Semantinės veiksmažodžio „gerti“ sinonimų atsiradimo priežastys

ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language Research areas: lexicology and lexicography. REASONS FOR THE EMERGENCE OF SYNONYMS OF THE VERB TO DRINK Semantic Reasons of Appearance of Synonyms of the Verb to drink ABSTRACT The subject of this article is a large and unexplored semantic group—the Lithuanian verbs of drinking, selected from the forthcoming Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian. The study aims to determine which features of phenomena, objects, or actions in reality become semantic features in language, giving rise to new verbs of drinking. At the end of the article, a preliminary network of synonyms for the verb to drink is presented. KEYWORDS: synonym, concept, nomination, lexical meaning, semantic feature, synonym network. ANNOTATION The object of this article is a rich semantic group which has not been analysed before – drinking verbs of the Lithuanian language taken from the Dictionary of the Standard Lithuanian Language which is currently in the process of compilation. The research seeks to estimate which features of the actual phenomena, things or actions become semantic features in the language, which determine the rise of new drinking verbs. A preliminary synonym network of the verb to drink is given at the end of the article. KEYWORDS: synonym, concept, nomination, lexical meaning, semantic feature, synonyms network. 196 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXII Semantinės veiksmažodžio gerti sinonimų atsiradimo priežastys The question of synonymy theory continues to be explored by specialists in lexical semantics around the world, including Jurij D. Apresjan (1974), John R. Taylor (2003), M. Lynne Murphy (2003), Petra Storjohann (2010), and others. Questions concerning the understanding of the concept of synonymy, the identification and classification of synonyms, the compilation of synonym sets, and so forth are still being debated. Language technologies are being used to create synonym networks and databases and to compile new synonym dictionaries. Synonyms (more specifically, lexical synonyms) have received little attention in Lithuanian linguistics1. One of the first researchers of synonyms was Antanas Lyberis, who defended a dissertation on the subject, Principles for compiling a dictionary of Lithuanian synonyms (1959), and wrote the first and, to date, only Dictionary of Synonyms (Dictionary of Lithuanian Synonyms, 1961; Dictionary of Synonyms, 1981, and a second, revised edition of this dictionary in 2002). This scholar’s contribution to research on Lithuanian synonyms is of great value. In his work, A. Lyberis devoted considerable attention to the definition and identification of synonyms, their selection, the compilation of synonym sets, the principles of writing a synonym dictionary, and other issues (for more detail, see Lyberis 2009: 21–82). The theoretical principles he formulated and described continue to be valued. In Lithuanian linguistic literature, phraseological synonyms have been thoroughly investigated and described: Jolanta Vaskelienė defended a dissertation on the subject, published a teaching aid entitled Phraseological Synonyms (2000), and wrote articles. Syntactic synonyms have been extensively studied by Elena Valiulytė in Syntactic Synonyms in Contemporary Lithuanian: The Expression of Place, Time and Cause (1998), among other works. Articles on lexical synonyms have addressed particular synonyms, their etymology, and usage, for example: Vincas Urbutis’s “The etymology of several dialectal synonyms of the word short” (1965), “Lith. pašinas and (dial.) pašaiža—synonyms with a common root” (1998); Nijolė Sližienė’s “The synonymous meanings of the verbs stigti, stokoti, trūkti and their usage characteristics” (2005); Vitas Labutis’s “The semantics and synonymy of verbs of carrying” (2007); Evalda Jakaitienė’s “On the relations between synonymy and polysemy” (2007); and others. However, there have been no new studies of lexical synonyms that explore the causes of their emergence, investigate their semantic features, or apply new methods, language technologies, and so forth. The verbs belonging to the concept DRINK were selected as the subject of this article. The study seeks to determine which features of real-world phenomena, objects, or actions become semantic features in language and lead to the emergence of new drinking verbs. To achieve this aim, the following objectives were set: to identify 1 General questions of synonymy are discussed in Evalda Jakaitienė’s books Lithuanian Lexicology (1980) and Lexicology (2009; 2010). Synonyms have also been studied by Juozas Pikčilingis (Lexical and Grammatical Synonymy, 1969; the section on synonyms in the second part of “Lithuanian Stylistics,” 1975) and Kazimieras Župerka (Lithuanian Stylistics, 1983). Straipsniai / Articles 197 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ the ways in which Lithuanian drinking verbs are named; to analyze the semantic structures of the verbs under consideration; to identify and describe the semantic relations between the meanings of the verbs; and, on the basis of the material studied, to create a preliminary synonym network of Lithuanian drinking verbs. The study presented in this article is based on methods from cognitive and structural linguistics. Standard Lithuanian has a considerable number of verbs for expressing the concept DRINK. The verb gerti is the primary (central) word and the most widely2 used word in Lithuanian for describing drinking. The forthcoming Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian (editor-in-chief Danutė Liutkevičienė) records approximately fifty verbs3 whose meanings are defined as ‘to suck or swallow liquid’. The large number of verbs belonging to the concept DRINK shows that synonymy is highly developed in standard Lithuanian and therefore needs to be studied in order to establish the reasons for its functioning in the language. The article draws on the following theoretical aspects. 1. The term concept is understood in various ways in linguistics: some equate it with a notion (Jakaitienė 2010: 46); others understand it more broadly, as “a heterogeneous, multidimensional unit of knowledge about the world and experience” (Gudavičius 2011: 112); while the work of still others highlights the communicative function of a concept (Lassan 2002: 32). We share the view that a concept is a unit of structured knowledge, comprising all the knowledge about an object or phenomenon recorded in the minds of people who speak that language (Kvašytė, Papaurelytė 2013: 108). Thus, a concept need not necessarily have linguistic expression. For example, Lithuanian and Russian have the concept NEWLYWEDS (МОЛОДОЖЕНЫ), meaning ‘recently married’, but there is no word denoting the concept ‘spouses who have been married for a long time’ (Popova, Sternin 2007: 35). However, the linguistic expression of a concept is important to lexical semantics. As Aloyzas Gudavičius states, “each act of naming brings particular features of a concept into focus; for instance, žirgas, kumelys, kuinas, kumeliukas highlight different features of the concept ‘horse’” (Gudavičius 2009: 51). To identify which features of the concept DRINK4 are foregrounded in the meanings of the verbs belonging to this concept, it may be helpful to consider the elements of the scenario for the relevant physiological action that make up the concept’s content (for more detail, see Gaidienė 2015). The scenario elements presented in the table were identified through context analysis (the data were taken from the Corpus of Contemporary Lithuanian, hereafter DLKT). 2In the Corpus of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language, more than ten thousand examples of the verb to drink were found. The examples were searched for by the root ger- (gėr-), selecting finite and non-finite forms of the verb. 3 After the final editing of the Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian, the dictionary entries presented in this article may change. 4 Cognitive linguistics uses the term attribute (for more detail, see Ungerer, Schmid 1996: 22). 198 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXII Semantinės veiksmažodžio gerti sinonimų atsiradimo priežastys TABLE 1. The scenario of the DRINK concept PHYSICAL / PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION An unnecessary physical action preceding the necessary physiological action. The hand with an implement is / is not involved in performing the action. The necessary physiological action is the suction and swallowing of liquid. The lips, teeth, tongue, throat, pharynx, and stomach are involved in performing the action. He lifts the bottle to his mouth, drinks one sip, then another [...] Anuka drinks lemonade from her glass. / On a hot spring day, Galipas and Nichatas drink stale water straight from the tap in the students’ restroom. We were amazed that he had learned to drink so much—he tips up a full glass and swallows it in one gulp. I put the tea on to brew and watched as she drank it in small sips, her cheeks warming [...] Sucking furiously, he finished drinking the cocktail and began