Kalnuotų vietų įvardijimas nekalnuotoje Lietuvos teritorijoje (remiantis Joniškio rajono vietovardžiais)

Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LVI (2007), 23 – 40 Naming hilly places in the non-mountainous territory of Lithuania (based on the place names of Joniškis District) Nerija Bartkutė Šiaulių universitetas The article deals with names for elevated spots in Joniškis District, in the lowlands of Northern Lithuania. In all, 216 names, collected from oral speech, are discussed. They are divided into motivated and unmotivated ones, according to whether they contain reference to physiography or not. Names based on physiographical features (properties and shape of the soil), flora, fauna or human inhabitation predominate, but there is also a sizeable group of more recent possessive formations based on proper names. Unmotivated names account for one tenth of the material. Names derived from proper names predominate here as well. Generalising we can say that most names of evelated spots in this region refer to physiographical features, flora, fauna and human inhabitation (property status and human activity). Apart from a semantic analysis, the article also provides data on folk etymology and oral tradition. 0. INTRODUCTION Studies of oronyms, or names of hilly places, are particularly relevant in mountainous countries (see INST Global Project The Names of the Mountains 2001)1. Mountains around the world are named according to various features. Eisele (2001) identifies the principal motives for naming mountains: direct onymization of physiographic terms; a particular situation associated with mountains; soil quality; mountain cover; vegeta- 1 The project can be accessed online http://www.inst.at/berge/index_e.htm [accessed 2007-04-10]. 23 NERIJA BARTKUTĖ menija, naudojimo galimybės ir mitai. Akschabaeva (2001), analizuodama Kazachstano kalnų vardus, kaip itin svarbų kalnų vardų semantinį motyvą išskiria sniegą, kiti jos minimi kalnų įvardijimo motyvai yra ekonominis naudojimas, kalnų forma (panašumas į tam tikrus gyvūnus, žmones), kalnų funkcija (yra riba, gina nuo priešų ir pan.), augmenija (yra/nėra, kokią spalvą suteikia kalnui), legendos ir mitai. Pospelovas (1967), analizuodamas Rytų Karpatu toponimiją, pastebi, kad kalnuotų vietų vardai yra reikšmingi, nes iš jų padaromi ne tik smulkių objektų (upelių, laukų), bet ir didesnių vietų – gyvenviečių, upių ir kt., vardai. Jis išskiria kalnų vardus iš geografinių terminų, oronimus, siejamus su augalija, ir oronimus, padarytus iš kitų toponimų. Kronsteiner (2001) teigia, kad kalnai vaidina centrinį vaidmenį aplinkos tvarkoje, o jų įvardijimo polinkiai visame pasaulyje panašūs. Jis kalnų vardus analizuoja kaip tarptautinę „kalbą“ – išskiria pagrindinius kalnų įvardijimo principus, būdingus visam pasauliui: fiziografinio termino „kalnas“ toponimizacija, įvardijimas pagal formą, kuris lemia ir metaforinių kalnų vardų atsiradimą, sąsajos su saule (saulėlydžiu/saulėtekiu), galimybė keliauti per kalnus – jų „eismo“ funkcija, sniego vaidmuo, ekonominis naudojimas, gyvūnija. Aleksandro Vanago teigimu (1973: 215), Lietuva yra labiau upių ir ežerų šalis, kalnų Lietuvoje net nėra. Vanagas savo straipsnyje (1973: 215–216), kurį galima laikyti vienintele išsamia Lietuvos oronimų analize, remdamasis Lietuvos oronimų darybos polinkiais, teigia, kad kalnuotų vietų vardai sudaro gana jauną toponimijos posistemį archajiškoje lietuvių toponimijoje, be to, kalnuotos vietos žmonių gyvenime vaidina ne tokį svarbų vaidmenį kaip ežerai ir upės. Vanagas (1973: 215) oronimams priskiria tuos vardus, kurie įvardija objektus, kalbančiojo suvokiamus kaip kalnus (jų aukštis dažniausiai yra keliasdešimt metrų). Pateikėjo įvardijimu remiasi ir Mickienė (2001: 80), analizuodama Telšių rajono oronimus. Jiems mokslininkė priskiria kiek iškilėsn(i)ų žemės paviršių vietų vardus. Daugiau išsamesnių atskirų Lietuvos oronimų tyrinėjimų nėra. This article draws attention to the names of hilly places in the fairly flat landscape of Lithuania, in Joniškis District. This area lies in the northern part of Lithuania’s Central Lowland, with most of it extending across the Žiemgala Plain (JRG: 4–5). The terrain is therefore gently undulating, with more prominent elevations closer to Žagarė (the Žagarė esker deposited by glacial meltwater) and along the left bank of the Mū- 24 Kalnuotų vietų įvardijimas ša valley (the Linkuva Ridge, formed by glacial thrusting). The highest point in the district is the Linkuva moraine ridge (reaching 94 m), and the lowest is near the Latvian border (reaching 34 m). Given this terrain, informants in Joniškis District call small mounds, hills, gravel pits, hillforts, and other somewhat elevated areas of land “mountains.” The article analyzes the naming of hilly places in Joniškis District—what determines the names of hilly places in a non-mountainous area. It draws on Vanagas’s semantic scheme for toponyms (1981): oronyms are first divided into unmotivated (not having an “oronymic” meaning2) and motivated (having an “oronymic” meaning). The oronyms of Joniškis District were extracted from Žemės vardų questionnaires held in the collections of the Department