Priežasties šalutiniai sakiniai Bretkūno postilėje

ACTA LINGUISTICA LITHUANICA X L I V (2 0 0 1), 1 2 9 – 1 4 4 Causal subordinate clauses in Bretkūnas’s Postil EDITA KIBILDAITĖ Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas, Kaunas The article deals with causal clauses in Bretkūnas’ Postilė. Attention is paid to the use of causal conjunctions and the position of the causal clauses with regard to the main clause. Sentences from the translated fragments are compared with Luther’s Bible and the Vulgate. By comparing the data with those of the modern language an attempt is made to formulate the principal changes in structure and use of causal clauses. In Bretkūnas, causal clauses are usually introduced by nefa (no longer used in modern Lithuanian), less frequently by nes and kadangi; jog, which has also fallen into disuse, is relatively frequent as well. Other conjunctions are but sporadically used. The causal clause usually follows the main clause, but the inverse order is not uncommon if the conjunctions kadangi, kaip and kada are used. Interposition is rare. 0. INTRODUCTION The structure and usage of Lithuanian subordinate clauses have so far been little researched. The aim of this paper is to analyze one group of them—causal subordinate clauses in Jonas Bretkūnas’s Postil—and, by comparing the findings with data from contemporary Lithuanian, to determine whether there are any fundamental differences. Since the most salient formal feature indicating the type of a subordinate clause is the conjunction, the discussion focuses primarily on the use of conjunctions. The position of the subordinate clause relative to the main clause is also discussed. The material for this study was collected using the computerized concordance of Bretkūnas’s Postil compiled at the Institute of the Lithuanian Language1. In total, 966 subordinate clauses expressing causality are analyzed. To avoid confusion, the analysis takes into account where the clauses under study occur: 1) in the text of Bretkūnas’s sermons proper, 2) in the pericopes, or 3) in the Passion narrative. Where necessary, examples from the pericopes and the Passion narrative are compared with the corresponding sentences in German (LB) and Latin (NT, VULG) sources, as well as with sentences in the Gospels translated by Baltramiejus Vilentas (these are presented using a computerized concordance of the Gospels and Epistles). The primary object of analysis is the causal subordinate clauses in the first group, which best reflect Bretkūnas’s own language. 1 The computerized concordances of Bretkūnas’s Postil and Vilentas’s Gospels and Epistles were compiled by staff members of the Language History and Dialectology Department of the Institute of the Lithuanian Language: S. Ambrazas (project supervisor), O. Aleknavičienė, R. Petkevičius, and V. Zinkevičius (programmer). 130 | EDITA KIBILDAITĖ 1. CLAUSES WITH THE CONJUNCTIONS nela, nes, nelanga AND nefang. 1.1. CLAUSES WITH nela. In Bretkūnas’s Postil, the semantic conjunction nela is most commonly used to introduce causal subordinate clauses (668 clauses—69% of all causal subordinate clauses found in the Postil). For example: <...> therefore he found Christ not far from being born of a woman / it was necessary for him / for it was not so easy, St. John BP₁ 12₁₄; Therefore, dear friends, do not defend yourselves / nor trust your own strength / but give it to the Lord, whether flesh or blood. For this is for your own good <...> BPⅡ 328₁₈; Angels greatly grieve us / for Christ was born for us <...> BP₁ 88₄; <...> people <...> must listen to this servant of God <...>. For it is not so difficult BPⅡ 50₉; <...> though the devil may know it best / no man can know / for it will be of use to him BP₁ 427₂₂; So it will be for the living as well / who are born into this world after us / until the day of resurrection / they will die. For it is written in Heb. 9: So it is ordained. We must all die BPⅡ 516₁₅. In one sentence, the subordinate clause is introduced by a conjunction in the form nelu, which could also be considered a typographical error: A kada meldʒames duchau nu daiktu nūg Diewo <...> tadda takiu daiktu be pritarimo turrim melſti / nelu toke malda Diewas willadai nor prijmti ir ifchklauſiti BPⅡ 106₁₉. Subordinate clauses introduced by the conjunction nela are almost always postposed relative to the main clause. Only two sentences were found in the text of Bretkūnas’s Postil in which a subordinate clause with this conjunction occurs in the middle of the sentence, after the clause to which it belongs: And after the birth of the Savior / the Lord Christ / there was a need for circumcision (for the law and the prophets were to last only until John) and holy baptism to be administered BP₁ 140₈; Fourth, the Jews very wickedly and cruelly mocked our Lord Jesus Christ / and, not getting the better of him (for Christ escaped them at every opportunity) afterwards they violently wanted to stone him BP₁ 327₁. 1.2. CLAUSES WITH nes. The variant nes of the conjunction nela is almost seven times less frequent in the Postil. It introduces 102 subordinate clauses (70 in the homily text itself, and 6 and 26 in the pericopes and Passion narrative, respectively). Causal subordinate clauses introduced by the conjunction nes make up 10% of all causal subordinate clauses in Bretkūnas’s Postil. For example: It is not in a person's power to abandon someone however one wishes / nor is it in the devil's power to do even the least harm to a person. For thus says the Lord Christ BP₁ 295₂₀; Therefore, let us not be offended by his coming in poverty / but let us rejoice in it, for he has become poor for our good BP₁ 10₈; And these parables are now very fittingly spoken / for even now the highest-ranking people sit and lie down by the fire BP₁ 207₂₃; PRIEŽASTIES ŠALUTINIAI SAKINIAI BRETKŪNO POSTILĖJE | 131 <...> Therefore, let us be grateful to God while in church / give thanks / because we receive much good from him BP₁₁ 359₁₆; Thus, one need not grieve over the death of a person / for he too will die to the good end BP₁₁ 520₁₅; And he <...