV 864 (Arm). How angry I got with him! LKŽ XIV 864 (Pun). I got so upset that I nearly burst into tears LKŽ XIV 864 (Srv). Now I’m speaking nicely again, you see, my anger has passed LKŽ XIV 865 (Dl). 16.1. Only the broader context helps distinguish the opposite meanings of the same word, for example: The people were not kind-hearted LKŽ XIV 862 (Užv). Even a sparrow has a temper! (said of something small and ill-tempered) LKŽ XIV 865 (Krok). The heart contains all feelings and a great variety of dispositions, so it is understandable that it may express not only kindness but also anger (for more on the polysemous meanings of the same word and the archaism of this phenomenon, see Erm anytė 1996: 53–59). 16.2. From these opposite meanings of heart are derived adjectives with opposite meanings, širdingas, -a; širdus, -i, and the noun širdžius, for example: a) That kind-hearted man, while he was our neighbor, always loved every Lithuanian fellow K.Donel. She is such a kind-hearted woman LKŽ XIV 900 (Jrb). Your teeth will fall out, fall out; not even a little sweetheart will love you, love you LKŽ XIV 900 (JV 718). b) He is very hot-tempered; better not bother him LKŽ XIV 849 (Dbg). Don’t provoke him, because he is very quick-tempered LKŽ XIV 900 (Ds). She really has a temper: she only just stopped herself from beating the cow in anger LKŽ XIV 900 (Trgn). The anger-related meanings of these derivatives can, from the perspective of word formation, be associated with the meaning “ill temper, anger” of heart and with the verb širsti “to be angry, to rage” (Šimenaitė 1995: 153, 152). The semantic relations between heart (Š₁₂) and širsti, širdytis (Skardžius 1943: 487, 534; FrnW) are evident but atypical. The primary verb širsti, which is morphologically unanalyzable, has its own derivational paradigm. 16.3. It is noteworthy that heart in the meaning “ill temper, anger” is most often used in southern and eastern Lithuania (LKŽ XIV 864–865). This meaning is not 79 in old writings and dictionaries. It was first recorded in a manuscript Eastern dictionary (RtŽ). 16.4. The synonyms of anger širdas* and širsmas are recorded only once each (LKŽ XIV 846, 905), whereas the plural noun širdai ‘ill tempers, quarrels’ is more frequent, e.g.: He can’t get along with his neighbors without quarrels LKŽ XIV 845 (Prng). They fought out of anger LKŽ XIV 845 (Lp). 16.5. The somatism širdis is used in the sense ‘ill temper, anger’ by Latvians (ME III 843–844, ĒIV III 351, LLVV VII2 324), Belarusians (TCBM V1 439), and Russians (ССРЛЯ XIII 683; for more detail, see Šanskij 1985: 227). In these languages, as well as in Hittite, Albanian, and Armenian, the name for the heart can be compared with a verb sharing the same root and used with the meaning ‘to be angry’ (Tischler 1980: 524). 16.6. The somatism tulžis also has the meaning ‘ill temper, anger’, e.g.: I’m not angry, after all; here, swallow a sip and calm your b i l e LKŽ K(J.Balč). I’ve let all my b i l e out, so I feel much better LKŽ K (Dbk). The primary meaning of the international words melancholy, spleen, which denote negative feelings, is related to the Greek somatisms bile (cholē) and spleen (splēn). K. Sirvydas translated melancholy using the phrase tulžis prდეგusi (SD 145). 