of Onomastics at the Institute of the Lithuanian Language, and were recorded by the article’s author during fieldwork in Joniškis District in 2002–2004.3 Nearly all the oronyms come from spoken language; only a few names published in VŽe stand out: Kalnėlio piliakalnis, Raktu vė, or Raktuvė, and Žagarės piliakalnis, or Žvelgaičio kalnas. Būga (1961: 257) also mentions the oronym Raktuvė as a Semigallian legacy, attributing several hydronyms from Joniškis District to it as well. The oronyms examined in the article have also been published online in the “Geolinguistic Database of Joniškis District Place Names”4. In analyzing the naming of hilly places in Joniškis District, the article also presents folk etymologies and various accounts concerning oronyms, recorded from informants. In addition, the article presents the oronyms in a way that shows their possible morphological formation. 1. UNMOTIVATED ORONYMS These are oronyms which, when they emerged, had no specific distinguishing “oronymic” meaning—they did not express anything characteristic solely of mountainous places (cf. Vanagas 1981a: 19). Such oronyms arose not by emphasizing any particular features of a mountainous place, but because of various other circumstances: because of nearby 2 Plg. A. Vanago (1981a) vartojamą terminą „hidroniminė“ reikšmė. 3 Students specializing in Lithuanian at Šiauliai University also took part in several expeditions—in the Kriukai and Gataučiai elderships. 4 The temporary address of this database is http://www.neryte.lt:8080/db/ [accessed 2008-01-30] 25 NERIJA BARTKUTĖ of other objects important to the environment, human activities, etc. Several semantic groups of unmotivated oronyms can be distinguished in Joniškis District. 1.1. Oronyms derived from names of various places – these oronyms arose from appellatives denoting places according to what they contain or what happens there. Some of these oronyms denote a place associated with human activity: Pā-užvaris hill, Trm: užvaras ‘fence, barrier; a path for driving livestock’5; Rev-ù-kelis hill, Dr: rėvas ‘ditch’ and kėlias; Viganės hill, Vkn: *viganė, cf. vìganas ‘a path for driving livestock, with the sides turned over’, and cf. also other place names in Joniškis District: Viganės meadow, Tsn, Vīganiai shrubland, Jnš, Vīganės miškas forest, Vīganės bog, Ks; Žyvrdùobės hill, Žg: žỹvrdùobė ‘a pit formed by gravel digging’. Several oronyms derive from other place names referring to vegetation: Šīlas hill, Rdš: šìlas; Šil-ėlis hill, Jnn: šìlas. The oronym Kalnēl-krūmiai hill, Znn6: Kalnēlis village and krūmai ‘bushes’, is classified as unmotivated, although it has a possessive (or locative) meaning; however, its second component derives from the name of a place where plants grow, which has no distinctive ‘oronymic’ meaning. The oronym Kálviai hill, Bčn: kálvis ‘blacksmith’, cf. the personal name Kálvis7, which may name a place after a human activity, is also assigned to this semantic group of oronyms. 1.2. Oronyms derived from various other appellatives. These unmotivated oronyms are appellatives transferred to name a hilly place, denoting objects associated with a hilly place, such as objects that were located beside or on it: Kamar- áitė hill, Stn: kamarà; Lãpkasis hill, Dlb, hill, St: lãpkasa ‘a fox’s burrow’, cf. other place names in Joniškis District, Lãpkasės meadow, Ždv, Lãpkasiai homestead, Cgn; Plỹtnyčia hill, Trm: plỹtnyčia ‘brickworks’; Ragatkà hill, Žg8: ragatkà ‘barrier’; Rūs-duobės hill, Žg9: rūšys and duobė. 1.3. Oronyms derived from other proper names likewise have no ‘oronymic’ meaning, as they are transferred names of other places or persons. Many such 5 In this article, the meanings of appellatives were taken from LKŽe, and personal names from LPŽ (I, II); these sources are not cited in the body of the article. 6 Informants reported that in the past a road to the Kalnelis cemetery ran through that place; the hilly area was overgrown with bushes (ŽV). 7 The personal name Kálvis is not common in Joniškis District (cf. LPŽ, 902). 8 Informants reported that during the First World War people used to shoot at that place, and that the name arose because the gun resembled a ragatkà (ŽV). 9 Informants reported that there had once been a vegetable cellar at that place (ŽV). 26 Kalnuotų vietų įvardijimas vietovardžių Vanagas (1981a: 30) kildina iš genityvinių konstrukcijų, turinčių posesyvinę reikšmę, tačiau pagal dabartinį statusą priskiria nemotyvuotiesiems. Joniškio rajone užrašytas kalvos vardas iš oikonimo: Èzergailis klv. Žvl: Èzergailis vk. Didžioji dalis šios semantinės grupės oronimų yra iš asmenvardžių: a) iš lietuviškos kilmės: Stūlgis kln. Dk: avd. Stūlgis; Verkulys klv. Cgn¹⁰: *Verkulys, plg. avd. Vérkulis, Verkỹs; Žvelgáitis kln. Žg (var. Žvelgáičio kalnas, Žagarės piliakalnis)¹¹: avd. Žvelgáitis (LVKŽ: 348); b) iš nelietuviškos kilmės: Bùlverkis kln. Dlb: avd. Bùlverkis; Čėrnis kln. Dk: avd. Čėrnis; Šimkónas kln. Rkž¹²: *Šimkonas, plg. avd. Šimkónis; Véidė kln. Žg (var. Barbòros kalnas, Alkàkalnis, Véidės kalnas): Véidė; Žėkis kln. Byvn: *Žėkis, plg. avd. Žekỹs, Žėkas. As mentioned, in Lithuanian toponymy oronyms are relatively recent place names. Unmotivated oronyms form the most recent part of this not particularly archaic subcategory of toponyms. Their emergence is secondary: they derive from names belonging to other onymic subcategories, or from appellatives semantically associated with other places. 