Die prädikative Verwendung von Substantiven im Litauischen: Nominativ vs. Instrumental

ACTA LINGUISTICA LITHUANICA L (2004), 99-125 LORETA SEMENIENE Lietuviy kalbos institutas, Vilnius In this article, the use of the nominative and the instrumental as predicative cases in Lithuanian copular sentences is discussed. The emphasis is on cases where a morphosyntactic variation is observed. It is argued that, though the use of predicative cases may be influenced both by semantic and by formal factors, the relative importance of these factors is unequal in modern Lithuanian. Semantic factors (permanent vs. temporary property) have no decisive influence on the choice of one of these case forms. Both nominative and instrumental can be used to mark either a permanent or a temporary state (the instrumental being slightly higher in frequency with inanimates). The factors most markedly influencing the choice of case forms are: the inflectional form of the copula (tense and mood), finiteness vs. nonfiniteness, and word order. Various forms of markedness (marked tense and mood forms, marked word order) contribute to the use of the instrumental 0. INTRODUCTION 0.1. The use of the nominative and/or instrumental in the so-called Predikativsatzen' has already been studied several times. In these works, semantic and/or formal criteria were sought that cause the use of one or another predicative case. 0.1.1. Some linguists (Jakobson 1971: 26ff.; cf. Wierzbicka 1980: xix, 2) hold the view that each case has a variety of different meanings, which can be separated on the one hand, but which are intertwined on the other and can be summarized into an invariant overall meaning. The individual meanings of the case are explained by the overall meaning and the context (see Wierzbicka 1980: xix). The SINGLE MEANING of the case cannot be described as a contextual variant, because the meaning of the cases used in different languages in analogous contexts can differ. Taking this into consideration, Anna Wierzbicka (1980: 157-158) suggests that the individual significance of the case as a fact of the case should be considered as a consequence of the case itself. The author would like to thank her host and supervisor Prof. Dr. habil. Gerd Hentschel for all kinds of help and advice. Thanks to the German Academic Exchange Service, which financed the research stay. I would also like to thank Prof. Dr. habil. Thank you Axel Holvoet. In Lithuanian grammar such sentences are usually called nominal sentences (vardazodinis sakinys) (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 612). 100 | LORETA SEMENIENE internal structure of a language. According to her, the overall meaning should be understood as the totality of certain common semantic components. 0.1.1.1. Referring to the semantic understanding of the case, it is said that the predicative nominative is used to express a permanent state of mind (Balkevičius 1998: 104-105; Jablonskis 1957: 556; Jakobson 1971: 49; cf. Wierzbicka 1980: 119) or a permanent and temporary state (Ambrazas, ed., 1997: 472; Ambrazas, red., 1996: 505-506; Ulvydas, Ambrazas, Valeckiene, red., 1976: 68-69, 364; Sukys 1998: 73-74, 245-248; Paulauskienė 1994: 110; cf. : Sirtautas, Grenda 1988: 69-71; Balkevičius 1963: 106-109) can be used. The predicative instrumental is used to express a temporary state. In other words, a semantic opposition is established permanent / temporary, whereby the permanent state is expressed by means of the nominative and the temporary by means of the instrumental or nominative, but not vice versa (see Miliūnaitė, Hg., 2003: 75-77). 0.1.2. Other linguists hold the view (Pinkster 1988: 5799; cf. Comrie 1989: 70-74, 124-127; Hentschel 1993b: 282-285) that the case is a formal morphosyntactic sign that has a diacritical function in the sentence, i.e. it shows the syntactic structure of the sentence. This is particularly the case in languages in which the flexions also differ by specific forms, in which elements of the sentence core appear in different, non-homonymous cases. 0.1.2.1. In line with this view it is said (Schaller 1975: 81-83) that the substantive instrumental can be used when one wants to distinguish subject and predicate morphologically, e.g. when subject and predicate are represented by nouns. It is obvious, however, that the substantive nominative is often used in such cases when the subject is a noun, and vice versa: the substantive instrumental is used sufficiently often even when a pronoun is used as the subject. On the other hand, it is not always necessary to separate the substantive subject from the substantive predicate morphologically, cf. : (1) Therefore, it cannot be a reproach only to one person; Sleževičius was not a career diplomat. KT “Therefore, this cannot be a reproach to one man only; Mr. Sleževičius was not a career diplomat.’ (2) The fellow student was a traitor, concerned only with himself, and chose the monastery solely out of laziness and belly-beating. KT chosen out of laziness and concession to the belly.’ 0.1.3. In recent work (Hentschel 1991a, 1991b; 1992a; 1993a, 1993b; 1994) it is often argued that the choice of case is influenced by both semantic and “Der Kommilitone war ein Verräter, kümmerte sich nur um sich und hatte das Kloster nur The choice of the case of the predicate noun can be influenced by both linguistic and formal criteria: on the one hand, the choice of the case of the predicate noun can be influenced by the (un-)permanence of the state to be expressed or the (un-)aliveness of the predicate noun, on the other hand, by the need to formally distinguish the subject from the predicate. This does not mean, however, that in the presence of these or those semantic or formal signs, the associated predicative case is necessarily selected. Thus, it is not claimed that there is a sufficient criterion X, for which “if X, then (always) Y” applies, but it is limited to the tendency “if X, then preferably Y” (Hentschel 1991a: 224). 