17. In subjective constructions, širdis can occur with verbs describing the physical and physiological states it experiences, e.g.: Eat what your h e a r t c r a v e s, drink what your h e a r t d e s i r e s LKŽ XIV 863 (Btg). I w i s h my l i t t l e h e a r t for some sweet sleep LKŽ XIV 863 (N 40). M y h e a r t r e c o v e r e d, when I drank some water LKŽ XIV 863 (J I 147). M y h e a r t t u r n e d, after eating so heartily DūnŽ 313. M y h e a r t t u r n s at such thin milk porridge LKŽ XIV 863 (Ggr). I f e e l s i c k t o m y s t o m a c h, at the sight of blood LKŽ XIV 863 (Jž). M y s t o m a c h i s u p s e t, I feel like vomiting DūnŽ 256. M y s t o m a c h i s u p s e t SD1 15, 65; SD 31. The heart in these examples craves, desires, wants, recovers, turns, churns, feels sick, is nauseated, is angry: its state depends on the context, which is related to physiological needs, most often to food or other physical reactions. By synecdoche, it denotes a person reacting to physiological stimuli; it is the center of vital functions. We would define this meaning as follows: ‘a symbol of the human organism’s responses, needs, and physiological condition’ (Š13). 17.1. DŽ3 defines this meaning of heart too narrowly: ‘stomach, throat as the basis of the taste (rarely, smell) reflex’. The heart is neither the stomach nor the throat. Here, too, we encounter part–whole relations: the heart is a symbol of the human being, the bearer of physiological sensations and reactions. * In vol. 14 of LKŽ, a sentence from J. Bretkūnas’s Bible is given with the word širdas incorrectly deciphered (LKŽ XIV 846 (BB Na 2,1): it should be smirdas. The entry širdis(2) in A. Lyberis’s “Synonym Dictionary,” cross-referenced to the entry pyktis (Lyberis 1980: 425), is not attested by the card index of the academic “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language.” 80 CONCLUSIONS The lexical-semantic structure of the noun heart would be as follows: 1. “an internal body part, the central blood-pumping organ, resembling an inverted cone”. 2. “a disease of that organ”. 3. “the area of the chest beneath which that organ is located”. 4. figuratively, “this organ as a symbol of a person’s feelings and dispositions, the center of their experiences, their inner world”. 5. figuratively, “this organ as a symbol of love, affection, and attachment”. 6. figuratively, “this organ as a symbol of a person’s spiritual qualities, character, and inclinations”. 7. figuratively, “a person distinguished by certain spiritual qualities”. 8. “sincerity, kindness, sensitivity, compassion”. 9. affectionate, diminutive, endearing epithet. 10. affectionate, diminutive, endearing form of address. 11. “beloved; dear one”. 12. figuratively, “ill temper, anger”. 13. figuratively, “this organ as a symbol of the body’s responses, needs, and physiological condition”. 14. figuratively, “the most important part, the middle, the center”. 15. “the softer middle part of a tree, heartwood”. 16. “the central fibers of a flax stalk”. 17. “the middle part of certain vegetables”. 18. “the leaves in the middle of a sprout”. 19. “the middle part of a fruit, the seed cavity”. 20. “the center of a flower”. 21. “the kernel of a grain”. 22. “the middle of a sheaf—usually three bundles tied together”. 23. “the central rod, the axle, of a loom”. 24. “the axle of a millstone, spindle”. 25. “the clapper of a bell”. 26. “the central part of a plough, the ploughshare”. 27. “a bar connecting the front axle of a wagon with its rear, a crossbar, a drawbar”. 28. “the block of a horizontal spinning wheel that holds the crosspiece with the bobbin posts, the turnip”. 29. “a circular figure whose top is indented and whose bottom tapers to a point”. 30. “a playing card marked with red heart-shaped symbols”. 31. “goal”. The polysemy of the noun širdis is mixed (see the diagram, p. 82), although the first, primary sememe, “organ that pumps blood,” motivates all the literal and figurative meanings, which are unified by shared semes (see the table, p. 83; a plus sign indicates that the sememe has that seme). 81 The meaning structure of the noun širdis 82 The sememes and semes of the noun širdis HEART; SEMES; SEMEMES; S₁; S₂; S₃; S₄; S₅; S₆; S₇; S₈; S₉; S₁₀; S₁₁; S₁₂; S₁₃; S₁₄; S₁₅–₂₂; S₂₃–₂₈; S₂₉; S₃₀; S₃₁; part; whole; function; dysfunction; form; center; inside; outside; physical; spiritual; human; animal; object; composite objects; importance; value; emotional: positive, negative; thermal; context; abstract. + 83 Two groups of meanings of širdies can be distinguished. 