2. MOTIVATED ORONYMS. These are oronyms with a distinctive “oronymic” meaning. They indicate a particular feature of a mountainous place. Motivated oronyms are further divided into two groups: 1) motivated oronyms that do not describe objects, and 2) motivated oronyms that describe objects. 2.1. Motivated oronyms that do not describe objects. This semantic group of oronyms includes names of mountainous places resulting from the toponymization of physiographic terms with an “oronymic” meaning, as well as oronyms with a possessive meaning. 2.1.1. Oronyms derived from physiographic terms with an “oronymic” meaning. Physiogra- 10 Informants reported that Verkulys had hanged himself at that place (ŽV). 11 Informants reported that there had once been a castle on the hill, ruled by Duke Žvalgota, but one time he was caught, and his head was paraded around the city of Riga (ŽV). 12 Informants reported that the hill used to be higher: its owner would take sand from it and sell it to Jews in Žagarė, who would scatter it on the floors of taverns (called šimkiai) (ŽV). 27 Nerija Bartkutė The onymization of physiographic terms is one of the oldest methods of forming a name inventory, widespread throughout the world (see Vanagas 1981a: 35; Baluodė 2005). The motivated oronyms of Joniškis District derive from physiographic terms denoting a naturally elevated place or a similar place formed with human effort: Alkākalnis hill Žg (var. Barbōros kālnas, Vēidē, Vēidēs kālnas); alkākalnis ‘hill of a sacred grove’; Kalnai hill Tr: kālnas ‘hill’; Kalvėlė hill Žč: kalvà ‘hill’; Kalnėlis hill Dvr (var. Lėbedžio kalnelis ‘Lėbedis’s little hill’), hill Rdš: kālnas ‘hill’; Milžinkapiai hill Jnk, Milžinkapis hill Nrn: milžinkapis ‘burial place of ancient heroes; an artificial mound’; Milžkapiai hill Gmn (var. Milžinų kapai ‘giants’ graves’)¹³: milžkapis, cf. milžinkapis ‘burial place of ancient heroes; an artificial mound’; Pýlimas hill Stn, hill Byvn, hill Mrn¹⁴: pýlimas ‘an earthen embankment’; Piliakalnis hill Kln (var. Sīdabrēs piliakalnis): piliakalnis ‘hill fort’; Pīlkalnis hill Kln: pīlkalnis ‘hill fort’; Škačmilžis hill Vkn: *škačmilžis (< *katmilžis (cf. Katmilžis upland), cf. kapmilžis ‘giant’s grave’ (Vanagas 1981b: 141)). 2.1.2. Possessive oronyms. These oronyms indicate an object’s belonging to someone or something, although Vanagas (1981a: 45) also identifies a locative meaning here; he considers the two meanings difficult to distinguish. Possessive and locative meanings are expressed formally by suffixation, compounding, and juxtaposition; these oronyms are therefore classified according to their mode of formation. Suffixal oronyms with possessive meaning. Such oronyms in Joniškis District derive from personal names: a) from names of Lithuanian origin – -iškis: Káln-iškis hill Drgn: Kálnas; Gáil-iškiai hill Gšč: Gáilis; Gerl-iškiai hill Dvr¹⁵: *Gerlis, cf. Gerlīkas; b) from names of non-Lithuanian origin – -ynė: Grant-ynė hill Mžl: *Grantas, cf. Grántinis, Grantáuskas, Latvian Grants (Staltmanė 1981: 211). Compound oronyms with possessive and locative meanings. Their first (determinative) component derives from another place name or a personal name, and the second from the physiographic term kálnas ‘hill’. In possessive and locative oronyms derived from place names, the first component comes from an oikonym or an agronym: Gražis(k)- ¹³ Informants reported that large bones used to be dug up at that place (ŽV). ¹⁴ Informants reported that during serfdom the landowner Zelstromas gathered the serfs, who piled up an embankment with troughs; the landowner wanted to build a water mill; the water rose and flooded the fields; at night the same serfs released a barrel of quicksilver and demolished the embankment (ŽV). ¹⁵ Informants reported that a Jew named Herlich lived nearby (ŽV). 28 Kalnuotų vietų įvardijimas -kalnis hill BVD16: Gražiškiai village; Stripei(k)-kalnis hill Str: Stripeikiai village; Suódkalnis hill KRI, hill STG: Suódai village; Varč-kalnis hill GMN (var. Varčios kalnas): Varčia 1. STN. The first component of personal-name-derived oronyms with possessive meaning is of various origins: a) from a personal name of Lithuanian origin: Buiš-kalnis hill BND: personal name Buišas, Buišys; Krūč-kalnis hill VR: personal name Krūčas; Mešk-į-kalnis hill SK: Meškà17; Róp-kalnis hill PVL, hill RBŽ: personal names Rópė, Ropas, cf. the place names Rópėdai village, Rópininkai village, Ropininkėliai village; Žemaič-kalnis hill JKŠ: personal name Žemaitis18, cf. žemaitis; Žós-kalnis hill GMN (var. Duobėtkalnis): *Žosis, *Žosas, cf. personal name Žóstautas; b) from a personal name of non-Lithuanian origin: Būd-kalnis hill JKŠ: personal name Būdà; Jokūb-kalnis hill CGN19: personal name Jokūbas (LVKŽ: 178); Zubr-ą-kalnis hill DR: personal names Zūbrus, Zubrýs; Tamoš-kalnis hill TRB: personal name Tamošius. Compound oronyms with possessive and locative meanings. This