0.2 If one acknowledges that a case has a meaning, then on the one hand one must also acknowledge that the use of one particular of two (or more) possible cases is due to semantic differences. On the other hand, it remains unclear what causes the choice of the case if no semantic differences can be identified. In other words, the question arises as to what causes the choice of the nominative or instrumental to express a temporary state. However, as soon as one assumes that a case has no meaning and is only a diacritical mark for marking different syntactic functions, it remains unclear why in some predicative sentences different cases (here nominative and possessive) are used to mark the same syntactic function, namely the predicative. Thus, the thesis arises that both semantic Instrumental) verwendet werden können, in anderen Sätzen aber nicht. and formal morphosyntactic criteria influence the case of the substantive predicative. However, both influences are not equally important in contemporary Lithuanian. 0.3. The main focus of the article is on trends in the use of nominative and instrumental in QUALIFICATION SETTINGS. Der prototypische Satz hat ein definites Subjekt und ein indefinites Prädikativ, z.B., he was a teacher. IDENTIFICATION SETTINGS, on the other hand, in which both subject and predicate are prototypically determined, are not treated in detail, e.g. ši moteris buvo mano pirmoji mokytoja®. We limit ourselves here to the case marking of predicative nouns. 2 For more detailed information on the differences between identification statements and those described here, as well as their possible similarities, see Hentschel (1991a: 223; 1992a; 1993b: 262-264); Rothstein (1986); Wierzbicka (1980: 122); Lyons (1977: 469–473). In Lithuanian linguistic works, when describing the role of substantive suffixes in predicative use, no differences are usually made in the treatment of qualification and identification sentences (see: Valeckiene 1998: 41-42; Ambrazas, ed., 1997: 642-643). It must be said that when talking about identification sentences, the traditional opposition in Lithuanian linguistics is temporarily / permanently irrelevant, since from A identical belly B identical A follows. 102 | LORETA SEMENIENE 1. SEMANTIC CRITERIA THAT INFLUE ON THE CASE OF THE SUBSTANTIVE PREDICATIVE HAVE KÖNNEN 1.1 With regard to the meaning of predicative nouns, it is not uncommon to speak of several noun groups, which can have an influence on the use in the nominative or instrumental. It is said that when the noun nationality, gender, degree of kinship, invariable belonging to a species, class, etc. the nominative is used (Sukys 1998: 74, 250; 1984: 21; cf. Paulauskienė 2001: 184). With other words, the nominative is used when a permanent, natural state is expressed by means of the predikative noun, e.g.: (3) Many years later, Petras Klimas, Lithuanian envoy in Paris, would remember that J. Baltrušaitis constantly felt a grudge that he, being a Lithuanian, was not creating literature of his own country, but of Russia. The next time P. Klimas has mentioned that J. Baltrušaitis was a walking puzzle in general. KT “After many years Petras Klimas, Lithuanian envoy in Paris, will remember that J. Baltrušaitis always felt remorse because as a Lithuanian he was not creating his country’s literature, but Russian literature. On another occasion, P. Klimas realized that Baltrušaitis was a walking mystery.’ (4) Or let’s say a Roman Catholic believes that without the Church there is no salvation. He asks himself: if [he] were not a Catholic, would he want to be strongly encouraged to accept the Catholic faith? KT ‘Or let’s assume that a Roman Catholic believes that without the church there is no salvation. He wonders, if he were not a Catholic, would he want to be strongly exhorted to embrace the Catholic faith.’ (5) Liudvikas Jucevičius studied at the Medical Faculty of the University. After the university was closed, he pursued education, but [he] being the son of a landless nobleman, did not have the funds to study abroad and entered the Vilnius Senior Seminary. KT “Liudvikas Jucevičius studied at the Medical Faculty of the University. After the closure of the university, aspiring to science, but as the son of a Bajors without land, he had no means to study elsewhere and enrolled in the Superior Seminary in Vilnius.’ Another predicative class of nouns is used to designate professions, public functions and other descriptions of activities. This is a temporary (changing) state, which can be described by both nominative and instrumental? (Sukys 1998: 245; 1984: 21, 124; cf. Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 506), e.g.: 3 Jonas Šukys (1998: 247) thinks that “with many forms of būti both the substantive instrumental and the nominative are possible [...], the more frequent and ordinary being the nominative. The instrumental of the state is usually used only when one wants to accentuate the temporary, unstable state. [...] If one does not aspire to this accentuation, then in Lithuanian the unstable, temporary state is often expressed in the nominative.” PRÄDIKATIVE SUBSTANTIVE IM LITAUISCHEN | 103 (6) Look at what the World Bank is doing. This agreement was initiated when I was still a minister. So 2.5 years ago. Two and a half years of preparing this project. Go ahead. KT ‘See what the World Bank is doing. This agreement was begun to prepare than before. ich noch Minister war. Also vor 2,5 Jahren. Zweieinhalb Jahre bereitet man dieses Projekt Go on.’ (7) He was very pleased that Garbacius was appointed head of the education department. As a leader of the art club, he supported Igna in every way, openly sympathizing with him. And that's not a bad thing! KT “He was satisfied that Garbačiauskas was appointed as the head of the education department. As head of the art circle, he had supported Ignas in many ways and openly sympathized with him. Das ist nicht schlecht!” (8) It should be arranged very well. We're gonna watch... oh, wait a minute. I would like to add one more thing. When I was a minister, all this was planned, but there was one, I would say, very good thing: first of all, to adopt a law on non-profit organisations. KT ‘You would have to arrange this very well. We'll see... oh, one minute. One more thing. When I was a minister, this was already planned, but there was another, I would say, very good thing planned: first to pass the law on non-profit organizations.’ (9) Velionis President Kazys Grinius, as the leader of the country, said: "Until it strengthens Lithuania, I will not pay." KT “The late President Kazys Grinius said when he was head of state: “Solange Lithuania is not strengthened, I will not Take a salary”.’ 