1) The first consists of meanings of a nominative (denotative) nature: the primary meaning, which names the internal part (organ) of the body of a human or another animal, and secondary meanings that designate other objects in reality. Faded metaphors, in which similar things are named after body parts, are characteristic of many somatisms: this is a universal meaning transfer from “body part” to “part of an object.” 2) The other group of meanings consists of secondary figurative meanings expressing the inner, spiritual world of a person. These are phraseologically bound meanings that reveal the symbolic content of širdies. The opposition body – heart, which expresses the whole–part relationship, as the system of meanings of širdies develops, becomes the principal opposition between the literal and figurative meanings, a semantic opposition of body – spirit, matter – spirit. Širdis shifts from physical activity to mental activity and unites two sides of the world—the material and the spiritual. The noun širdis is not merely a somatism. Širdis is a microsystem that, through diverse associative connections, links the tangible part of things, the concrete material world, with the invisible, indeterminate spiritual world. This word is the most capacious metaphor: its system of meanings, determined by the importance of the referent, is a striking example of the anthropocentrism of language. LITERATURE AND SOURCES A l e k n a V. 1980: Salomėjos Nėries poezijos dažnumų žodynas. – Literatūra ir kalba 16, 167–423. A r u t i u n o v a N. D. 1980: Арутюнова Н. Д. К проблеме функциональных типов значения. Аспекты семантических исследований, Москва: Наука, 156–249. B a b i c k i e n ė Z. 1985: Reguliariųjų išvestinių reikšmių pateikimas aiškinamuosiuose lietuvių ir rusų kalbų žodynuose. – Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai 24, 223–235. BB – Biblia tatai esti wissas Schwentas Raschtas translated into Lithuanian by J a n a s B r e t k ū n a s. Lithuanian parish priest in Königsberg (1590 manuscript). BP – Postilla... 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LKA I – Atlas of the Lithuanian Language 1, Lexicon, Vilnius: Mokslas, 1977. LKT – Lietuvių kalbos tarmės, Vilnius: Mintis, 1970. LKŽ I₂–II₂ – Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language 1–2, Vilnius: Mintis, 1968–1969. LKŽ III–XVII – Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language 3–6, Vilnius: State Publishing House for Political and Scientific Literature, 1956, 1957, 1959, 1962; 7–9: Mintis, 1966, 1970, 1973; 10–15: Mokslas, 1976, 1978, 1981, 1984, 1986, 1991; 16–17: Publishing House of Science and Encyclopedias, 1995, 1996. LKŽ K – The card index of the “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language.” LLVV VII₂ – Dictionary of the Latvian Literary Language 72, Riga: Zinātne, 1991. LPr – Butkus A. Lietuvių pravardės, Kaunas: Aesti, 1995. LPŽ II – Dictionary of Lithuanian Surnames 2, Vilnius: Mokslas, 1989. LzŽ – Petrauskas J., Vidugiris A. Lazūnų tarmės žodynas, Vilnius: Mokslas, 1985. Mair – Maironis (J.Mačiulis) (1862–1932), jo raštai. J. Marcin – Justinas Marcinkevičius, his writings. M. Mart – M. Martinaitis, his writings. ME III – K. Mühlenbach et al. Dictionary of the Latvian Language. Edited, supplemented, and continued by J. Endzelīns 3, Riga: Published by the Culture Foundation, 1927–1929. V. Myk-Put – V. Mykolaitis-Putinas (1893-1967), jo raštai. A. Mišk – A. Miškinis (1905–1983), jo raštai. Mž – Mažvydas. The oldest monuments of the Lithuanian language up to the year 1570... Kaunas: Publication of the Ministry of Education, 1922. MŽ – Lithuanian-German and German-Lithuanian Dictionary...by Christian Gottlieb Mielcke... Königsberg: Printed and published by Hartung’s Court Printing House, 1800. 