> leads his faithful ones on the true path / because he must act so BP₃₅₁₁. In the sermon texts, all causal subordinate clauses introduced by this conjunction follow the main clause. Only in the Passion narrative were two sentences found in which the subordinate clause is embedded in the main clause. In one sentence, the position of the subordinate clause relative to the main clause differs from that of the corresponding German and Latin sentences (in those, the subordinate clause is used postpositively), whereas in the other it is exactly the same: But the servants had lit a fire in the middle of the house with coals / because it was cold / and they were warming themselves BP1 3712 (cf.: Es funden aber die Knechte vnd Diener, vnd hatten ein kolfewr gemacht, denn es war kalt, vnd wermten sich; Stabant autem servi, et ministri ad prunas: quia frigus erat, et calefaciebant se JN 18, 18; The servants and attendants then stood / and made a fire of coals for themselves / in the middle of the courtyard / for it was cold / and they warmed themselves EE 194₈₋₁₀); But the Jews, since it was the day of preparation, so that the bodies would not remain on the cross on the Sabbath (for that Sabbath was a great day), asked Pilate that their legs be broken and they be taken down BP 393₃ (cf.: DJe Júden aber, dieweil es der Rülftag war, das nicht die Leichnam am creutze blieben den Sabbath vber (denn desselbigen Sabbaths tag war gros) baten sie Pilatum, das ire Gebeine gebrochen vnd sie abgenomen würden JN 19, 31). As in present-day Lithuanian, when a subordinate clause is introduced by the lexical conjunction nes ‘because’, there are no correlative words in the main clause. Nevertheless, three sentences have been found in Bretkūnas’s postil in which the subordinate clause is introduced by the conjunction nes, while the main clause contains the correlative word todel(ei) ‘therefore’. In all these sentences, the subordinate clause is related to the main clause by a cause-and-effect relation, e.g.: The Evangelist says that she therefore anointed him / and laid him in the manger / because she could find no better place in the inn BP 60₁₇; Therefore you do not listen / because you are not of God BP 318₂ (cf.: Darumb höret jr nicht, denn jr seid nicht von Gott Jn 8, 47); And Saint James says, You have nothing, why? Therefore because you do not ask BP₁₁ 358₁₇ (cf.: <...> jr habt nicht/ darumb das jr nicht bittet <...> JOK 4, 2). In their structure, such sentences with the conjunction nes and a correlative word are similar to postpositive causal subordinate clauses with the functional conjunction iog; in the latter, however, the correlative word highlights the meaning of the subordinate clause and thereby facilitates interpretation of the sentence, whereas the causal meaning of subordinate clauses introduced by nes is already signaled by the conjunction itself. Therefore, correlative words are very rare in sentences of this type. The use of correlative words in these three sentences was most likely prompted by different causes. In the first sentence, todelei... nes may have arisen on the model of sentences with todel(ei)... iog, while in the second and third sentences it may be due to the influence of the original. 132 | EDITA KIBILDAITĖ 1.3. SENTENCES WITH nelang AND nelanga. In addition to sentences with nela and nes, several causal subordinate clauses introduced by the conjunctions nelanga and nelang have also been found in the postil. Subordinate clauses with these conjunctions occur only postpositively. One sentence is introduced by the conjunction nelanga: Through the six days it was so: God himself, the Creator of heaven and earth, made his work; nelanga from the beginning of the world he made his work by his word BP1 24418. Four sentences are introduced by the conjunction nelang, and all four were found in the Passion narrative: She did what she could / Nelang that she poured that water on my body beforehand, she did it to anoint my body for my burial BP1 3578 (cf.: Sie hat gethan, was sie kund, Sie ist zuuor komen meinen Leichnam zuſalben zu meinem begrabnis Mk 14, 8; Jr habt alle zeit Armen bey euch, Mich aber habt jr nicht alle zeit. Das sie dis wasser hat auff meinen Leib gegoffen, hat sie gethan, das man mich begraben wird Mt 26, 11–12); I have greatly desired to eat this Passover lamb with you before my suffering. Nelang I tell you, I will not eat it again until the kingdom of God comes BP1 35812 (cf.: <…> Mich hat hertzlich verlanget dis Osterlamb mit euch zu effen, ehe denn ich leide. Denn ich ſage euch, das ich hin furt nichtmehr davon effen werde, bis das erfüllet werde im reich Gottes Lk 22, 15–16); And he took the cup, gave thanks, and said: Take it and share it among yourselves / Nelang I tell you, I will not drink of the fruit of the vine again until the kingdom of God comes, on that day when I will drink it anew with you in my Father’s kingdom BP1 35815 (cf.: Vnd er nam den Kelch, dancket vnd ſprach, Nemet denſelbigen, vnd teilet jn vnter euch, Denn ich ſage euch, ich werde nicht trincken von dem gewechte des Weinstocks, bis das reich Gottes kome Lk 22, 17–18; Jch ſage euch, ich werde von nu an nicht mehr von dieſen gewechs des weinstocks trincken, bis an der tag, da ichs newe trincken werde mit euch in meines Vaters reich Mt 26, 29); Then he said to them: But now, if anyone has a purse, let him take it, and likewise a bag. But whoever has none, let him sell his garment and buy a sword. Nelang I tell you. And what is written must be fulfilled in me BP1 36417 (cf.: Da ſprach er zu jnen, Aber nu, wer einen beutel hat, der neeme jn, deſſelbigen gleichen auch die taſchen, Wer aber nicht hat, verkauffe ſein Kleid, vnd keuffe ein Schwert. Denn ich ſage euch, Es mus noch das auch volendet werden an mir, das geſchrieben ſtehet <…> Lk 22, 36–37). 