to tell his story. AGENT OF THE ACTION human / animal5 Klaus drinks a second cup of strong coffee. / For a wolf comes to drink at that spring in the thicket. OBJECT OF THE ACTION – LIQUID non-alcoholic (cold / warm / hot) / alcoholic beverages They drink only mineral and plain water. / The girls at the bar drink champagne. Studies have shown that the meanings of verbs belonging to the DRINK concept in one way or another actualize features of the content of the concept under examination; for example, ‘swallowing’ is recorded in the meaning of the verb gurkti, while ‘movement’ is present in the meanings of the verbs mesti, lenkti, and so on. 2. In cognitive linguistics, nomination is understood as the naming of a concept (Gritėnienė 2006: 24). The central question of nomination theory is which part of knowledge about an object or phenomenon, perceived by consciousness and gradually becoming that object’s or phenomenon’s concept, is nominated (Kubriakova 2004: 70). As already mentioned, the aim of the article is to determine which features of real-world phenomena, objects, or actions become semantic features in language and give rise to new drinking verbs. Thus, it is important to identify the distinctive, specific semantic features of the meanings of drinking verbs, which distinguish the meanings of synonyms belonging to the DRINK concept while also forming the content of the concept under examination. It should be recalled that a semantic feature (also referred to by the terms seme, semantic component, noeme, etc.) is traditionally considered the smallest constituent semantic element of meaning (Jakaitienė 2010: 57 et seq.). 5The examples show that the agent performing the act of drinking may be not only a human but also an animal. However, this article examines only the physiological act of drinking performed by a human. Straipsniai / Articles 199 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ In this article, the verbs belonging to the concept GERTI are first classified according to the modes of nomination—verbs of primary and secondary (direct and indirect) nomination6. 2.1. The result of primary nomination is a non-derived verb that arose through agreement among speakers (Jakaitienė 1988: 24), e.g.: gurkti ‘to eat, drink, feed (usually greedily, quickly)’ (BŽe). Verbs of drinking primary nomination are most often externally (phonetically) motivated, i.e., the roots of such verbs iconically denote certain specific sounds accompanying drinking. The semantic features of verbs in this nomination category are usually directly related to the physiology of the human drinking process, i.e., the motor movements of the lips, teeth, tongue, and throat. 2.2. The result of secondary direct nomination is a derivative whose form and meaning are based on another verb with a simpler structure (Jakaitienė 1988: 24). The most productive suffixes of drinking verbs are –(i)oti (–snoti, –šn-oti) and –telėti. Derivatives with the suffix –(i)oti (–snoti, –šn-oti) denote a repeated, low-intensity drinking action, e.g.: girsnoti (: gerti) ‘to drink slowly, little by little’ (BŽe); siurbčioti (: siurbti) ‘to drink gently, little by little’ (BŽe), while derivatives with the suffix –telėti denote a diminutive drinking action, e.g.: gurkštelėti (: gurkšt) ‘to drink a little’ (BŽe); siurbtelėti (: siurbt) ‘to drink a little, to sip’ (BŽe), and so on. Since the suffixal forms denote temporal phases of the drinking process—in other words, aspectual (aktionsart) meanings—these verbs will not be examined further in this article. 2.3. The result of secondary indirect nomination is a semantic derivative—a newly formed meaning of a word (Jakaitienė 1988: 24). It is acknowledged that, owing to certain relations linking the meanings of a polysemous word (established through metaphorical or metonymic extension), these meanings form a semantic continuum called the semantic structure of the word. As Dmitrijus Šmeliovas states, “if one were to represent graphically the semantic structure of the meanings of a polysemous word, the result would not be a circle (‘general meaning’) divided into sectors (‘variants of the general meaning’), but circles touching one another (a), and sometimes even ‘overlapping’ one another (b)” (see Fig. 1) (Šmeliovas 2008: 83–84). In other words, the meanings of a polysemous word are semantically related to one another, since one meaning seems to ‘lead into’ another through certain semantic associations (Šmeliovas 2008: 88). 6 This article retains the terms used in Evalda Jakaitienė’s works: primary and secondary (direct and indirect) nomination. 