semantic group is the largest in the oronymy of Joniškis District. It is also characterized by a diversity of components: the first component of these oronyms is another place name (an oikonym, hydronym, or agronym) or a personal name (of Lithuanian, non-Lithuanian, or uncertain origin); the second, very common component is the physiographic term kalnas ‘hill’; a less common second component is the other physiographic term with an ‘oronymic’ meaning, piliakalnis ‘hill fort’. The second component may also be a diminutive of a physiographic term, aukštumėlė, kalnelis ‘little elevation, little hill’, a place name, molynė, smiltynė ‘clay place, sandy place’, or, in newer oronyms, the name of a phenomenon of the social environment, karjeras ‘quarry’. Compound oronyms with possessive and locative meanings are further classified according to their first component: those derived from place names—(a) from oikonyms: Dargiū aukštumėlė hill DR: Dargiai village; Gai galių kalnas hill JRD: Gai gali ai village; Joniškio kalnas hill GŠČ: Joniškis town; Kalnėlio piliakalnis hill fort KLN: Kalnėlis village; Minčaičių karjeras quarry MNČ: Minčaičiai village; Raistų karjeras quarry RS: Raistai village; Skarių kalnas hill SKR: Skariai village; Stalmokų karjeras quarry MRT: Stalmokai village; Šilelių kalnas hill PSP: Šileliai village; Štempeliškių kalnas hill TRB: Štempeliškės village; Tarbūčių kalnas hill TRB: Tarbūčiai village; Trumpaitėlių kalniūkas little hill TRM: Trumpaitėliai village; Žagarės piliakalnis hill fort ŽG (var. Žvelgaičio kalnas): Žagarė town; (b) from hydro- 16 Informants reported that a very beautiful village had supposedly been buried at that place; there had even been a well there (ŽV). 17 The personal name Meškà is common in Joniškis District (cf. LPŽII 212). 18 The personal name Žemaitis is common in Joniškis District (cf. LPŽII 1322). 19 Informants reported that a Latvian named Jokūbas had once died at that place (ŽV). 29 NERIJA BARTKUTĖ names: Kūdros kalnas hillock Stn: Kūdra mound Stnl: Sidabrės piliakalnis hill Kln (var. Piliakalnis): Sidabrė River; (c) from agronyms: Varčios kalnas hillock Gmn (var. Varčkalmis): Varčia field Stn; from personal names – (a) of Lithuanian origin: Alsio kalnas hill Rs: Alsýs; Briėdžio kalnas hill Dk: Briėdis; Buišo kalnas hill Dk20: Buišas; Būdós kalnėlis hillock Drgn: Būdà; Čižo kalnėlis hillock Dk21: Čižas; Didgalvės kalnėlis hillock Žg (var. Lielgalvės kalnėlis22): nickname Didgalvė, cf. Didgalvis (Butkus 1995: 198); Dundulio kalnas hillock Mld: Dundūlis; Gėdaus kalnas hill Žg: *Gedus, cf. Gedýs, Gėdžius, also cf. Gėdas (LVKŽ: 140); Kāvalo kalnas hillock Ptr23: Kāvalas; Lėbedžio kalnėlis hillock Dvr (var. Kalnėlis): Lebedýs; Meškós kalnas hillock End24: Meškà, cf. Meškikalnis hillock Sk; Naudžiuvienės karjerai hill Mrt25: Naudžiuvienė (: Naudžius); Prėlaido kalnas hillock Jkš: Prėlaidas; Radvilo kalnas hillock Bdr: Radvìlas; Rimdžiaus smiltynė hillock Mkn: Rimdžius and the place-name smiltynė; Skupeikos kalnas hillock Jkš: Skupeikà; Tilkėvičiaus kalnas hillock Stn: Tilkėvičius; Vózbuto karjeras hill Mrt: Vózbutas; Žlabio kalnas hill Dk: Žlabýs; Žvelgaičio kalnas hill Žg (var. Žagarės piliakalnis): Žvelgáitis (LVKŽ: 348), cf. Žvelgáičiai village; (b) of non-Lithuanian origin: Adōmo kalnėlis hillock Drg: Adōmas; Barbōros kalnas hill Žg (var. Alkākalnis, Vėidé, Vėidės kalnas26: Barborà; Bindžiulio kalnas hill Grk: Bindžiulis; Būdós kalnas hillock Dnr: Budà; Čerkáusko kalnas hillock Dvl: Čerkáuskas; Čėrnio kalnas hill Dk: Čėrnis; Česniko 20 Informants reported that Buišo's barn had stood near the hill (N. B.). 21 Informants reported that the priest Čižas, parish priest of Naujoji Žagarė, had dug peat there (ŽV). 22 Informants reported that the hill received its name in 1895, when a young woman nicknamed Didgalvė (she wore a large hat) was murdered on it, and that in 1905 the Žagarė socialists used to hold meetings on this isolated hill (ŽV). 23 Informants reported that Kavalas hanged himself on this hill (ŽV). 24 Informants reported that there had been a hut on that hill, where a bear used to come (N. B.). 25 Informants reported that the quarry was excavated when Naudžiuvienė was the collective farm chairwoman (N. B.). 26 The remains of Barbora Umiest auskaitė were kept in the church on the hill (cf. Šliavas 1999: 3). 30 Kalnuotų vietų įvardijimas hill klv. Lnk27: Česnikas; Čiūberkio hill klv. Knč: Čiūberkis; J ačkaus hill klv. Pdr: J ačkus; J agrio hill klv. Mtk: J agris; Kajėno hillock klv. Dk: Kajėnas; Lielgalvės hillock klv. Žg (var. Didgalvės hillock): nickname Lielgalvė, cf. Latv. liels ‘large, stout’ (LLKŽ 381); Mataūšo hill klv. St: Mataūšas (LVKŽ: 244); Šūtk aus clayey place klv. Trb: Šūtkus and the local place-name clayey place; Ūrmono hill klv. Trm: Ūrmonas; Vėidės hill kln. Žg (var. Vėidė, Barbōros hill, Alkākalnis): Vėidė; Vīškio hill kln. Dk (var. Pliks ubinis): *Vīškis, cf. Latv. Vīškis (Staltmanė 1981: 147), Lith. Viškėlis; c) from a personal name of unclear origin: Damparo hill klv. Ncn28: *Damparas; Sūrio hill klv. Skt: Sūris; Tambako hillock klv. Mlč: *Tambakas, cf. Tambakėvičius. 