1.4. POSITION OF THE CONJUNCTIONS nes, nela, nelang AND nelangaIN THE SUBORDINATE CLAUSE. In older writings, the position of these conjunctions in subordinate clauses varies. Sometimes the subordinate clause begins with the conjunction, while at other times the conjunction occupies not the first but the second position (Hermann 1926: 369). In Bretkūnas’s postil, the conjunctions nelang and nelanga always occur at the beginning of the subordinate clause (see 1.3.). Only the position of the conjunctions nela and nes varies. Most often, these two conjunctions occur at the beginning of the subordinate clause; the second position is comparatively rare (in sentences with nes it is more common than in sentences with nela: nela – 2% of all sentences with this conjunction, while nes – 18%). Most often (65%), subordinate clauses then begin with adverbs (teip, teipa, teipo, ſchiteipo); a considerably smaller proportion begin with pronouns (ghis, ghufai, tas, tallai, patfai). All sentences with subordinate clauses beginning with adverbs were found only in the sermons themselves; no such examples were observed in the pericopes or the Passion narrative. A portion of the pronoun- PRIEŽASTIES ŠALUTINIAI SAKINIAI BRETKŪNO POSTILĖJE | 133 …initial-letter subordinate clauses with the conjunction nela were found in the pericopes. Comparison with the Vulgate shows that in all of them this position of the conjunction may have been influenced by the use of the Latin enim. 1) nela and nes after adverbs: Dying, we must entrust our dear little soul to the Lord God himself <...>; thus there are many holy people who have done so, BPII 415; The cause is that we must ask God for our Lord, so that they <...> may repay us according to God's destiny; thus God proclaims through Saint Paul, BPII 504;12 <...> then let us carefully observe that, when praying to God, we should always pray only in the name of the dear Christ; thus all Christians are praying <...> BPII 103;15 <...> such a person will receive eternal life, and his dear soul, immortality in heaven. Thus Christ says: Blessed are those who hear God's word and keep it, BPI 312;12 Our resurrection from the dead is a sign, and our holy baptism itself is holy, as Saint Paul says in Romans 6. BPII 522;26 It is fitting for a person to eat the body and blood of the Lord God at the Lord's Supper for the forgiveness of sins. For Christ himself says: This is my body, given for you, BPI 67;21 The comfort of Christians <...> in the face of death—that is, that their souls do not die, but remain alive—while the bodies die. Thus Christ himself says BPII416; When asking God for health and other bodily things, we must leave them to his will. If God wishes to give it, let him give it; and if he does not wish to, let his will be done. Thus this leprous man prayed: Lord, if you wish, you can cleanse me, BPI 193;23 2) nela and nes after pronouns: But against such ungodly people, the little bird sings <...> the better it does, that nela praises and glorifies the Lord God with its little voice BPII 98; And I do not say to you, as though I wished to beg the Father for you. The Father himself loves you BPII 95, (cf.: Vnd ich sage euch nicht, das ich den Vater fur euch bitten wil, Denn er felbs der Vater hat euch lieb <...>; <...> et non dico vobis quia ego rogabo Patrem de vobis: Ipse enim Pater amat vos <...> JN 16, 26–27); Thus I say to you: Is he greater than a prophet? This is the one about whom it is written: Behold, I send my angel before you <...> BPI 28, (cf.: Etiam dico vobis, et plus quam prophetam. Hic est enim, de quo scriptum est: Ecce ego mitto angelum meum ante faciem tuam <...>; Ja ich sage euch, der auch mehr ist, denn ein Prophet. Denn dieser ists, von dem geschrieben stehet, Sihe, Ich sende meinen Engel fur Dir her <...> Mt 11, 9–10); But he said this to test him, for he knew well what he was going to do BPI 305 (cf.: Das saget er aber jn zuwerffuchen, Denn er wufte wol, was er thun wolte; Hoc autem dicebat tentans eum: ipse enim sciebat quid esset facturus Jn 6, 6);8 But this too happened according to the Lord God's design and according to the prophecy of the prophet who was called Micah. For he had prophesied about the place of the Messiah's birth BPI 59;2 134 | EDITA KIBILDAITĖ If, then, you fear some worldly lord, if you heed his command, then heed the command of the Lord God himself, for he can destroy or condemn eternally not only the human body but also the soul BPII 2935; <...> do not despair, trust in God, for he can and wishes to save you BPI 20218; For by the command of the holy angels, they will on Judgment Day gather the wicked like tares into bundles and cast them into hell's fire <...> BPII 2112. In Bretkūnas’s postil, one sentence was found in which nes follows a noun: And whoever does not fear God or the priest (and does not wish to heed the command of his Church), that one <...>will not escape the fire of hell, for God does not want the wicked BPII 518. In the pericopes, two causal subordinate clauses were found in which nefa follows the verb. Comparing them with their German and Latin equivalents shows that this position of the conjunction was most likely determined by the Latin original: Then Jesus said, “Have the people sit down.” There was much grass in that place BPI 30518 (cf.: Dixit ergo Iesus: Facite homines discumbere. Erat autem foenum multum in loco; Iheſus aber ſprach, Schaffet das lich das Volck lagere. Es war aber viel gras an dem ort Jn 6, 10); Therefore, do not worry, saying, “What shall we eat? What shall we drink? What shall we wear?” <...> For your Father in heaven knows that you need all these things BPII 39413 (cf.: Darumb folt jr nicht ſorgen, vnd ſagen, Was werden wir eſſen? Was werden wir trincken? Wo mit werden wir uns kleiden? <...> Denn ewer himliſcher Vater weis, das jr des alles bedürfft; Nolite ergo soliciti esse, dicentes: Quid manducabimus, aut quid bibemus, aut quo operiemur? <...> Scit enim pater vester, quia his omnibus indigetis Mt 6, 31–32). 