200 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXII Causes behind the emergence of semantic synonyms of the verb gerti FIG. 1. The semantic system of the meanings of a polysemous word 2.3.1. In determining the prototypical meaning of a polysemous verb, from which new meanings associated with drinking most often develop, the theory of prototypes, widely applied in cognitive linguistics, was used. The term prototype is associated with Eleanor Rosch’s research conducted in the 20th century. In studying the effect of focal colours on category formation, E. Rosch found that, despite their central position, these colours were not more readily distinguished by the experiment participants. This study led the scholar to abandon the term focal (primary) colours and use the term prototype instead (Mikulkas 2009: 46; for more detail, see Ungerer, Schmid 1996: 6–14). A prototype is the most representative member of a category (Ungerer, Schmid 1996: 10), by which the category itself can also be recognized. In certain cases, a prototype can stand for other members of the category. As Rūta Marcinkevičienė states, “when prototype theory is applied to the semantic structure of a word, it can be argued that prototypical, primary, essential, or basic meanings are those that are concrete and denote objects in the world apprehensible through the senses” (Marcinkevičienė 2006: 110). For example, the prototypical meaning of the verb drožti is ‘to affect an object with a sharp tool’, whereas its meaning associated with drinking, ‘to drink greedily’, has developed from the prototypical meaning through metaphorical extension. 2.3.2. Metaphorical polysemous relations play perhaps the most important role in shaping the meanings of drinking verbs. Metaphor is a universal phenomenon, a kind of model that performs a function in language similar to that of word formation, but is much more complex. Traditionally, metaphor is understood as the transfer of the name of one object or phenomenon to another object or phenomenon on the basis of some kind of similarity, most often external—of form, size, or the like (Gudavičius 2009: 114). In other words, features belonging to one domain of reality are often discovered in another domain of reality and are realized in language as if anew, and the addressee begins to understand such meanings literally without much effort. As Veronika Telija states, “metaphorization begins with the assumption that there is a similarity between the developing understanding of reality Straipsniai / Articles 201 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ and a certain imaginative, associative conception of another reality that resembles it in some respect7 (Telija 1988: 7). V. Telija calls this assumption the mode of metaphor, which allows entities that differ logically and ontologically to become similar: “without the assumption that X is like Y, no metaphor is possible” (Telija 1988: 7). In certain cases involving meanings of the verbs under study that arose metaphorically, conceptual metaphors can also be discerned. It should be remembered that a conceptual metaphor is an interaction between two conceptual domains (the source and target concepts)8 (Lakoff 1993: 239). In rare cases, metonymy is involved in the formation of meanings of drinking verbs. Traditionally, metonymy is understood as “the highlighting of different aspects of the same situation, in which objects and phenomena are related by spatial, temporal, causal, and other connections” (Gudavičius 2009: 124). A distinction is generally made between one-word metonymy (the basis for transferring a word’s meaning, the cause of the emergence of a new meaning) and multiword metonymy (considered a trope) (Marcinkevičienė 2011: 40). Here, we are concerned with one-word metonymy, which is considered the cause of the emergence of secondary meanings in some drinking verbs. 3. On the basis of the established semantic features of drinking verbs, a preliminary9 synonym network of Lithuanian drinking verbs is presented at the end of the article10. The synonym network was visualized using the program Gephy (for more, see https://gephi.github.io/). 1. PIRMINĖS NOMINACIJOS GĖRIMO VEIKSMAŽODŽIAI The verb to drink is the main (central) word in the synonym set under examination. The Lithuanian Language Corpus (DLKT) contains more than ten thousand occurrences of this verb 7 Ru. “[...] metaphorization begins with the assumption of similarity (or resemblance) between the developing concept of a reality and a certain ‘concrete’ imaginative-associative representation of another reality that resembles it in some respect.” (Telija 1988: 7). 