85 Naž I–V – Niedermann M., Senn A., Brender F., Salys A. Lithuanian Written Language Dictionary 1–5, Lithuanian-German section, Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag, 1932–1968. S. Nėr – S. Nėris (1904–1945), jos raštai. Nikitin M. V. 1983: Никитин М.В. Лексическое значение слова, Москва: Высшая школа. Nikitin M. V. 1988: Никитин М.В. Основы лингвистической теории значения, Москва: Высшая школа. Paulauskas J. 1987: Sistemin is lietuvių kalbos žodynas, Vilnius: Mokslas. Paulauskienė A. 1994: Lietuvių kalbos morfologija, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla. Pikčilingis J. II: Stylistics of the Lithuanian Language 2, Vilnius: Mokslas, 1975. PK– Polski z Litewskim Katechism... Nakładem... Máłcherá Pietkiewicza...W Wilnie: Drukował Stanisław Wierzejski...1598. R – Littauisch-Deutsches und Deutsch-Littauisches lexicon... gesammelt von Philipp Ruhig... Königsberg: Druckts und verlegets I. H. Hartung, 1747. B. Radz – B. Radzevičius (1940–1980), jo raštai. SD – Dictionary of Three Languages... Avtcore... Constantino Szyrwid...Fifth edition...Vilnae. SD¹ – the first edition of the same dictionary (around 1690). Skardžius P. 1943: Lietuvių kalbos žodžių daryba, Vilnius. Skv – Holy Scripture of the Old and New Testament... Translated and with commentary added by Rev. J. Skvireckas... Vols. I–V – 1913–1937, vol. VI – 1911. B. Sruoga – B. Sruoga (1896–1947), jo raštai. ССРЛЯ XIII– Modern Dictionary of the Russian Literary Language 13, Moscow-Leningrad: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1962. ST – Holy Scripture. Old Testament. Translation from Hebrew and Greek, Rev. A. Rubšys. Putnam, CT: “Krikščionis Gyvenime”, 1994–1995. Stepanov J. S. 1981: Степанов Ю.С. Имена. Предикаты. Предложения, Москва: Наука. Šanskij N. M. 1985: Шанский Н.М. В мире слов, Москва: Просвещение. Šimėnaitė Z. 1990: Maloniniai kreipiniai. – Kalbos kultūra 59, 65–67. Šimėnaitė Z. 1995: Daiktavardžio širdis dariniai. – Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai 35, 148–168. Tischler J. 1980: Hethitisches etymologisches Glossar. Mit Beiträgen von Günter Neumann. Lieferung 3. – Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft 20, 403–600. ТСБМ V, – Explanatory Dictionary of the Belarusian Language 5₁, Minsk: Belarusian Soviet Encyclopedia named after Petrus Broŭka. Ufimtseva A. A. 1986: Уфимцева А. А. Лексическое значение, Москва: Наука. Urbas D. 1996: Martyno Mažvydo raštų žodynas, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla. Vaižg – Vaizgantas (J.Tumas) (1869–1933), jo raštai. Žem – Žemaitė (J.Žymantienė) (1845–1921), jos raštai. Abbreviations of other sources are as in LKŽ. SEMANTICS OF THE NOUN ŠIRDIS Summary From a lexicographical perspective, the noun širdis is described in volume 14 of the “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language” (ed. by the Institute of the Lithuanian Language and Literature of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences). This article examines the semantic relationships between this word and other words in order to establish the place of the noun under analysis in the language system and identify its various meanings. In analyzing the semantics of širdis, the paradigmatic and syntagmatic 86 properties of the sememes are discussed, as are the motivation for the meanings and their hierarchy, as well as questions of regular polysemy. The noun širdis serves not only to designate an internal body part. Širdis encompasses a microsystem containing concrete meanings as well as abstract ones, which refer to vaguely defined concepts in the spiritual world. This system evidently conveys the anthropocentric character of language. 87