2. SENTENCES WITH kadang(h)i. 2.0. The semantic conjunction kadangi was found in 92 sentences (9%), and is thus almost as frequent as the conjunction nes. It can be used both as a single conjunction and as part of a paired conjunction. 2.1. SENTENCES WITH THE SINGLE CONJUNCTION kadang(h)i. In Bretkūnas’s Postil, sentences of this type account for 36% of all sentences with this conjunction. The position of the subordinate clause in relation to the main clause varies. Although preposition, postposition, and interposition are all possible, postposition is the most frequent in Bretkūnas’s Postil. There are 21 postposed, 10 preposed, and 2 interposed causal subordinate clauses introduced by this conjunction. 1) postposed: But you still neither love him nor serve him more faithfully, since you see how he was despised by God BPI 27314; Let us Christians also learn that Christ is truly the Messiah, since he was able to do such things BPI 3515; PRIEŽASTIES ŠALUTINIAI SAKINIAI BRETKŪNO POSTILĖJE | 135 You must therefore suffer so much, poor one, for your own sins, since there is no one who could be without sin BPₙ 512₁₁; If Christ died for us, when we were sinners, then we shall now be saved from wrath, since through his blood we have been justified BPₙ 426₁₈–₁₉; Therefore you are greatly blessed and praised by all the faithful, since you have given birth to the Son of God and the Savior of the whole world BPₙ 268₁₁; 2) prepositional: But nevertheless, since these things, which every human being needs, are of two kinds—some spiritual, others worldly—we must know that we need to pray to God for these things in no single way <...> BPₙ 105₂₁; And since God had previously appointed the tribe of Levi to serve in the Church <...> the Lord God did not require the firstborn sons of men to serve in the Church <...> BPₙ 225₂; Since you heeded the voice of your wife, and ate from the tree about which I had commanded you, saying, “You shall not eat from it,” cursed be the earth because of you; in toil you shall eat from it <...> BPₙ 412₁₀; And since he doubted because of its shameful death, about this, apart from you, Lord BPₙ 26₁₁; 3) interpositional: <...> God wished to reveal this commandment concerning the coming Messiah. For since he speaks of such a maiden, who conceives without a man’s seed, he [wished] to signify that later the holy Child would be born of a pure virgin without male seed <...> BP₁ 221₂₂; this day <...> is called the day of the Holy Trinity <...> that is, the three persons of the Godhead. For since throughout the year we have heard much and at length about God the Father <...>, and about the Son of God <...>, and likewise about the Holy Spirit <...>, our holy fathers wished <...> that the sermon about God and the three persons of the Godhead be briefly repeated all at once <...> on this first Sunday after Pentecost <...> BPₙ 175₅. When a subordinate clause is joined by the conjunction kadangi, there are usually no correlative words in the main clause. Only in two sentences in Bretkūnas’s postil, with kadangi, is the causal meaning of the subordinate clause emphasized in the main clause through the use of the correlative words todelėi and tū. The subordinate clauses in both sentences are prepositional: And since we all greatly need this very sermon, therefore let us now speak and learn a little more extensively about these same things BPₙ 285₄; And since a person cannot so control either his tongue or his heart that he might fully keep God’s commandments, therefore he cannot truly be righteous through the highest good life before God’s eyes, nor attain heaven. Rather, he needs another, better righteousness BPₙ 287₂. The conjunction kadang(h)i occurs either at the very beginning of the subordinate clause or immediately after another conjunction. Nevertheless, in Bretkūnas’s postil, one sentence was found with this conjunction in- 136 | EDITA KIBILDAITĖ joined to the subordinate clause, in which the usual word order is disrupted, and other words intervene between kadangi and the adversative conjunction net ‘but’: Lazarus kaczei didei wargftans / lacziau ghis Diewui ilchtik / Wieros ing ghi nepamet / net tik Diewa kadangi ant fawes fufimilenti / Tik taipiaeg fawe nūg io apturefenti atleidima grieku ir dufches ilchganima BPII 20024. 2.2. SENTENCES WITH CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS kadang(h)i... tad(d)a AND kadangi... [chitai(gi). In Bretkūnas’s postil, kadang(h)i is used as part of a correlative conjunction in 59 sentences (64% of sentences with kadang(h)i): <...> ir kadangi ghis iemus ape ta ko noreia aplakiti tada liepe ios buti linkfmos [chirdies BPI 8322; A kadangi tokiu negeru BaBniczos tarnu / ir tarp krik[ch]czoniu (o beda) randama ira. Tadda mes il[ch]cho Ilchloighimo Pono Kriftaus Szidu / mokinkimes [chu daiktu BPII 6116; Todelei mieli krik[ch]czonis / kadangi daug mumus reik / ir melldamies rodas noretumbim il[ch]klauliti buti / tadda gerai dabokimes / idant melldamies Diewo / wilfdai mell[?]umbim iktai wardan lelaus Kriftaus <...> BPII 10311; Bet kadangni il[ch] pik[t]los [ch]irdies buwa infibridens ir tiko[i]ens lobio artimoio fawa. Tada ghis il[ch] didzio fawa gailelio / muchu krutis fawa <...> BPII 3632–3; <...> bet kadangi ius tos neprijmmat / [ch]itaigi kreipiames pagon[i]umpi BPII 2091; Bet kadangi ius to nūg fawens patremet / ir fawe patis nehadnais laiket / amfino giwenimo / Schitai kreipemes pagon[i]ump <...> BPII 4716. 