2.2. Motivated oronyms describing objects. Analizuodamas hidronimų semantiką, Vanagas (1981a: 49) tokius toponimus laiko svarbiausiu sluoksniu, atskleidžiančiu toponimijos semantikos įvairovę. Jie tiesiogiai išreiškia ypatybę, būdingą toponimu įvardijamam objektui. Vanagas (1981a: 50) nurodo penkis būdus, kuriais išreiškiama ypatybinė reikšmė: būdvardžių tiesioginė toponimizacija, galūnių vediniai iš ypatybių pavadinimų, priesagų vediniai iš ypatybių pavadinimų, sudūrimas, kai pirmasis sandas yra iš ypatybės pavadinimo, ir sudėjimas, kai pirmasis dėmuo yra ypatybės pavadinimas. Pagal išskiriamą ypatybę Joniškio rajono motyvuotieji oronimai, apibūdinantys objektus, skirstomi į kelias semantines grupes: 2.2.1. Oronyms with physiographic meaning. These are oronyms that describe a hilly place according to certain physiographic characteristics: shape, soil quality, cover, etc. First, names designating hilly places according to soil quality can be distinguished: Akmeñ-inė klv. Bl: stone, Molynė klv. Sk: clayey place ‘clay soil, ground’; Smėl-kalnis kln. St29: sand; Smiltynas klv. Dml (var. Smiltynė): sandy place; Smiltynė klv. Dml (var. Smiltynas): sandy ground; Uolýnas kln. Sk: rocky area ‘limestone area’; Žvirž-dė klv. Al: gravelly soil ‘soil beside gravel’; Žvirgždynė klv. Mdg: gravelly ground ‘gravelly soil, earth’; Žvyrýnas klv. Knč, klv. Mdg, klv. Mtk: gravelly area; Žvyr-kalnis kln. Žmr: gravel. The oronym Raudōn-kalnis kln. Rkž: 27 Informants recorded that Česnikas had lived in that place; he got very drunk on the hillock and died (ŽV). 28 Informants recorded that some Damparas had died there while hunting (ŽV). 29 Informants recorded that sand had been taken from this hill to spread in gardens and on paths (ŽV). 31 NERIJA BARTKUTĖ red emphasizes a characteristic not in terms of soil quality, but its color. Oronyms with a configurational meaning also belong to this semantic group: Didýsis kálnas klv. Pšp (var. Didýsis Bliūdýnių kálnas): didýsis (dial. form < didis); Didýsis Bliūdýnių kálnas klv. Pšp (var. Didýsis kálnas): didýsis (dial. form < didis), Bliūdýnė drv. Pšp and hill; Didýsis kápčius klv. Bvd: large (dial. form < didis) and mound ‘a raised mound of earth’; Duobėt-kalnis klv. Gᴍɴ (var. Žóskalnis): pitted, -ed; Dvilẏ́pis kln. Dk: double; Ilgàsis kln. Dk: long (dial. form < ilgas); Riest-inis kln. Dk: curved. Some oronyms with configurational meaning may be considered metaphorical—their characteristic is described not directly, but through a certain resemblance to another phenomenon or object: Bãlno kálnas klv. Dₗᵦ³⁰: bãlnas; Bùbinas klv. Blz: bùbinas ‘drum; bare place, usually a little hill in a meadow’; Kùpr-ė kln. Gtč: hump; Sõs-kalnis klv. Mlč (var. Sõsto kálnas): sõstas; Sõsto kálnas klv. Mlč (var. Sõskalnis): sõstas; Stùpl-yčià klv. Vᴅɢ: stùplys ‘buttocks’, cf. stùplinti ‘to walk with difficulty, in short steps’, cf. Joniškis District agronyms Stùplyčià drv. Bl, l. Ždk. The compound oronym Aukštóji brastà klv. Žč, which has a configurational meaning, may also be considered metaphorical—the hilly place may have received this name because it lay among marshes. 2.2.2. Oronyms with faunal meaning. They describe a hilly place according to the animals that live there or are otherwise associated with it: a) according to wild animals – Barsiukýnė klv. Pvl: badger habitat ‘a place in the forest where badgers live’; Lãp-kalnis kln. Grž, Lãpių hillock klv. Km, klv. Ncn: fox³¹; Lél-ãtė kln. Dk: lėlỹs ‘an insect-eating bird’; Stìrnų hillock klv. Skk: deer; Tilvì(k)-kalnis klv. Tr: tilvìkas³²; b) according to domestic animals – Jáučių hillock kln. Dk³³: ox; Kačių hillock klv. Dk: cat; Kùilių hill kln. Žg: boar ‘male pig’; Óž(k)-kalnis klv. Pl: goat. 2.2.3. Oronyms with floral meaning. These oronyms describe a hilly place according to its vegetation: Ąžuol-ìnis klv. Mñč, Ąžuolo hill klv. Ncn: oak; Brùknių hillock klv. Mñč: lingonberry; Burbùlių hill kln. Dk: bùrbulas ‘a plant of this kind – 30 Informants recorded that the forest guards used to lie on the hill and watch the manor workers mowing (ŽV). 31 The personal name Lãpė is not attested in Joniškis District (cf. LPŽ₍II₎ 22). 32 The personal name Tilvikas is not attested in Joniškis District (cf. LPŽ₍II₎ 1045). 33 Informants recorded that, after driving the herd out, the oxen would run down from this hill into the bog (ŽV). 32 Kalnuotų vietų įvardijimas ‘bubble’; Dagil-inė hill. ZNN: dagilis ‘a weed with sharp thorns’; Erškėt-kalnis hill. Dk, Erškėčių kalnelis hill. BČN: erškėtis; Ievynė hill. Dr: ievynė; Konvalijų kalnelis hill. ŽG: konvalija ‘lily of the valley’; Kukulių kalnas hill. ST: kukūlis ‘rye darnel, corn cockle’; Kukūrbezda­lių kalnas hill. SK: kukūrbez­dalis ‘a mushroom, puffball’; Kūlynų kalnas hill. Dk: kūlynai ‘thicket of shrubs or young trees’; Lazdynė hill. TLJ: lazdynė ‘a place where hazel trees grow’; Mėlynių kalnelis hill. Dk: mėlynė; Puršklių kalnelis hill. Dk: puršk­lis ‘a small shrub’; Pušynų kalnas hill. GDK: pušynas ‘pine forest’. Several oronyms are also assigned to this semantic group in which the feature emphasized of the hilly place is not specific vegetation, but the color determined by vegetation: Žaliasis kalnas hill. NRM, hill. GDK, hill. SK, Žaliasis kalnelis hill. MJ: žalia­sis (var. form < žalias), or the complete absence of vegetation: Plikasis kalnas hill. Dk (variant Pliksubinis): plikasis (var. form < plikas); Pliksubinis hill. Dk (variant Viškio kalnas): pliksubinis ‘one with a bare backside’. 