8 An. “The conceptual system underlying a language contains thousands of conceptual metaphors – conventional mappings from one domain to another [...]” (Lakoff 1993: 239). 9 Further research may refine the synonym network of the verb to drink presented in this article. 10 One of the most popular word networks worldwide is WordNet (see http://wordnet.princeton.edu/). WordNet is a large database of English vocabulary in which nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are cognitively grouped into synonym networks (called synsets in English), reflecting the relationships among words (hypernymy, hyponymy, troponymy, etc.). WordNet was created at the Cognitive Science Laboratory of Princeton University. 202 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXII Semantinės veiksmažodžio gerti sinonimų atsiradimo priežastys examples11. Stylistically, the verb gerti is unmarked and is most widely used to denote the concept of drinking: the subject of drinking is a human / animal12, cf.: Before lunch she drinks only coffee. Cows drink water. (DLKT), the object of drinking is liquids (non-alcoholic and alcoholic beverages), cf.: She drinks rainwater and gargles, laughing at the top of her lungs. The bailiff is no stranger to a drink either; he drinks without getting drunk. (DLKT) In Lithuanian dictionaries, the basic (prototypical) meaning of the verb gerti is defined similarly: (1) LKŽE ‘to swallow liquid, to quench one’s thirst’, e.g.: Having come upon milk and cream left covered in the pantry, he would drink them straight from the milk pails P.Cvir. I sleep, eat, drink my fill SD44. I drink nothing, only tea, as they say J. They used to draw water from the stream to drink J.Jabl. Milk is good to drink J.Jabl. [...]; (2) DŽE ‘to swallow liquid, to quench thirst’, e.g.: The cow drinks from the bucket. G. water, milk. A drinking cup (from which one drinks). Drinking water (water that one drinks; fit to drink). [...]; (3) BŽE ‘to suck and swallow liquid’, e.g.: To drink tea [coffee]. Drink boiled water. Would you perhaps like to have some beer [wine] with us? The cows drank water from the stream. [...]. Next, primary-nomination verbs are subdivided according to the identified semantic features (hereafter SF) into verbs whose meanings encode physiological features of drinking, verbs whose meanings encode the purpose of drinking, and verbs denoting drinking with an instrument. 1.1. Physiological features of drinking In the semantic structure of primary-nomination verbs belonging to the concept DRINK, the act of drinking is defined fairly clearly: the semantic components recorded in the meanings of the verbs under study relate to human physiology, more specifically to certain oral sensations during drinking. Physiological features are not often foregrounded in the meanings of drinking verbs; only a few examples can be mentioned. The meanings of some verbs record a throat sensation, while those of others record a sensation of lip and tooth activity or a sensation of lip and tongue activity. On this basis, the verbs below are divided into several groups. 11 Accessed 2014-03-22. 12 As already mentioned, this article examines only the physiological act of drinking performed by a human. Straipsniai / Articles 203 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ a) Throat sensation The verb gurkti belongs to the physiological throat-sensation subgroup; in BŽe it means ‘to eat, drink, feed (usually greedily, quickly)’: To gulp down water [beer, milk, juice]. The bearded young man gulped Pepsi from a small bottle. The words gerklė, gurklys (and gurkti), gurkšnis, gira share the same root (Sabaliauskas 1990: 85). As C. D. Buck states, “Indo-European words denoting the concept gerklė are etymologically associated with the concepts ‘swallow’, ‘round shape’, ‘narrow opening’, ‘gurgle’, and so on” (Lietuvių kalbos etimologinio žodyno duomenų bazė). The verb murkti can also be assigned to this subgroup; in BŽe it means ‘to eat or drink greedily’, e.g.: He gulps vodka as if it were water and does not get drunk. He gulps it straight from the pot like a cat. (LKŽe)13. In BŽe, the meaning related to drinking is listed in the same entry as the following meanings: 1. ‘to produce a purring sound (of a cat)’ and 2. ‘to speak indistinctly’. In LKŽe, the verb murkti is listed as a homonym (1 and 2) and as a homophone (3): (1) 1 murkti, -ia, -ė 1. ‘to purr quietly’; 2. ‘to growl (of a dog)’; 3. ‘to speak indistinctly, mumble, mutter’; 4. ‘to eat, drink, gulp quickly’; 5. ‘to cuddle, caress, snuggle’ 2 murkti, -ia, -ė ‘to rain continuously, drench’ 3 murkti, -sta, -o ‘to become wet with sweat’ The meaning of the verb murkti related to drinking is most likely primary14, rather than figurative. Therefore, BŽe could list two separate words murkti, i.e. homonyms (2): (2) 1 murkti, murkia, murkė 1. ‘to produce a purring sound (of a cat)’: The cat is purring on the stove. 