3. CLAUSES WITH iog. 3.0. In contemporary standard Lithuanian, the polysemous conjunction jog is used rarely, and in dialects it is generally disappearing altogether (Ulvydas, ed. 1976: 807; Ambrazas, ed. 1994: 669). The German linguist Eduard Hermann, drawing on material collected from the oldest and later Lithuanian writings produced in Prussia and Lithuania, states in his work on the development of Lithuanian subordinate clauses that the conjunction jog was frequent in old Lithuanian writings. He also notes that in Prussian Lithuanian writings jog is used chiefly to join explanatory subordinate clauses and, less often, causal ones, whereas in Lithuania the reverse is true: the conjunction jog more often joins causal rather than explanatory subordinate clauses. In Hermann’s view, there is no doubt that this conjunction was once widely used in result, causal, and explanatory clauses (Hermann 1912: 67–68). Reviewing the development of Lithuanian conjunctions from the 16th century to the beginning of the 20th century, Hermann proposed that conjunctions beginning with the consonant j- gradually strengthened their usage, and that their place was taken by conjunctions beginning with k- (Hermann 1912: 84). In Bretkūnas’s Postil, the functional conjunction jog (spelled iog) occurs 506 times. It is found in as many as 43 causal subordinate clauses (4%). Nearly half of them occur in pericopes and the Passion narrative. In the causal subordinate clauses of the Postil, the conjunction iog is used in three ways: on its own, with correlative words, and as part of a paired conjunction. PRIEŽASTIES ŠALUTINIAI SAKINIAI BRETKŪNO POSTILĖJE 137 3.1. CLAUSES WITH THE CONJUNCTION iog WITHOUT CORRELATIVE WORDS. In Bretkūnas’s Postil, there are only 8 causal subordinate clauses (19%) joined by the conjunction iog alone, without correlative words. They always follow the main clause and can express: 1) the cause of an action or 2) the basis for a question, e.g.: 1) Thus he is one, not as though these two natures had been mixed, but because he is one true person BP₁₁₈₈₁₃; Wicked servant, I forgave you all that debt because you begged me BP₁₁₄₈₆ (cf.: Du Schalckknecht, alle diele Schuld habe ich dir erlaſſen, die weil du mich batest; Serue nequam, omne debitum dimisi tibi quoniam rogasti me <…> Mt 18, 32); <…> he is not two, but one Christ. One, as though divinity had been transformed into humanity, but because divinity assumed humanity BP₁₁₈₈₁₁; 2) What kind of man is this, because both wind and sea obey him BP₁₂₀₁₂; <…> what kind of man is this, because wind and sea obey him BP₁₁₉₆₁₀ (cf.: Was ift das fur ein Man, das jm Wind vnd Meer gehorſam ift? Qualis est hic, quia venti, et mare obediunt ei? Mt 8, 27); And he said to them, Who is it that you are looking for? BP₁₁₆₂ (cf.: Was ifts, das jr mich gefucht habt? Quid est, quod me quaerebatis? Lk 2, 49). 3.2. CLAUSES WITH iog AND CORRELATIVE WORDS. When causal subordinate clauses are joined by the conjunction iog, the main clause usually contains a correlative word that emphasizes the causal meaning (this structure occurs in 72% of all complex sentences with causal subordinate clauses introduced by this conjunction). The most common correlative word in causal clauses with iog in Bretkūnas’s Postil is todel(ei). The correlative words delto / delto, todilei2 (only in pericopes) and thū are also used, e.g.: And therefore it is called the time of the Coming, because throughout the Christian world this is said of the Coming of the Lord Jesus Christ upon earth BP₁₃₉; For whoever eats and drinks unworthily, eats and drinks judgment upon himself, because he does not discern the body of the Lord BP₁₆₈₁₆; Behold, Joseph also went up from Galilee, from the town of Nazareth, into the land of Judea, to the town of David, which is called Bethlehem, therefore because he was of the house and lineage of David, so that he might be registered with Mary, his betrothed wife, who was with child BP₁₄₉ (cf.: Eia taip aieg ir Ioſephas iſch Galileas / iſch Mielta Nazareth / ing Iudawos ßeme / mieltana Dawida / kuri wadina Bethleem / Todrilei iog ghis buwa iſch namu / ir iſch gimines Dauida / idant butu paralfchits ſu Marije palubitaie moterimi / kuri buwa nelczia EE 9₁₋₂); Now Jesus went across the Sea to the city of Tiberias in Galilee, and many people followed him because they had seen the signs he performed on those who were sick BP₁₃₀₄ (cf.: DArmach fuhr Jheſus weg uber das Meer an der ſtad Tiberias in Galilea, vnd es folgeten jm viel Volcks nach, darumb das ſie die Zeichen ſahen, die er an den Krancken thet Jn 6, 1–2; POtam nuena Ieſus per marias mieſtop Tiberias Galileio / ir eja paſkui ghj daug ßmoniu / delto / iog regeia ßenklus io / kurius dare ant tu kurie neſweiki buwa EE 50₉). 2 This correlative word occurs only once in one of the pericopes, and therefore is most likely attributable not to Bretkūnas himself but to Baltramiejus Vilentas’s language, especially since todril(ei) occurs several times both in Enchiridione (6) and in Euvangelijose bei Epistolose (7). 138 | EDITA KIBILDAITĖ Although the correlative word may occur at either the beginning or the end of the main clause, in Bretkūnas’s postil it almost always occurs at the end of the main clause. In such cases, punctuation makes it possible to determine whether the correlative word belongs to the main clause or forms a unit with the conjunction jog, that is, to identify the clause boundaries; for example: Ponas Kristus Dwale Schwenta wadin palink/mintoghe ßmoniu / todel iog ghi ßmogu <...> willu geriaulei gal palink/minti <...> BPII 123.; Bei fchokinei fchillai Bernelis todelei / iog buwa paties Pono Diewo paſchwenſtas <...> BPII 266₈. Only two sentences were found in which the correlative word occurs at the beginning of the main clause: Del to tu weilai ßwairai / iog alch teip geras eſmi? BPII 20317 (plg.: Siheftu darum ſcheel, das ich ſo Gütig bin? MT 20, 15; Dielto tu weilai ßwairai iog elch eſmi gieras? EE 34); Ir todel ira wadinamas cźielas Ateijmo / iog willoie kriklchcźoniltieie ſakama ira ape Ateijma Pono Iſeſaus Kriſtaus ant ßemes BPI 39. Two sentences were also noted in which the correlative word occurs between the subject and the predicate. Both are from the pericope and its citation: A tatai ghie todelei iumus daris / iog nepaſiſt Tiewo nei manes BPII 1216; Kriſtus patſai taip̄o ſaka. Tatai ghie iumus todelei daris / iog anis nepaſiſt nei Tiewo nei mane BPII 13011 (plg.: Atatai ghie todelei iumus daris / iog nepaſiſt Tiewa nei manęs EE 7512; Vnd folchs werden ſie euch darumb thun, das ſie wider meinen Vater noch mich erkennen; <...