2.2.4. Oronyms denoting relations with people. They indicate a certain connection with people and are close to oronyms with a possessive meaning. Such names of hilly places derive from designations of persons: Bajorýnė hill. GrK: bajorýnė ‘a place where many nobles live’, cf. personal name Bajõras³⁴; Bajõr-kalnis hill. ŽM³⁵: bajõras, cf. personal name Bajõras; Barõn-kalnis hill. MDG: barõnas ‘a noble title’ and ‘ram’, cf. baroninis ‘of sheepskin’ (JŠŽR); Benõs-kalnis hill. BVD, hill. SK: benõsis ‘one without a nose’; Bób-kalnis hill. BND: bóba; Mam-ātė hill. Dk: mamà; Mergių kalnelis hill. MNČ³⁶: mergė ‘girl’; Strienč-kalnis hill. VDG – the origin is not entirely clear; it may be connected with strielčius ‘hunter, gamekeeper’ or the personal name Strielčius³⁷; Šikšnių kalnelis hill. ŽG: šikšnius ‘one who works with hides’, or derived from ethnonyms: Cigonų 34 The personal name Bajõras is not attested in Joniškis District (cf. LPŽ₁ 160); therefore, it is proposed to rely primarily on the appellative. 35 Informants reported that in 1863 the nobles of Krikštanai village had hidden at that place, intending to attack the Russians; Radavičius, the parish priest of Skaistgirys, used to bring them food and ammunition (ŽV). 36 Informants reported that a girl was buried on this hillock after drowning in the Švėtė River, which had not frozen solid, while carrying food into the forest for the men cutting wood (ŽV). 37 The personal name Strielčius is not attested in Joniškis District (cf. LPŽₙ 835). 33 NERIJA BARTKUTĖ hillock hill. Dk: cigōnas ‘Gypsy’; Čigōn-kalnis hill. Jᴅᴋ³⁸, hill. Pʟᴛ³⁹: čigōnas, cf. personal name Čigōnas⁴⁰. It should be noted that some oronyms denoting fauna, flora, and relations with people may derive from personal names and therefore belong to other semantic groups. However, their personal-name origin is considered secondary for several reasons: many such personal names are not attested in Joniškis District; moreover, the appellative has a clear semantic connection with the features of hilly places, and this may also be reinforced by accounts recorded from informants. Therefore, these oronyms are assigned primarily to the three semantic groups mentioned above. 2.2.5. Oronyms with demonological meaning. These include names of hilly places derived from the name of a mythological being: Ragān-kalnis hill. Mᴋɴ, hill. Žg⁴¹, Rāganų kalnas hill. Žg: rāgana ‘witch’. Oronyms whose origins are explained by particular legends are also included: Linksmýbės kalnēlis hill. Vᴋ⁴²: linksmýbė ‘merriment’; Pinigų kalnas hill. Sᴛᴋ⁴³, Pinigų kalnēlis hill. Cɢɴ⁴⁴: pìningas ‘wealthy’. An oronym connected with the Christian religion is Šventõs Brigitos kalnas hill. Kʟɴ, formed from a personal name of non-Lithuanian origin with the epithet švẽntas ‘holy’. Names of this kind occur in Lithuanian hydronymy (cf. Vanagas 1970: 270); some have also been recorded in Joniškis District—for comparison, the hydronym Švẽnto Jōno upėlis. 2.2.6. Oronyms with antonymic meanings form a polar opposition according to the feature big – small: Didýsis kalnas hill. Aɴᴅ – Mažàsis kalnas hill. Aɴᴅ: didýsis (var. form < didis) and mažàsis (var. form < mažas). These oronyms also have a configurational meaning. 38 Informants reported that a Gypsy woman had once buried her child on the hill (ŽV). 39 Informants reported that a Gypsy encampment used to stop at that place (N. B.). 40 The personal name Čigōnas is not attested in Joniškis District (cf. LPŽ₁ 426); therefore, it is proposed to rely primarily on the appellative. 41 Informants reported that witches used to be burned at that place in the old days (ŽV). 42 Informants reported that on Sundays at 12 o’clock music was heard coming from that place (ŽV). 43 Informants reported that the landowner Komaras’s money was buried in the hill; he had been carrying it in a coffin to hide it, and people see it burning (N. B.). 44 Informants reported that 12 barrels (casks – N. B.) of gold coins had been hidden in the small hill (ŽV). 34 Kalnuotų vietų įvardijimas 2.2.7. Oronyms with meanings describing the surroundings. These oronyms derive from appellatives denoting objects located (or formerly located) on a hilly place, or a hilly place situated beside them: Ākmeno kālnas hill, Gžč⁴⁵: ākmenas ‘stone’; Kārtuvių kālnas hill, Drgn: kārtuvės; Māit-kapis hill, Dml: maitā ‘dead animal’; Majā(k)-kalnis hill, Znn⁴⁶: majākas ‘triangulation point’; Pučk-ýnė hill, Dk⁴⁷: pučkà ‘cannon’; Salų kalnėlis small hill, Dk: salà; Tiltų kālnas hill, Dk: tiltas; Vartykslių kalnėlis small hill, Ncn⁴⁸: vartykslis ‘post to which a gate is attached’. 2.2.8. Memorial oronyms. These oronyms commemorate an event that took place on a hilly place: Baln-ã-vietės hill, Bčn⁴⁹: bãlnas ir vietà; Kiaušių kalnėlis small hill, Bdr⁵⁰: kiaušis ‘egg’. 