2. ‘to speak indistinctly’: To mumble under one’s breath. 2 murkti, murkia, murkė ‘to eat or drink greedily’. b) Experience of lip and tooth activity The verbs siurbti, sr iaubti and triaubti are assigned to the subgroup of experience of lip and tooth activity: (1) siurbti 1. ‘to suck, draw (liquid) with certain organs’: I suck juice from a bottle through a straw. A child sucks milk from a bottle. (BŽe) (2) sr iaubti 1. ‘to drink or eat soup noisily’: The host savored the tea, slurping it. He slurps borscht so noisily that his ears flap. (BŽe) (3) triaubti ‘to drink greedily’ (BŽe). E.g.: You’ll guzzle and guzzle until you burst. (LKŽe) 13 Examples related to drinking are taken from LKŽe, since they are not recorded in BŽe. 14 Cf. the interjection recorded in LKŽe: murkt 3. ‘gulp (indicating swallowing)’: Just one gulp, and the little glass is empty. 204 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXII Semantinės veiksmažodžio gerti sinonimų atsiradimo priežastys The verbs siurbti, sriaubti and triaubti (cf. triaubti and striaubti15 (open juncture)) share the same root, which is of onomatopoeic origin (Fraenkel 1965: 945). Thus, the verbs under consideration are phonetically motivated and describe the action of drawing liquids through the teeth with the lips, accompanied by a sound; cf.: He drinks with his lips pursed, sucking. (DLKT). Moreover, on the basis of the specific sound of sucking, these verbs metonymically denote the entire complex process of drinking. The first meaning of the verb sriaubti given in BŽe is ‘to drink or eat soup noisily’, i.e. to drink any liquids (e.g.: The host savored the tea, slurping it. He slurps borscht so noisily that his ears flap. (BŽe)). The second meaning of this verb is associated solely with the consumption of alcoholic beverages, cf.: ‘to drink alcoholic beverages greedily’: He guzzles beer every day. (BŽe). This phenomenon is called semantic narrowing16. c) Experience of lip and tongue activity The verb plempti ‘to drink a lot’, e.g.: Stop guzzling that beer. He was lying in bed and guzzling mineral water. (BŽe), has a root of onomatopoeic origin (cf. ple ple) (Fraenkel 1965: 603). 1.2. The purpose-of-drinking feature The purpose of drinking, that is, drinking in order to get drunk or intoxicated, is expressed by the verb 1 kaušti (kaušta, kaušo) ‘to become drunk, to get intoxicated from alcohol’: The drinkers are getting more and more intoxicated. (BŽe). 1.3. The feature of drinking with an implement The first meaning of the verb 2 kaušti is ‘to drink or eat greedily’, e.g.: He is greedily drinking milk. (BŽe); etymologically it is related to kaušas (Fraenkel 1962: 232), ‘a wooden ladle with a short handle for scooping mash, water, grain, flour, etc.; the amount it holds’: Put this ladle down for mixing the pigs’ feed Sdk. Water and all kinds of liquid are scooped with a ladle Brž. (LKŽe). Thus, the SP of this verb can be taken to be an implement for drinking. 15 Striaubti see sriaubti. (LKŽe) 16 Semantic narrowing may be defined as a phenomenon in which, under certain circumstances, a word comes to be used not for the entire class it denotes, but only for a particular part of it that is perceived unambiguously in a given situation (Gudavičius 2013: 78). Straipsniai / Articles 205 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ The second meaning of the verb 2 k aušti is ‘to drink alcoholic beverages’, e.g.: He gulps beer as if it were water. (BŽe); it is specifically associated with the consumption of alcoholic beverages, that is, a narrowing of meaning has taken place. In summary, it can be stated that the primary-nomination verb SPs are related to physiological experiences of drinking, i.e. experiences involving the activity of the throat, lips and teeth, and the activity of the lips and tongue, as well as to the purpose of drinking and drinking with an implement. 2. VERBS OF SECONDARY INDIRECT NOMINATION FOR DRINKING Most of the meanings of the verbs under consideration that belong to the concept GERTI have arisen through semantic derivation; that is, through the association of a verb with some feature of an action in reality, the verb acquired metaphorical or metonymic meanings in the process of secondary nomination, or a narrowing of meaning occurred. 