> et haec facient vobis, quia non noverunt Patrem, neque me JN 16, 3). The order of clauses in this type of sentence is strictly defined: the subordinate clause always follows the main clause. There is only one exception: in an excerpt from the Book of the Prophet Isaiah, a combination of the conjunction jog and the adverb todelei was noted, linking a preposed causal subordinate clause: Todelei iog io dulche dirba / dźaugis ir turres pilnifte BPI 41818 (plg.: Darumb das ſeine feele geerbeitet hat / wird er ſeine luft ſehen Iz 53, 11). 3.3. SENTENCES WITH THE CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTION iog... tad(d)a. Only two sentences with the correlative conjunction iog... tad(d)a have been found in Bretkūnas’s postil: But since the maiden Maria had been betrothed to Joseph / then she too had to be of the lineage of King David BPII 5622; Since you have seen me, Thomas / then you believe BPII 4313 (cf.: Dieweil du mich gelehen haſt Thoma, ſo gleubetu <...> JN 20, 29; Since you have seen me, Thomas / then you believe EE 6417). They could also include two more sentences in which the first part of the correlative conjunction occurs together with the corresponding word todelei: PRIEŽASTIES ŠALUTINIAI SAKINIAI BRETKŪNO POSTILĖJE | 139 Therefore, because they did not accept such love / they would have been saved / then God will send them strong delusions / so that they believe a lie BP₁₁ 313₈; Therefore, because the daughters of Zion have become haughty / and walk with heads held high / and flaunt their looks / the proud maidens / and wear costly shoes / then God will take away their pride BP₁₁ 196₂₆. The subordinate clauses in all these examples are preposed. 4. SENTENCES WITH kaip AND kaip kad. 4.1. SENTENCES WITH kaip. In Lithuanian texts of the 16th–17th centuries, the conjunction kaip introduces subordinate clauses with various meanings: comparative, temporal, explanatory, consecutive, causal, and purposive. Eduardas Hermannas, describing the meanings of clauses introduced by kaip, states that there are no causal clauses with kaip in Bretkūnas’s writings (Hermann 1912: 76). Nevertheless, an examination of subordinate clauses introduced by this conjunction reveals not only many comparative and temporal clauses which, as in present-day Lithuanian, also have a secondary causal meaning, but also clauses that can be considered causal subordinate clauses, e.g.: And as they still did not believe / for joy / and were amazed (i.e. ftēbeiofi – E. K.) / he said to them BP₁ 406₈ (cf.: Adhuc autem illis non credentibus, et mirantibus prae gaudio, dixit <...>; Da sie aber nicht glaubeten fur freuden, vnd sich verwunderten, sprach er zu jnen <...>; Lk 24, 41); And thus the Saviour of the world wills first to reveal himself to the tribe of the Jews / since he is of that tribe and is of human lineage BP₁ 321₇. The conjunction kaip is used in approximately 2.4% of causal subordinate clauses in Bretkūnas’s postil. The sentence patterns with this conjunction are highly varied. When clauses are linked by the correlative conjunction kaip... teip(o), kaip... fcheiteipo, it is very difficult to determine what relationship connects them—whether comparative or causal-consecutive. Thus, assigning sentences of this pattern to causal clauses is debatable, since a sentence essentially has two meanings—comparative and causal—and seems to form an intermediate link between the two types of subordinate clauses, e.g.: <...> as the child was born in this way for our salvation and eternal redemption / so too was he named with that same word BP₁ 134₁₁; <...> as we are to confess according to Christian truth each person as a separate God and Lord. Likewise, in the Christian faith we cannot call them three Gods or three Lords BP₁₁ 186₂₄. When a causal subordinate clause is joined to the main clause by only one kaip, the subordinate clause can be either preposed or postposed: 1) sentences with preposed subordinate clauses: And since this Jesus had overcome the Gadarenes’ attack against the legion / the wild beasts had to leave the lake’s bottom and calm the Gadarene BP₁₁ 341₃; 140 | EDITA KIBILDAITĖ And since the debtor had nothing with which to repay, the master ordered him to be sold, together with his wife and children and everything he had, so that the debt might be repaid BP₁₁ 484₁ (cf.: Cum autem non haberet unde redderet, iussit eum dominus eius venundari, et uxorem eius, et filios, et omnia, quae habebat, et reddi; Da ers nu nicht hatte zu bezalen, hies der Herr verkauffen jn, vnd sein Weib, vnd seine Kinder, vnd alles was er hatte, vnd bezalen MT 18, 25); 2) sentences with postposed subordinate clauses: The destroyers of the world, the Jewish people, wanted to crucify him as soon as he was born from the holy Virgin BP₁₁ 113₁₀; We are the creation of the Lord God / and he does not want his creation to perish / or to be eternally lost / as the only Son of God / our beloved Lord Jesus Christ shows, therefore he became man / so that he might redeem flesh with flesh / and his creation would not perish <...> BP₁₁ 151₁₅; <...> They laid Jesus there, on account of the approaching Sabbath of the Jews, since the tomb was nearby BP₁₁ 395₅ (cf.: Dafelbs hin legten sie Jheſum, vnd des rüftages willen der Juden, die weil das grab nahe war Jn 19, 42). Two mixed compound sentences have been found in Jono Bretkūno’s postil in which the use of the conjunction kaip differs somewhat from the usage just discussed. These mixed sentences each contain two homogeneous causal subordinate clauses linked by the adversative conjunction bet; one begins with the conjunction kaip and a negation, while the other is introduced by the functional conjunction jog: And although he is God and man / nevertheless he is not two, but one Kriftus. One / not as if the Godhead had been changed into a human being / but because he took on human nature BP₁₁ 188₁₀; Thus he is one / not as if these two natures had been mixed / but because he is only one person BP₁₁ 188₁₂. 4.2. SENTENCES WITH kaip kad. The postil contains three