2.2.9. Oronyms denoting activities indicate a particular activity that may have been carried out in a hilly place. These oronyms mostly derive from verbs: Rākt-ė hill, Žg (var. Rākt-uvė, Rakt-uvė)⁵¹: rākti ‘scrape; dig’, cf. Latvian rakt ‘dig; burrow’ (LLKŽ: 598) (cf. Būga 1961: 257, Šliavas 1996: 13, Vanagas 1973: 212); also cf. rāktė ‘splinter’ and raktùvė ‘key tool: scraper, needle; lock, latch’⁵²; Ūrš-ė hill, Dr: ūršti ‘be angry; make a noise’, 45 Informants reported that there is said to be a large stone on the hill (N. B.). 46 Informants reported that the Russians had erected a majakas; a deep pit had been dug and a brick foundation was being built (ŽV). 47 Informants reported that during the battles with the Swedes, cannons had stood at that spot (N. B.). 48 Informants reported that straight aspen trees had grown on this small hill; when they had to be split, the wood was twisted and useless; people used to say it was suitable for making gates (ŽV). 49 Informants reported that the horse herders used to put their saddles on this little hill (ŽV). 50 Informants reported that eggs used to be rolled down this small hill at Easter (N. B.). 51 Informants reported that in the 12th–13th centuries a 16-fathom pole had been erected here, with a barrel of tar tied to it; when the enemy was sensed, they would set fire to the barrel’s wick and thereby signal to the inhabitants to meet the enemy; hence the place was given the name ‘the key of the country’ (ŽV). 52 Endzelytė (2005: 153) nurodo hidroniminę šio oronimo kilmę – iš upėvardžio Rāktė, tačiau paties upėvardžio jos atliktoje bendroje Lietuvos Žiemgalos toponimijos darybos analizėje nėra. 35 NERIJA BARTKUTĖ Endzelytė (2005: 140) šį oronimą sieja su nefiksuotu asmenvardžiu *Uršys; Žabúot-inis kln. Dk: žabúoti ‚apdėti žabais; žabus kapoti‘. Šiai semantinei grupei galima priskirti ir oronimus, turinčius paskirties reikšmę – kalnuota vieta buvo naudojama tam tikrai ūkinei veiklai: Pánčių kálnas kln. Dk: pántis; Degut-inė klv. Dml: degùtas; Salýkl-inė klv. Jdž: salýklas ‚daiginti miežių grūdai alui daryti‘. 2.2.10. Oronyms denoting associations with celestial phenomena. These are names of elevated places associated with celestial phenomena: Aušr-ùtis hill. Žč: aušrà ‘dawn’; Žvaigždės kalnėlis hillock. Dk: žvaigždė ‘star’. The metaphorical oronym Gais-pilis hill. Žg is also assigned to this semantic group: gãisas ‘weather’, cf. Latvian gaiss ‘air’ (LLKŽ: 204), and pilìs ‘castle’. 3. CONCLUSIONS The semantics of 216 oronyms from Joniškis District were examined in total. As noted, this region has very flat terrain, so oronyms are names for somewhat elevated natural or artificially created places. What naming tendencies apply to elevated places in non-mountainous terrain? Unmotivated oronyms—that is, those without a distinctively “oronymic” meaning—make up about one tenth (10.6%) of all names for elevated places. Most (4.6%) of these oronyms derive from other proper names, primarily personal names; such names for elevated places take the form of singularia tantum derived from personal names of Lithuanian (1.9%) or non-Lithuanian (2.2%) origin. As noted, Vanagas hypothesizes that these toponyms may have arisen from genitive constructions. The remaining unmotivated oronyms derive from various place names (3.2%) and other common nouns (2.8%), mostly denoting particular objects associated with human activity. Most of the oronymy of Joniškis District consists of motivated names for hilly places, or names with a distinct “oronymic” meaning (89.4%). Motivated oronyms that do not describe the object (42.2%) and motivated oronyms that describe the object (47.2%) are distributed almost equally. Among motivated oronyms that do not describe the object, those denoting possession and location stand out in number, accounting for 35.2% of all names of hilly places in the region. They are distinguished by formation type: suffixal (1.9%), compound (7.4%), and complex (25.9%). Oronyms in this semantic group derived from personal names are particularly widespread. Toponyms denoting possession are considered clear innovations 36 Kalnuotų vietų įvardijimas mis toponimijos sistemoje (plg. Vangas 1981: 49). Kita dalis (7%) motyvuotųjų oronimų, neapibūdinančių objektų, yra kilusi iš „oroniminės“ reikšmės fiziografinių terminų. The diversity of toponymic semantics is most clearly revealed by motivated oronyms that describe features, since they emphasize specific characteristics of an elevated place. In Joniškis District, as noted, these oronyms make up almost half of all names for elevated places. Physiographic oronyms predominate among them (12.5%), particularly those describing an elevated place in terms of soil quality, as well as configurational oronyms. Another frequently highlighted characteristic of elevated places is vegetation (10.2%). Oronyms denoting fauna and associations with people are also widespread (about 6% each). The remaining motivated oronyms describing features are distributed by prevalence as follows: those describing the surroundings—3.7%; demonological and activity-related oronyms—3.2% each; those denoting associations with celestial phenomena—1.4%; and antonymic and memorial oronyms—0.9% each of all Joniškis District oronyms. In summary, Joniškis District is characterized by motivated oronyms that describe an