2.1. Metaphorical transfer of meaning Metaphors play an important role in shaping the meanings of drinking verbs. Metaphorical meanings may be associated with primary meanings (which are usually prototypical) or with secondary meanings that motivate them. According to the transfer of meaning, the following metaphorical models can be distinguished: 2.1.1. An energetic, purposeful action described by a meaning similar to the motivating meaning; 2.1.2. A movement described by a meaning similar to the motivating meaning; 2.1.3. The temperature released during an action described by a meaning similar to the motivating meaning; 2.1.4. An action performed by an animal, described by a meaning similar to the motivating meaning; 2.1.5. The sound produced during an action described by a meaning similar to the motivating meaning (the flowing, pouring, or splashing of liquid). The metaphorical models identified below are discussed in greater detail. 2.1.1. An energetic, purposeful action described as resembling the motivating meaning The meanings of the verbs of the concept GERTI assigned to this metaphorical model are derivative; they are linked to the primary meanings by a metaphorical relation 206 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXII Semantinės veiksmažodžio gerti sinonimų atsiradimo priežastys (motivating) meanings that record an energetic, purposeful action performed by hand to affect an object / subject. This effect can be produced using a particular instrument or directly by hand, or with a particular instrument. a) An energetic, purposeful action affecting the structure of an object, described as resembling the motivating meaning The first (prototypical) meanings of the verbs carve and hew are given in BŽe as follows: (1) carve 1. ‘to cut, sharpen, smooth, or hone with a knife or another sharp tool’: Carve a pencil. The craftsman carves a board with a drawknife. (2) hew 1. ‘to carve, chop, hew, shape, or smooth (wood, stone, etc.) with an axe, adze, chisel, or something else’: When the new foundations have been laid, they hew the logs. The craftsmen hewed the fieldstones. The intense physical action described by the prototypical meanings of these verbs could be characterized as destructive, since carrying out the action with sharp tools affects the structure of the object (it is changed). Thus, the primary (prototypical) meanings of the verbs carve and hew and their metaphorical meanings associated with drinking (carve 6. ‘to eat or drink greedily’: Carve yourself another glass of beer. (BŽe); hew 3. ‘to eat or drink greedily’ (BŽe)) are linked on the basis of a transfer of similarity in the energetic, purposeful action performed. b) An energetic, purposeful action directed toward the subject, similar to that described by the motivating meaning The meanings related to drinking of the verbs assigned to this subgroup bubinti (and its derivational synonym bubyti) and tvatyti most likely developed from the primary (tvatyti) and secondary (bubinti, bubyti) meanings denoting striking: (1) tvatyti 1. ‘to beat hard, thrash’: He thrashes the horse on its sides with a stick. He charged at me, beating me with his fists. → 4. ‘to drink, eat, or feed greedily’: The child guzzles milk every evening. (BŽe) (2) bubinti 2. ‘to beat, strike’: To beat [someone] on the back. Stop beating each other; don’t you care about your ribs, teeth, and skulls? The angry little girl drops her toys and punches her dad with her little fists. → 3. ‘to drink a lot, greedily’: Thirsty, we guzzled water straight from the bucket. The men crowd into the beer hall, chat, and guzzle beer. (BŽe) (3) bubyti 2. ‘to beat, strike’: To beat someone over the head. Enraged, he began beating the horse with a stick. Man, you mustn’t beat a person with your fists every day. → 5. ‘to drink, eat, or feed a lot, greedily’: Maybe you ate something salty, since you’re guzzling water? (BŽe) Straipsniai / Articles 207 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ The action of striking denoted by the motivating meanings is destructive, performed energetically and repeatedly, and directly affects the subject, either by hand or with some implement—a stick, rod, and so on. Therefore, energetic, purposeful action may be considered the basis for transferring these meanings to denote drinking a large quantity. 