postposed causal subordinate clauses introduced by the comparative conjunction kaip kad. They are distinguished from comparative clauses not only by meaning but also by a formal structural feature—the presence of a correlative word. In all three sentences it is used with a negation, whose presence in the sentence is determined by the contrastive relations with the following text segments: Joseph is not called the father of Kriftus because the Virgin Mary, while still a virgin, had borne the child with Joseph / No, for Mary had never known a man / nor had she slept with a man / but Mary conceived by the work of the Holy Spirit, as you will hear more fully about this in the day’s sermon on the Virgin Mary. But Joseph is called the father of Kriftus because, by God’s command, he had to care for both Mary and this child BP₁₁ 117₉; The Pharisees are not called thieves of Kriftus because they stole the people’s valuables or robbed their coffers and stole their money or property. No, Kriftus calls the Pharisees thieves because they stole the people’s souls from God <...> BP₁₁ 60₁₈; But why did Kriftus do this? I will answer. Not because their wicked life pleased him BP₁₁ 422₂. PRIEŽASTIES ŠALUTINIAI SAKINIAI BRETKŪNO POSTILĖJE | 141 5. SENTENCES WITH kad(d)a, kad AND ka. 5.1. SENTENCES WITH kad(d)a. In Jono Bretkūno’s postil, the conjunction kad(d)a is most often used with a temporal meaning (in Hermann’s view, this is also the conjunction’s oldest meaning; cf. Hermann 1912: 71), but about 20 (2%) causal subordinate clauses with this conjunction were also found. Subordinate clauses with kad(d)a can express both a cause and the basis for a judgment or question. Linked to the main clause by the single conjunction kad(d)a, they may occur both preposed and postposed (the subordinate clauses of sentences linked by the correlative conjunction kad(d)a... tad(d)a can only be preposed), for example: 1) sentences with preposed subordinate clauses: Because you saw me, Thomas, you believed BP14084–5 (cf.: Dieweil du mich gesehen halt Thoma, so gleubestu; Quia vidisti me Thoma, credisti JN 20, 29); How many thousands of people God led out of Egypt and saved, but when they did not thank him for it, they were destined to perish on the way BP1139123; Now, when the King of the Jews was born of the Jewish people, he had nowhere else to be, but in that poorest of places BP11565. 2) sentences with postposed subordinate clauses: <...> We heard about Kriftu <...> The Virgin Mary gave birth in Bethlehem, and, like any other poor woman, swaddled the child and laid him in a manger, because she had no better place in the inn BP1706; You must realize, then, that sin is a very ugly thing in the sight of God, since it drew even the Son of God into its mire BP142820; <...> how this will be / when even I do not know BP133113 (cf.: <...> wie fol das zugehen? fintemal ich von keinem Manne weis; Quomodo fiet istud, quoniam virum non cognosco Luke 1:34). It is often difficult to distinguish causal subordinate clauses introduced by the conjunction kada from temporal subordinate clauses, since (as in present-day Lithuanian) they quite often express not only the time of an action but also its cause, for example: But Christ says thus: when a strong man guards his palace, his possessions are safe; but when one stronger than he comes upon him and overcomes him, he takes away his armor, in which he trusted, and distributes his spoils. BP130023–25; Likewise, speaking of Death / Death cannot overcome a person / except when God permits it BP17510; The causal meaning is more pronounced and easier to identify when the predicate tenses of the subordinate and main clauses differ (perhaps the only formal distinguishing feature), or when the main clause contains a correlative word. In Bretkūnas’s Postil, there are only a few sentences joined by this conjunction in which the predicate forms of the main and subordinate clauses differ 142 | EDITA KIBILDAITĖ only a few, and the correlative word todel, which emphasizes the causal meaning, occurs in the main clause of only one sentence: But when they wanted to make peace, they had delayed too long, and peace and freedom had passed away; when they had already been starved and greatly oppressed, therefore they could no longer make peace <...> BP₁₁ 345,15. 5.2. SENTENCES WITH THE CONJUNCTION kad. The conjunction kad was much less frequent in the Lithuanian written language of the 16th–17th centuries than in later periods (Palionis 1967: 204). In Jono Bretkūnas’s Postil, kad is also rare; fewer than 20 subordinate clauses are introduced by it. This conjunction is most commonly found in temporal sentences. A considerable number of these have a secondary causal meaning. The Postil contains only two sentences with the conjunction kad that may be considered causal sentences: And when he had fasted forty days and forty nights, afterwards he became hungry BP₁₂₆₄₆ (cf.: Vnd da er vierzig tag vnd vierzig nacht gefastet hatte, hungert jn; Et cum ieiunasset quadraginta noctibus, postea esuriit Mt 4, 2); Saint Peter. Acts 2. says thus / God raised Christ / and released him from the pains of death / because it could not be / that he / that is, Christ / should be held by it BP₁₁ (cf.: Den hat Gott auferwecket, vnd auffgelöset die ſchmertzen des todes, nach dem es unmüglich war, das er ſolt von jm gehalten werden; <...> quem Deus suscitavit, solutis doloribus inferni, iuxta quod impossible erat teneri illum ab eo APD 2, 24). 5.3. THE CONJUNCTION ka. The conjunction ka, now widely used in dialects, is extremely rare in old writings (Hermann 1912: 68–69). In Bretkūnas’s Postil (Passion), only one sentence with the conjunction ka. has been found. Its subordinate clause indicates the basis for a question. Interestingly, neither the German nor the Latin text, nor the Gospel text translated by Baltramiejus Vilentas, contains an entirely exact equivalent—that is, a sentence with the same structure: Ah, do you want to sleep now / and rest / while you sleep? BP₁₃₆₇ (cf.: Ah wolt jr nu fchlaffen vnd ruhen; Dormite iam, et requiescite <...