elevated place in terms of one of its characteristics (primarily physiographic features—soil quality and shape—as well as flora, fauna, or associations with people). Also notable in number, however, are newer possessive oronyms derived from personal names. Unmotivated oronyms form a small proportion; within this group, oronyms of personal-name origin stand out, closely resembling names for elevated places with a possessive meaning. It may be hypothesized that the naming tendencies in the oronymy of the non-mountainous territory of Joniškis District are similar to general tendencies in naming mountains, but emphasize characteristics more typical of a non-mountainous region: soil quality, vegetation, wildlife, and the relationship between an elevated place and people (possession and features of human activity). ABBREVIATIONS Abbreviations of settlement names: AL – Alsiai BYVN – Byvainiai AND – Andrešiūnai BL – Bilžiai BČN – Bučiūnai BLZ – Blauzdžiūnai BDR – Budraičiai BND – Bandoriai 37 Nerija Bartkutė Bvd – Buivydžiai Cgn – Cigoniškiai Dk – Daukšiai Dlb – Dilbinai Dml – Dameliai Dnr – Daunoriškė Dr – Dargiai Drg – Dargaičiai Drgn – Darginiai Dvl – Dvelaičiai Dvr – Dvareliškiai End – Endriškiai Gdk – Gaudikiai Gmn – Giminėnai Grk – Girkančiai Grž – Gražaičiai Gšč – Gaščiūnai Gtč – Gataučiai Gžč – Gaižaičiai Jdk – Juodeikiai Jdž – Juodžiai Jkš – Jakiškiai Jnk – Jauneikiai Jnn – Jauniūnai Jnš – Joniškis Jrd – Jurdaičiai Kln – Kalnelis Km – Kemsiai Knc – Kančiūnai Kri – Kriukai Ks – Kuisiai Lnk – Lankaičiai Mdg – Medginai Mkn – Miknaičiai Ml – Melniai Mlč – Mielaičiai Mld – Maldeniai Mnč – Minčaičiai Mrn – Maironiai Mrt – Martyniškiai Mtk – Mitkūnai Mžl – Maželiai Ncn – Nociūnai Nrm – Normančiai Nrn – Noriūnai Pdr – Padirvonai Pl – Pailiai Plt – Platoniai Pšp – Pošupės Ptr – Petraičiai Pvl – Povilaičiai Rbž – Rubežninkai Rdš – Rudiškiai Rkž – Rukuižiai Rs – Raistai Sk – Skaistgirys Skk – Skakai Skr – Skariai Skt – Skutenos St – Stungiai Stg – Stagarai Stk – Satkūnai Stn – Stoniūnai Stnl – Staneliai Str – Stripeikiai Tlj – Tolie jus Tr – Treigiai Trb – Tarbučiai Trm – Trumpaičiai Tsn – Tausenai Vdg – Vidginiai Vk – Veikšiai Vkn – Vekoniai Vr – Veršiai 38 Kalnuotų vietų įvardijimas ZNN – Ziniūnai Žč – Žučiai Ždk – Žadeikiai Ždv – Žadvainiai ŽG – Žagarė ŽM – Žeimiai ŽMR – Žmirkliai ŽVL – Žvelgaičiai Other abbreviations: avd. – personal name b. – bog drv. – soil įv. f. – pronominal form k. – village kln. – mountain klv. – hill krm. – shrubland l. – field lat. – Latvian liet. – Lithuanian mst. – city mšk. – forest plk. – swamp pv. – meadow up. – river vad. – so-called var. – variant vk. – single homestead ŽV – Land names questionnaires LITERATŪRA AKSCHABAEVA, A. 2001: The Names of the Mountains in Kazakhstan. In: The Names of the Mountains. http://www.inst.at/berge/index_e.htm [prisijungta 2007-04-10]. BALUODE, L. 2005: Par onimizacijų baltų hidronimiją. Baltų filologija 14 (1), 25–36. BUTKUS, A. 1995: Lietuvių pravardės. Kaunas: Aesti. BŪGA, K. 1961: Rinktiniai raštai 3. Sudarė Z. ZINKEVIČIUS. Vilnius: Valstybinė politinės ir mokslinės literatūros leidykla. EISELE, H. 2001: Die Ausstrahlung der Berge in ihrer Benennungsvielfalt. In: The Names of the Mountains. http://www.inst.at/berge/index_e.htm [prisijungta 2007-04-10]. ENDZELYTĖ, R. 2005: Šiaurės Vidurio Lietuvos vietovardžiai. Daktaro disertacija. Kaunas. JRG = Joniškio rajono gamta, par. R. BALTRAMAITIS, D. BIČKIENĖ, R. BUTVILA et al. Kaunas: Lututė, 1999. 39 Nerija Bartkutė JŠŽr = Joniškio šnektų žodynas. Šiauliai: Dialektologijos centras [rankraštis]. Kronsteiner, O. 2001: Internationale Gemeinsamkeiten bei der Benennung von Bergen. In: The Names of the Mountains. http://www.inst.at/berge/index.e.htm [prisijungta 2007-04-10]. LKŽ 2005: Lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Vilnius [elektroninis variantas]. LLKŽ 2003: Latvių-lietuvių kalbų žodynas, sud. A. Butkus. Kaunas: Aesti. LPŽ1–11 = Lietuvių pavardžių žodynas, red. A. Vanagas. Vilnius: Mokslas 1985 (t. 1), 1989 (t. 2). LVKŽ = K. Kuzavinis, B. Savukynas, Lietuvių vardų kilmės žodynas. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2003. Mickienė, I. 2001: Telšių rajono toponimų daryba. Daktaro disertacija. Kaunas. Pospelov, E. M. 1967: Географическая терминология в микротопонимии Восточных Карпат. In: О. С. Ахманова, ред., Микротопонимия. Москва: Издательство Московского университета, 23–30. Staltmane, V. E. 1981: Латышская антропонимия. Фамилии. Москва: Наука. Šliavas, J. 1996: Žiemgalių pėdsakais. Vilnius: „Žiemgalos“ draugija. Šliavas, J. 1999: Šventos Barboros kalnelis. Sidabrė 56, 3. Vanagas, A. 1970: Lietuvos TSR hidronimų daryba. Vilnius: Mokslas. Vanagas, A. 1973: Структурно-словообразовательный анализ названий гор Литвы. Lietuvos TSR mokslų akademijos darbai. A serija, t. 3 (44), 209–219. Vanagas, A. 1981a: Lietuvių hidronimų semantika. Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai 21, 4–153. Vanagas, A. 1981b: Lietuvių hidronimų etimologinis žodynas. Vilnius: Mokslas. VŽe 2007 = Vietovardžių žodynas. Vilnius [Internetinis leidimas]. Nerija Bartkutė Šiaulių universiteto Dialektologijos centras P. Višinskio g. 38, LT-76352 Šiauliai, Lietuva [email protected] 40