1.2. During the Consideration of this Group assigned Nouns becomes clear: Professional titles cannot be replaced by a temporary condition be connected. Der Profession is what is stable (cf. Ambrazas, ed., 1997: 472; Ambrazas, Red., 1996: 506). That is, according to the above. opinions this would have to be ge condition by the Be designated nominatively, e.g. : (10) After completing a Master's Degree in Business [aS] will be a professional ir administrator. KT “If I Master's degree programmes have finished economics, I will also be a professional Be a manager.’ (11) How here you will not give up, looking around you. Here I have to finish the institute and maybe I will finish it with God’s help, in two years [a$] I will be an engineer, maybe I will be equipped materially, but how much good will my country have from it? KT “How can you not be disillusioned when you look around you. I have to do this institute finish and maybe I'll be with es Gottes Help end after two years I will Be an engineer, perhaps materially secured, but which Does my country benefit from it?’ (12) Ji studying business information management. This year he will study in the second year of this specialty. “I’m not thinking about future work yet. I know that [I) will be a manager, the o freedom of choice in this area is quite large," said — G. Usonic. KT “She is studying Information management. In diesem year she studies second im Study 104 | LORETA SEMENIENE year. “I’m not thinking about future work yet. I know that I will be a manager, and the freedom of choice in this area is quite large,” says G. Usonyte.’ However, work or a specific activity associated with a certain profession may be temporary, such as public activity or the like. (see e.g. (6)-(9)). And to mark a temporary state, as already mentioned, both the nominative and the instrumental are used, e.g.: (13) Kaip gyvenąs, kaip besiverčiąs? Oh, about that later, there will be so many stories and speeches! In short, he was a director in Priekalnė, now he is not working, he is resting. Living alone, free as a bird. Immediately he called me to stay at his house. KT “How are you, how are you doing? Well, to that later, there will be so much more speeches and stories! In short: he, who he was director in Priekaln- &, is no longer working, he is recovering. Lives alone, free as a bird. Immediately he invited me to be a guest in his To be home.’ (14) In my mind (tfu, tfu, tfu) I thought —maybe the grandmother’s “lessons” will be involved? And the man, as I saw in the pictures, was pretty, nicely made. Former aviation engineer. KT “In my mind (pfui) I thought to myself, if not mother’s “teachings” had a part here? The man I saw in the photos was handsome, of good stature. He had been an aeronautical engineer.’ By means of predicative nouns to designate professional or public work, a permanent state can also be expressed. However, as can be seen from the sentences (15)-(18), in such situations not only the nominative but also the instrumental appears, cf.: (15) Ne visiems patiko 1941 m. kovo 13 d. A. Smetonos JAV lietuviams pasakyti žodžiai: „Aš buvau, esu ir būsiu Lietuvos prezidentas (...) Aš palieku Lietuvos prezidentas de jure“. KT “Not everyone liked the statements made by A. Smetona on 13. March 1941 to the US Lithuanians: “I was, am and will be the President of Lithuania (...) I remain the President of Lithuania de jure”; (16) To tell about yourself is the most unworthy thing. Your witty words can be understood differently, so I will be brief. First of all, [I] am and will remain an eye doctor whose vocation is to help people with vision problems. I started working as an ophthalmologist while still studying in residency. KT “To tell about oneself is the most ungrateful thing. Your spoken words can be understood differently, so I will speak briefly. First of all, I am and will be an ophthalmologist whose vocation is to help people who have problems with vision. I started working as an ophthalmologist during my medical training.’ (17) After your wife's death, did you think about giving up your profession? “Not a minute. Cassie will never forgive it. "V1SADA [you] be an actor," were her last words. KT “After your wife’s death, did you think about giving up your job?” “Not a minute. Kesi would never have forgiven that. ‘ALWAYS be an actor’ were her last words.” „> PRÄDIKATIVE SUBSTANTIVE IM LITAUISCHEN | 105 (18) Wonder if you became a politician, about you we would know a lot of compromising things? - I'll NEVER be a politician. And the scandals about me?.. That it is not. Maybe I've ever drunk too much, jumped out, said the wrong thing. "And the drugs?" KT “ “It’s interesting, if you were a politician, would we know a lot of compromising facts about you?” “I will NEVER be a politician. And scandals about me?.. It doesn't exist. Maybe I was a little drunk, outgoing, didn’t say what was necessary.” “And narcotics?” Thus, nouns are used to designate work, profession, public activities, etc. both a permanent and temporary state, which can be conveyed with both nominative and instrumental. On the other hand, it is thought that the above-mentioned nouns are not so much about the opposition temporär / beständig, but that the use of nominative and instrumental is conditioned by the concrete meaning of the noun. From a lexical point of view, these nouns used predicatively to designate professional, social and public activities have lost their direct connection to their reference, the person. They therefore do not mark the person, but rather an activity that is associated with the person (Hentschel 1993b: 276-277). 277, 282, 1992a; See. Dik 1989: 170–172). In other words, such a use of substantive predicates is non-prototypical, similar to the “real” use of the predicate (verb) (see Valeckien & 1998: 53). 