> Mt 26, 45; Ah wolt jr nu fchlaffen vnd rugen; Dormite iam, et requiescite <...> Mk 14, 41; <...> was fchlaffet jr; Quid dormitis? Lk 22, 46; <...> do you now want to sleep and rest? EE 190₂₃). 6. SENTENCES WITH OTHER CONJUNCTIONS. 6.1. SENTENCES WITH THE CONJUNCTION ieng / iang. Bretkūnas’s postil (only in the Passion text) contains three causal sentences with the conjunction ieng / iang. The subordinate clauses in two sentences are interposed, while in one they are preposed. Comparing these sentences with the corresponding sentences in Vilentas’s translated Gospels (no equivalent for one example was found at all) shows that Vilentas’s translation did not influence the use of the conjunction ieng / iang in the postil. An interesting detail: in all three sentences, the German conjunction ieng / iang translates dieweil (in the Vulgate these are rendered by quoniam and quia): The Jews had prepared the day beforehand / that the bodies should not remain on the cross during the Sabbath (for PRIEŽASTIES ŠALUTINIAI SAKINIAI BRETKŪNO POSTILĖJE | 143 that Sabbath was a very great day) they asked Pilate / that their bones might be broken and they might be taken down BP 393₁ (cf.: The Jews then / since it was the day of preparation / so that the bodies might not remain on the Cross on the Sabbath (for that Sabbath day was great) asked Pilate that they be broken and taken down EE 211₂₄; But the Jews, because it was the Preparation Day, so that the bodies might not remain on the cross over the Sabbath (for that Sabbath day was a great one), asked Pilate that their bones be broken and they be taken away; The Jews therefore, (because it was the Preparation Day) asked Pilate that their bodies might not remain on the cross on the Sabbath, (for that Sabbath day was a great day), that their legs be broken and they be taken away Jn 19,31); Then in the evening / since it was the day of preparation, which is before the Sabbath, Joseph of Arimathea came <...> BP 394₆ (cf.: Then in the evening / on the day of Preparation / which is before the Sabbath / Joseph came, from Arimathea, a town of the Jews <...> EE 212₁₄–₁₆; And in the evening, because it was the Preparation Day, which is the day before the Sabbath, Joseph of Arimathea came <...>; And when it was already evening (because it was the Preparation Day, that is, the day before the Sabbath), Joseph of Arimathea came <...> Mk 15, 42–43); But no one at the table knew why he said this to him. Some thought, since Judas had the purse, Jesus was speaking to him BP 362₂₃ (cf.: But no one at the table knew what he meant by this. Some thought, because Judas had the purse, Jesus was speaking to him; But this none of those reclining knew why he said it to him. For some thought, because Judas had the money box, that Jesus had said to him <...> Jn 13, 27). 6.2. THE CONJUNCTION ba. This conjunction of Slavic origin, relatively frequent in Martynas Mažvydas’s catechism, is used only once in Jonas Bretkūnas’s postil: it occurs in a quotation from the Old Testament (Psalm 102): Praise the Lord, my soul / and all that is within me, his holy name / For he abundantly shows his goodness / remember this, my soul BP 91₇ (cf.: Praise the Lord, my soul / and all that is within me, his holy name / For he abundantly shows his goodness / remember this, my soul MG₁₁ 352₂). 7. CONCLUSIONS 1. Causal subordinate clauses are most often linked to the main clause by the conjunctions nela, nes, kadangi and jog. All other conjunctions linking causal subordinate clauses belong to the periphery of usage. The conjunction nela, now entirely obsolete, occurs in the postil more than six times as often as nes, which predominates in contemporary language. 2. The position of causal subordinate clauses introduced by the conjunctions nela, nelang, nelanga and nes relative to the main clause is strictly defined: the subordinate clause follows the main clause. 3. The conjunction occurs very rarely in second position in a subordinate clause, and only in sentences with nes and nela. In all other cases, as in contemporary Lithuanian, the conjunction occurs at the very beginning of the subordinate clause (alone or together with other conjunctions). 4. Causal subordinate clauses linked by the single conjunction kadang(h)i are more characteristically used postpositionally. Causal subordinate clauses linked by the single conjunctions kaip and kad(d)a are used in Bretkūnas’s postil both postpositionally and prepositionally, with neither usage clearly predominating in frequency. 144 | EDITA KIBILDAITĖ 5. The fact that the conjunction jog is relatively frequent in Bretkūnas’s postil, whereas sentences with kad and ką are still very rare, would confirm E. Hermann’s observation of a tendency to replace conjunctions that were once frequently used and began with the consonant j- with conjunctions beginning with the consonant k-. ABBREVIATIONS BP – Bretkūnas’s postil EE – Vilento’s Euangelias bei Epistolas LB – D. Martin Luthers Deutsche Bibel 6, Weimar, 1929. MG – Mažvydas’s Gelmes Chrikščioniskas NT – Novum Testamentum Graece en Latine. Stuttgart: Württembergische Bibelanstalt, 1964. VULG – Biblia Sacra iuxta vulgatam versionem [...] prepared by Roger GRYSON, Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, ⁴1994. LITERATŪRA AMBRAZAS, V., red. 1994: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla. HERMANN, E. 1912: Über die Entwicklung der litauischen Konjunktionalsätze, Jena: Frommansche Buchdruckerei. HERMANN, E. 1926: Litauische Studien. Eine historische Untersuchung schwachbetonter Wörter im Litauischen, Berlin: Weidmannsche Buchhandlung. PALIONIS, J. 1967: Lietuvių literatūrinė kalba XVI–XVII a., Vilnius: Mintis. ULVYDAS, K., red. 1976: Lietuvių kalbos gramatika, 3. Sintaksė, Vilnius: Mokslas. Edita Kिबildaitė Gauta 2001 02 28 Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas Lietuvių kalbos katedra Donelaičio g. 52, 3000 Kaunas, Lietuva