1.3. Based on data from other languages, it was emphasized that the instrumental is first established in connection with predicative nouns that have lost the prototypical marking of a thing, i.e. a person (see in detail: Hentschel 1992a; 1993b: 277-278, 282, 285-286; 1999: 260). In generalizing the information available, it can be seen that in the simple sentence the instrumental is used more often with the mentioned predicative nouns than with other nouns. However, this tendency in the use of the instrumental is by no means obvious, even if one ignores the fact that the instrumental is absolutely not used more frequently than the nominative (see Table 1) TAB. 1. Influence of the meaning of the predicative noun on DIE CASE Noun Case Sentence number(s) to designate 193 53 246 of activities 78% Nominativ Instrumental 22% other 133 18 151 88% 12% 106 | LORETA SEMENIENE On the one hand, we have to admit that instrumentals with predicative terms of activity are not very common in Lithuanian. On the other hand, the tabular representation shows that the instrumental is not much less frequently used with other predicative nouns. Here are some examples: (19) You have lost your nationality, and although I have my mother’s passport, I cannot get it back because of bureaucratic obstacles… Rather, to be who you were born, you have to pay a lot of money in court, which I am not used to doing. KT “You have renounced your nationality, and I, although I have kept my mother’s passport, cannot get it back because of bureaucratic obstacles… Juster, to be the one you were born as, you have to pay not little during the dispute in court, and I am not used to that.’ (20) You say, if [you] will not be a man, you will not be a worm. Very nice, but what do you think is a man, if you are not? Is it necessary to have a mark on your forehead, i.e. to be a shoemaker, an engineer, a priest or a musician, to be a human being? KT “You say, if you won’t be human, you won’t want to be a worm. Very nice, but what do you think is a human being if you are nobody? Is it necessary to have a sticker on your forehead, i.e. to be a shoemaker, an engineer, a priest or a musician, in order to be a human being?’ (21) Be open to the world, to knowledge, to communication, try not to live in “your street”, „didžiuoju pasauliu“ (tai yra, [tu] būk šiuolaikine europiete) — tam visiškai nebūtina gyventi but in Rome or Amsterdam! KT “Be open to the world, to knowledge, to contact, strive not to live ‘in your street’ but in the ‘big world’ (i.e. be a modern European) — you don’t have to live in Rome or Amsterdam for that!’ (22) AmZininkas tampa tikruoju amZininku. However, the timeless (in the immediate sense) is the later, and therefore the later must be able to be the true eternal. KT “The contemporary becomes a real contemporary. The non-contemporary (immediately understood), however, is a later, so also a later must be able to be a true contemporary.’ (23) Let us say that Algirdas and his surroundings, having heard the public confession of John or Anton Zinimg, react to it calmly: well, be those Christians, we are neither warm nor cold from it. KT ‘Let us assume that Algirdas and his surroundings react calmly to the public confession of Jonas or Antanas: well, then be Christians, we don’t care at all.’ (24) With all his being, Laančius desired happiness and greatness for the nation, [he] being a realist, created the means to achieve this ideal. Valančius himself came from the depths of his nation — the people — well understood what it is, felt what it lacks. KT “Valančius strived with all his being for happiness and greatness for the nation, as a realist he also created means to achieve this ideal. Valančius himself came from the depths of the nation — from the people — knew exactly what it is, felt what it lacks.’ From the sentences (19)-(24) it can be seen that the instrumental (as well as the nominative) is used in contemporary Lithuanian also when with LITHUANIAN PREDICATIVE NOUNS | 107 the predicative noun is used to designate a permanent, natural state of a person (or a living being) (cf. Sentences (3)-(5)*. Of course, the predicative noun nominative used to designate a permanent state cannot always be replaced by the instrumental and vice versa (cf. Sentences (15)-(18)). Not infrequently the use of the nominative (see (25)-(26)) or instrumental (see (27)-(28)) of the meaning of the predicative noun, the sentence context 0.4. owed (see below) (cf. Šukys 1998: 250), e.g. : (25) Furthermore, [he] as an intellectual, somewhat underestimates the unarticulated and undefined forms of piousness. KT Furthermore, as an intellectual, he somewhat underestimates the unarticulated religiosity without fixed forms.’ (26) Decides to undertake the work of an independent contractor himself builds railway bridges. [He] was a good expert in his specialty, an organizer and an honest worker, and he quickly earned the respect of the Russian Ministry of Transport. KT “[He] decides to take over the construction management himself builds a railway bridge. As a good expert in his field, an organiser and an honest performer, he quickly earned the recognition of the Russian Ministry of Transport.’ (27) In considering Hegel’s view, Berdyaev shows that the master and the slave are in fact in the same boat, that they are both victims of slavery. To be a person, you must determine [= develop — L.S.] yourself solely on the basis of the freedom of your spirit, and not by grasping at powers, structures of authority, passions or domination over others. KT “In discussing Hegel’s position, Berdyaev shows that the master and the servant are indeed sitting in the same boat, that they are both victims of slavery. In order to be a person, you must rely only on the freedom of your mind and not on recourse to domination, structures of domination, passion or control of others.’ (28) The awareness of this task, in whatever form, will remain as long as people are people. It is not the first time that philosophy has been severely attacked and even generally denied as unnecessary and harmful. Who needs it? KT “The understanding of this task, no matter in what form, will be preserved as long as people are people. This is not the first time that philosophy has been severely attacked and even denied as unnecessary and harmful. Who needs them?’ : (25a) *Besides, [he] being an intellectual, he somewhat underestimates that unarticulated and undefined form of piety. (26a) *|He] as a good expert in his specialty, quickly gained the respect of the Russian Ministry of Transport. (27a) *To be a person, you must determine [= develop — L.S.] yourself solely on the basis of the freedom of your spirit, and not by grasping at powers, structures of authority, passions or domination over others. (28b)?The awareness of this task, no matter in what form, will persist as long as people are people. According to specialists in linguistic culture, sentences with the instrumental for the reproduction of the existing state must be corrected (Paulauskienė 2001: 184; Kniūkšta, ed., 2000: 102; cf. Miliūnaitė, ed., 2003: 77; Šukys 1998: 250; Pupkis, ed., 1985: 91). 114 | LORETA SEMENIENE TAB. 3A. morphological case sentence number (n) Form Nominativ Instrumental Activity-related drawings Activity-related drawings Noun-related drawings Noun-related drawings buvo 86 50 8 2 146 (past) 91% 96% 9% 4% bus (future) 79 36 18 2 135 büty (conjunctive) 17 26 3 5 53 bük (imperative) 11 21 81% 95% 19% 5% 14 9 55 (cfr. Ambrazas, ed., 1997: 255-256; 77% 84% 23% 16% Ambrazas, red., 1996: 304-307) (cfr. also e.g. (10)-(12), 44% 70% 56% 30% (15)-(16), (18)). See: (41) If I don't get bees, I'll be a beekeeper when I'm grown up. KT “If the bees don’t sting me, I’ll be a beekeeper when I grow up.” (42) I had made several sculptures, and I settled there with my family, because Vilnius had become a harsh city for me. I wanted to forget everything. I'd rather be a sculptor in the countryside than a rascal in the city. KT “I had made some sculptures and settled down there with my family, because Vilnius had become a depressing city for me. I wanted to forget everything. I would rather be a sculptor in the village than a beggar in the city.’ The same applies to the use of imperative forms: they can be marked as either real or unreal. However, the tendency to attribute the imperative to the irreal category is greater than in the case of the future; this is expressed in the more frequent use of the instrumental (cf. Sentences (17), (21), (23)). 43) Speaks a speech as if inspired by St. John. Paul and St. Thomas: "Since when have women been allowed to deny their gender and become men? (Nature) said to the woman: Be a woman. Child care, housekeeping, various motherhood worries—- that is your work.” They were banned from entering the Council. KT PREDICATIVE SUBSTANTIVE IM LITHUANIAN | 115 ‘[He] held a Speak, as if from St. er Paul and St. Tomas inspires us: “Since when is es Women allowed their Sex zu renouncing and to Become a zu man?... (The Nature) spoke the Woman: ‘Sei "Frau". Die Child care, the Household, various Mühen der Motherhood —this is your work”. They were forbidden to go to the council.’ (44) If you want to have a friend, be a friend yourself. KT “If a du Want to have a boyfriend, be yourself Friend.' Der Conjunctive is usually the Category irreal assigned, i.e. das Ratio of speaker of zu a possible factually aber not accomplished Action is shown (cf. noch Phrases (4), (19)-(20)), e.g. : (45) But why has the artist’s most important advantage been forgotten—freedom of creation? Is it necessary to declare some ideology in order to be a writer recognised by everyone? Galbūt limited perception of creative ir space caused a nervous reaction of critics? KT “Why, however, was the greatest Virtue of the Artists who Freedom of the Schaffens, forgot? Is es necessary a Declaring zu ideology, um recognized by all Be a writer? zu Perhaps the limited Conception of the creative Rooms the nervous Reaction of the Critics stand out.’ Vgl. : (46) Nu So tell me, you ką know. We need to talk only ne about the character of a o politician, a Lithuanian. Ir ne anyway a Lithuanian, a Lithuanian o publicist. You have to speak as if you were a little bit Lithuanian yourself. ne Otherwise, you won't feel the taste of cepeline. KT ‘Well, tell me what you know. du You don't just have to talk about politics, but about the Lithuanian Character. Not that of the ordinary Lithuanian, but that of the Lithuanian official. Du you have to express yourself as if you du were yourself something no Lithuanians. Different you du feel the Not the taste of the Cepelinai.’ So one sees that the Case of the predicative Nouns not only with the Time form of the finite copula, but also with the modality expressed by this: more the je modality becomes irreally possible, the more likely the Use of the Instrumentals (cf. Hentschel 1993b: 268). The growing Use of the Instrumentals zur Name of the modality irreal also corresponds with the Relevance: if the with Nominatively mediated real Modality the referente Marking of the Dings assumed, is so with the by the Instrumentally marked irreal modality the irreferential Marking of the Dings shown. 2.2. Syntactic Factors 2.2.1. Short should on the Use of the cases of the predicative noun are entered when as Kopula der Infinitive or a Semiparticiple form of būti fungiert’, e.g. : It is said that the substantive Instrumental with the Semiparticiple of būti COMMON (Emphasis addedL. S.) used is the um Timeliness of the state, zu however, if the Infinitive be als Cupola stands, together with a bent Form of a Modal verbs, then CAN there be Instrumental with the Nominative COMPETE (Screaming 1998: 246-247; See. end 75, 251). 116 | LORETA SEMENIENE (47) Fate exists. I dreamed of being an actress, having three children, having my own house. I did everything I could about it. The result — I sell rags in Gariūnai. KT “There is a destiny. I dreamed of being an actress, having three children, and having a house. For that I did what I could. The result—I sell clothes in Gariunai.’ (48) [Ted Liss Actors Studio]. “Do I want, do I need, do I dare?” I finally gathered all my courage and turned the door handle. "I want to be an actress," I murmured in a half-voice. Ted's had them before. - Really? Are you sure of that? KT ‘[Acting Studio] “I want, I have to, I dare?” Finally, I gathered all my courage and turned the knob. “I want to be an actress,” she muttered half-sounding. Ted had already met such people. “Really? Bist du davon überzeugt?” (49) As a former athlete, I am very pleased that as mayor I have repeatedly met successful teams of famous athletes. I am pleased to be able to congratulate you too,” said H. Tamulis. KT “ “As a former athlete, I am very pleased that as mayor I met several times with famous sports teams that had won. I am pleased to congratulate them as well,” said H. Tamulis. (50) Privatization has begun, there were offers to take 100 ha. I did not do that and today I have only 3 ha of my own land. I did not abuse my official position as a mayor. I worked only for a salary. I made my fortune by farming. KT “It began privatization, there were offers to take 100 ha. I didn’t do that and still have only 3 ha of my own land. I do not abuse my powers as mayor. I worked only for the salary. I acquired property as a farmer.’ When dealing with sentences of the type (47)-(50), we are talking about tendencies in the use of the noun case in the (noun or adverbial) sentence structure! ", cf. : (47a) I dreamed [© to be an actress | actress). “I dreamed of being an actress.’ (50a) I [2 as mayor | mayor] did not abuse my official position. “I am not abusing my powers as mayor.’ The subject in the substantive or adverbial subjunctive is the null element, i.e. the subject has no phonetic realization in the subjunctive, only a semantic interpretation. The null subject corresponds to the subject nominative of the main sentence. The present material allows us to say (see Table 4, 4a) that in sentences with infinite copula the noun instrumental is used more often than the nominative. In cases where a semi-participle of büti acts as a copula, nominative and instrumental are used almost equally. However, if one considers the meaning of '" more detailed on the understanding of the sentence structure in the essay of Holvoet and Judzentis (2003: 115morphological 172), which is followed here. PREDICATIVE SUBSTANTIVE IM If we take | 117 into account the predicative noun, then the instrumental with a semi-participle form of the copula is used slightly more often than the nominative when the noun designates a professional or other activity. TAB. 4. INFLUENCE OF THE INFINITE COPULATE ON THE CASE MARKING OF THE PREDICATIVE NOUN morphological form case sentence number (n) büdamas 118 106 224 Nominativ Instrumental (Semi-participle) 53% 47% büti (Infinitive) 7 18 25 2890 72960 TAB. 4A. Case Set number (n) Form Nominativ Instrumental Activity banner activitybeandere drawing drawing būdamas 79 39 98 8 224 (semi-participle) 45% 83% 55% 17% bit (Infinitive) 6 1 12 6 25 33% 14% 67% 86% 2.2.2. So you look from the given facts that the current in Lithuanian Language of the Instrumental of the predicative Nouns are used more when infinite Forms of Kopula are present". Even more concretely: you see a Inclination, den Instrumentally more often compound than im simple im Use the zu sentence (cf. Hentschel 1993b: 268-270). "1 Šukys (1998: 247) generalized by Treatment of Use trends of the noun Instrumentals: “with many Forms of būti are both the noun Nominative as well as the Instrumentally possible. Die The boundaries are unclear here. More frequent and common is the "Nominations". 118 | LORETA SEMENIENE 2.3. Word order in the sentence 2.3.0. So far, in the speech about the use of nominative and / or Instrumental always treats sentences with unmarked (neutral) word order SVX, where S —subject, V —copula, X —predicative noun. 2.3.1. In previous examples, not only the instrumental helped to distinguish the predicative from the subject, but also subject-- specific features. Typical subject features are often personal pronouns or proper nouns. It is said that personal pronouns of the first and second person, which are always definite and referential, are always prototypical persons (in this case subjects) (Hentschel 1993a: 105; 1992b: 238; see also Givon 1984: 145-168, 422; 1990: 960; cf. Comrie 1989: 107, 110-122, 128ff.). In other words, if a personal pronoun or proper name (actual or thought) appears in the sentence, then the subject can be separated from the predicate not only by the use of the instrumental but also by the prototypical expression of the subject. It must be pointed out that in sentences in which personal pronouns or proper nouns appear in a structurally marked position, i.e. not as subject, they require a formal marking, namely the (exclusive!) use of the instrumental. In such sentences, the predicative instrumental not only separates two syntactic functions—subject and predicative—but is also a pointer for the irreferential marking of the thing (see also sentence (20)) (cf. Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 506), e.g. : (51) She just sucked my tissues, —I understood: I'll become an animal or iSprotes. "Yesterday I wanted to be you," some reptilian voice spoke in my brain, I felt the fingers of my fingers searching for something in my neck. KT “She sucked herself straight into my tissues, I understood: either I become an animal or I lose my mind. “Yesterday I wanted to be you,” some slimy voice said in my brain, I felt sticky fingers searching for something in my neck.’ (52) I've been living in Canada for 4 years now, and all the time I feel like I've lost myself. While living in my native city of Klaipėda, [I] was myself, and now, at the age of 44, living abroad in the dream of many people, I ask myself many times: “what am I doing here and who am I”. KT “I’ve been living in Canada for four years now, and I always feel like I’ve lost myself. As long as I lived in my native city of Klaipeda, I was myself, and now at 44 years old living abroad, dreamed by many, I often ask myself “what am I doing here, what am I”.’ (53) I would like to be John." * Vgl. folgenden Satz, in denen der Eigenname mit dem Nominativ markiert wird: We used to cut snow, we used to make postcards, we used to stick a picture or a drawing with glossy foil. In the first play we sang in, I was Zyle. Once frightened, Old Cold knocked his stick loudly, kept checking if we were listening to our parents, and finally handed out red shiny candies. KT “We cut out snowflakes, made postcards by gluing a drawing or a photo with glossy foil. During the first performance where I sang, I was the Meise. The now approaching Santa Claus knocked loudly with the stick, asked ceaselessly if we listened to our parents; finally he distributed red shiny candies.’ PREDICATIVE SUBSTANTIVE IM LITHUANIAN | 119 ‘I wanted to be Jonas.’ (54) Prof. Vytautas Dičius told a journalist of “Lietuvos rytas”: —I became president not because I really wanted to, but because no one else wanted to be. I agreed because someone had to agree. KT “Prof. Vytautas Dičius told the “Lietuvos rytas” journalist: “I became the chairman not because I wanted it especially, but because no one else wanted to be. es I agreed, because » someone has to agree.” The word order is important when the subject and predicate are expressed with the nominative of the appellative, e.g. : (55) Why was there in the minds of hundreds of generations the belief that the future can be known and from that knowledge practical conclusions drawn for today. If |...) prophets were deceivers, if they merely deceived people, gave false knowledge of the future, how then did they continue to believe in them so many times? KT “Why lived the Believe that you the can experience the future and from this knowledge can derive practical results for today, a hundred times in the minds. If [...] the prophets were deceivers, if they simply tricked the people, giving false information about the Future gave as — many believed then so Generations them continue? Vgl. : (56) Many nematody species, whose ultimate host is fish, are localised in the digestive tract. In cases where fish are intermediate or reserve hosts, the nematode larvae parasitize in the body cells (cavitae), on the serous membranes, in the muscles. KT ‘Eine Variety of Nematode species, deers End host Fish are, settle im digestive tract. In the Fall when Fish Zwischenoder Reserve hosts are, parasitize the nematode larvae in the body cell (interstitial space), on serous layers, muscles.’ in In Anlehnung an das Model unmarked Sequence of words SVX, you might think that in Bsp. (55) and (56) in the first sentence the first-mentioned appellatives (pranasautojai, šeimininkas) subjects are, and the second Noun (scams, fish) das Predictive. But how from the further Context in (56) seeing, is this Noun žuvys ‘Fische’ Subject, and hosts ‘Wirte’ Predictive. Um Ambiguity of the syntactic avoiding zu structure, one might think that in sentences of the mentioned Typs zur Distinction of the two syntactic functions also more often a formal Feature — of the case is — selected. How, however, the sparse Material shows, differ Appellative as Subject and Predictive often not of the in formal Marking (see also Phrases (2), (37)- (39)). 2.3.2. More detailed Investigation of Sets with marked (invert) word order suggest that zur Distinction of Subject and Predictive, the above typical characteristics of the subjects can be used. On the other hand, it is said that with Presence of formal characteristics, to Unterschei- 120 | LORETA SEMENIENE In addition to the word order, the subject from the predicative also morphological criteria can be chosen, i.e. case markings (Hentschel 1991a: 229-234; 1991b: 304; 1992b). The thesis is put forward that in sentences with marked word order not only semantic (e.g., concrete vs. general) but also morphological word features are used to distinguish the two syntactic functions of subject and predicate, e.g.: (57) Nuo 1929 m. firma įsteigė specialų prekybos atstovą. That representative in Lithuania was me. In 1929, an official of the English company Vickers Amstrong Limited came to Lithuania from England Ross. KT ‘From 1929 the company set up a special sales agent. That agent in Lithuania was me. In 1929, the board member Ross of the English company “Vikers Amstrong Limited” came to Lithuania from England.’ (58) Actors and actresses pull their hair off their heads, showing cruving Sirdj: does not give them the director neither Romeo nor Juliet. You, Leon, were an actor yourself, you must understand, the guild is already moving us, the ashes are falling from the mound, we will not be able to keep up!.. What can I do for them? Maybe I was dreaming too! KT’s actors and actresses pull their hair off their heads, show their bloody hearts: the director gives them neither Romeo nor Juliet. You Leon were an actor yourself, you have to understand, the reaper is already waving to us, ash is falling down, we will not manage this!... And how can I help them? Perhaps I dreamed too?’ (59) Mintautas Induliui atrodo žvėris, vilkas. I'll be the beast! I'm gonna kill the Kurians! —Mintautas replies. KT “Mintautas appeared to Indulis as an animal, a wolf. “I will be an animal! I will chew the cures!” Mintautas replied.’ (60) We were all bad students, everything was filthy to us, except not what we were supposed to learn at university. She didn't want to be such a student. If anything to do, it's seriously and to the end. KT “We were all bad students, we were interested in everything but not what we were supposed to learn at the university. She didn’t want to be such a student. If you are going to do something, do it seriously and to the end. ' (61) How long have you been? "Half a minute, citizen chief." "A year and a half." I have become a jeffery in that time, and in twenty-five years I will be a general. KT “ “How much have you already taken away?” “Therefore, citizen superior.” “One and a half years. During this time I was a constable and in 25 years I will be a general”. (62) You were the Living Water and filled all things with graces, and gave gifts to all without jealousy in abundance, for through you, Lord, all goodness was given to the world. KT Vgl. : In the English grammar of the Lithuanian language (Ambrazas, ed., 1997: 643) the instrumental used in such a sentence: ir grynas vandenėlis mums medumi buvo ‘and pure water was honey to us’ is explained by marking a temporary state. To the author’s knowledge, the influence of word order on the choice of case in Lithuanian linguistics was not taken into account when treating predicative nouns. LITHUANIAN PREDICATIVE NOUNS | 121 “You were the water of life, and filled all things with grace, and gave abundantly to all without envy, for for your sake, O Lord, all good things were given to the world.’ As can be seen from the sentences (57)-(60), the instrumental is chosen to emphasize the noun used predicatively, regardless of the fact that the subject is prototypical in terms of categorical characteristics. The same is also to be said of such examples where the prototypical subject is thought to be present (see (61)-(62)). That is, the use of the instrumental in the latter cases is to be justified by the non-prototypical, i.e. not the first, position of the subject in the sentence. It goes without saying that in sentences with a marked sequence of sentences, with a prototypical subject, the nominative is also used to express the predicate, albeit somewhat less frequently, e.g.: (63) Vadinsim tave,,A-nu-ka*, kaip visų jauniausią mūsų brolijos narį. And if you get angry, we will call you a clown, not an artist. You look at Zeph. He was a real artist. And you are funny. It's going to be hard for you with Zuza. KT “We will call you Anuka, as the youngest member of our brotherhood. And if you get angry, we'll call you a clown, not an artist. Look at Zephas. He was a real artist. And you're ridiculous. You’ll have a hard time with Zuza.’ If in sentences with a marked sentence sequence the subject is less prototypical in terms of its categorical characteristics (similarly, as in the case of the unmarked word sequence), then the use of the instrumental to express the predicative becomes even more likely. Then the use of the instrumental in the sentence would not only be linked to the marked word sequence, but also to the non-prototypical form of expression of the subject (cf. sentence (55)) (see Hentschel 1993a: 106). On the other hand, it has already been pointed out that the non-prototypical subject in sentences of the SVX sequence has no decisive influence on the choice of case: in SVX sentences, the nominative of the predicative noun is usually used, both for prototypical and non-prototypical subjects. Thus, the more frequent use of the instrumental in sentences with a marked word order, in which a subject that is not prototypical in terms of categorical characteristics is used, must be explained with the marked word order, e.g.: (64) Psichoanalitinės interpretacijos pagrindas —falines reikšmės atradimas darbo objektu, tapusiu reikšmingu betarpiško pasitenkinimo apribojimo dėka, buvo objektas visada esantis po ranka, t. y. tavo paties kūnas. KT įrankiuose, meno kūriniuose, pažinimo vienetuose, šventuose objektuose. Pirmuoju malonumų “The basis of psychoanalytic interpretation is the appearance of phallic meaning in tools, works of art, knowledge, sacred objects. The first object of pleasure, made meaningful by the immediate limitation of satisfaction, was the object that was always nearby, that is, your own body.’ 122 | LORETA SEMENIENE (65) Fish can be final, intermediate or reserve hosts. The final hosts of many nematodes are water birds or aquatic mammals. KT'* ‘Fish can be final, intermediate or reserve hosts. The final hosts of a variety of nematodes are waterfowl or aquatic mammals.’ Generalizing the scarce material (see Table 5), it can be stated that the word order in the sentence has the decisive influence on the choice of case: in unmarked word order, the nominative is usually used, while in sentences with marked word order, the instrumental is more frequently found. In the latter case, the instrumental of the noun makes it easier to distinguish the subject from the predicate. On the other hand, the nominative is not uncommon in the cases where this is relevant, i.e. when the subject is less prototypical in terms of categorical properties. Then only the context helps to distinguish the two syntactic functions subject and predicate. TAB. 5. CASE MARKING OF THE PREDICATIVELY USED NOUN IN SIMPLE PREDICATIVE SENTS WITH MARKED WORD ORDER Model of the marked case Sentence number (s) Word order Nominativ Instrumental XVS 4 7 11 36% 64% OXV5 29 60 89 3396 67% XSV 3 6 9 33% 67% SXV 8 9 17 47% 53% VSX 5 2 7 71% 29% Total: 49 85 134 37% 63% 4 See 2.1.1. and footnote 7. 5 @ here refers to the null subject in such cases where pro-drop occurs. LITHUANIAN PREDICATIVE NOUNS | 123 3. CONCLUDING REMARKS (1) After a brief discussion of some semantic and formal criteria that If we consider the case of the predicative noun, it becomes clear that there is no reason to assume that in contemporary Lithuanian the case use is decided by opposition temporarily/permanently: with nominative and instrumental of the predicative noun both a permanent and a temporary state can be marked. (ii) It should not be overlooked that the usage tendencies of nominative and instrumental are influenced to some extent by the opposition animate/- inanimate and by whether the predicative noun designates a professional (or other) activity or not. With predicative nouns that denote inanimate things or professions and other activities, one tends to use the Instrumentals. (iii) The usage of the case is also influenced by the usage of the inflection forms of the kopula biti and the modality expressed thereby. The instrumental use increases with respect to the hierarchies PRESENTS < PAST < FUTURE. FUTURE < CONJUNCTIV < IMPERATIV and REAL / IRREAL. (iv) The case of the predicative noun is chosen depending on the structure of the sentence: the instrumental is more frequent in sentences with infinite forms of the copula. (v) The categorical subject attributes have no influence on the choice of case, both in sentences with marked and unmarked word order. A decisive influence on the case of the noun is the non-prototypical position of the subject in the sentence. There is a tendency that in sentences with marked Word sequence of the instrumental is used. (vi) In formally marked sentences (simple vs. complex sentence, neutral vs. inverse word order), one tends to use the instrumental as a diacritical mark to distinguish two syntactic functions — subject vs. predicate. In sentences that are not marked from a formal point of view, the nominative of the predicative noun is used more often. QUELLEN KT - Textkorpus der litauischen Gegenwartssprache des Zentrums für Computerlinguistik, Universität Vytautas Magnus, Kaunas. LITERATUR AMBRAZAS, V., Red., 1996: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla. AMBRAZAS, V.,ed., 1997: Lithuanian Grammar, Vilnius: Baltos lankos. BALKEVICIUS, J. 1963: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos sintaksė, Vilnius: Valstybinė politinės ir mokslinės literatūros leidykla. BALKEVIČIUS, J. 1998: Lietuvių kalbos predikatinių konstrukcijų sintaksė, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. BOGUSLAWSKI, A. 2001: Über Nominativ-Instrumental-Variation im Polnischen. Boeder, W., Hentschel, G. (Hg.), Variierende Markierungen von Nominalgruppen in Sprachen unterschiedlichen Typs, Oldenburg: Bibliotheksund Informationssystem der Universität Oldenburg (Studia Slavica Oldenburgensia, 4), 101-133.