2.1.2. A movement resembling that denoted by the motivating meaning This metaphorical model includes the verbs mesti, lenkti, (iš)mauti17, maukti, and traukti, whose primary meanings denote an active, energetic action, usually one that affects an object. The action denoted by the motivating meaning of the verb mesti (1. ‘to send flying away (usually by hand)’, e.g.: To throw stones aside [into a pit, into a pile, over a fence]. (BŽe)) is active; the direction of the object being thrown is away, downward, or upward (a): a) “upward” mesti “away” “downward” The action denoted by the primary meaning of the verb lenkti (1. ‘to make something bend, become crooked’, e.g.: The blacksmith bends the iron. (BŽe)) is active; it directly affects the object and changes its structure (b): b) lenkti The action denoted by the primary meaning of the verb traukti (1. ‘to make something break off, detach’, e.g.: I pulled at the rope but could not break it. (BŽe)) is energetic and directed toward oneself (c): c) to draw “toward oneself” 17 The verb’s meaning mauti related to drinking is not recorded in BŽe. 208 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXII Semantinės veiksmažodžio gerti sinonimų atsiradimo priežastys BŽe records the prefixed verb (iš)mauti, meaning ‘to drink greedily’: He downed a glass of beer. For courage, I’ll down another shot. (BŽe). LKŽe also gives the unprefixed verb, meaning ‘to drink or eat quickly; to wolf down’: Well, what are you gawking at? Gulp some more! Kp. We didn’t knock back one glass after another; instead, we drank politely, toasting before. (LKŽe). This metaphorical meaning should probably be associated (although the basis for the transfer is difficult to discern) with the prototypical meaning, cf. ‘to act by pulling, dragging, hauling, or threading something so that it is or is not on something’: To put shoes [gloves, socks] on a child. To put a wheel on [take it off] an axle. He put a ring on [took it off] his finger. Put a muzzle on the dog [harness the horse]. (BŽe). Narba pulls a hat onto his head; it seems it wasn’t made for him. (DLKT). The metaphorical meaning of the verb maukti is ‘to drink greedily’: We watched the match while knocking back beer. (BŽe); Another moustached man, getting up from his chair, gulped wine from a large goblet. (DLKT), and is likely related to the prototypical meaning ‘to pull, put on’, e.g.: He pulls a hat over his eyes [up from his forehead]. (BŽe); Apynios winds the cord around the needle and then pulls it away again Skr. Alfons was restless the whole time, pulling his hat down over his eyes, and his heart was beating faster A.Vien. Why are you halfheartedly pulling it on? Can’t you wash the dishes properly! J. (LKŽe). The basis for the transfer of this metaphorical meaning could be regarded as an associative replication of movement, although the basis for the transfer is difficult to discern. Thus, the action denoted by the primary meanings of the verbs (iš)mauti and maukti affects both the subject and the object (d): d) (to) pull off, gulp down “off” “onto” It is assumed that metaphorical meanings related to drinking developed from the primary (motivating) meanings of the aforementioned verbs mesti, lenkti, (iš)mauti, maukti and traukti, with associative (visual) replication of movement serving as the basis for the transfer. It is noteworthy that the metaphorical meanings of the verbs mesti, lenkti and traukti are associated not with the consumption of just any liquids, but specifically with alcoholic beverages: (1) mesti 1. ‘to send flying away (usually by hand)’: To throw stones aside [into a pit, into a pile, over a fence]. Throw the ball into the basket [into the goal, over the net]. Uncle threw a sheaf of grain from the roof. Drop your weapons! → 16. ‘to drink (alcoholic beverages)’: He drinks vodka. Have a shot. (BŽe) Straipsniai / Articles 209 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ (2) bend 1. ‘to make something bend, become crooked’: The blacksmith bends the iron. → 13. ‘to consume alcoholic drinks’: To tip back a shot glass [a little glass]. (BŽe) (3) pull 1. ‘to cause something to tear, to come apart’: I pulled at the rope but could not break it. She pulled the thread with her hands and cut her finger. → 10. ‘to drink (intoxicating drinks)’: The father drank, and so does the son. He likes to drink beer. (BŽe) 2.1.3. The temperature distinguished in the action denoted, similar to the motivating meaning The verb šutinti denotes the thermal effect on an object. The core meaning and most of the secondary meanings of this verb involve the semantic component of heat: (1) šutinti 1. ‘to make something steam (sense 1), to cook slowly (in a covered pot with little liquid or using steam)’: To steam potatoes [peas, wheat]. 2. to boil: To boil milk. 3. ‘to soften by treating with hot water or steam’: To steam bath whisks [switches]. 4. ‘to radiate heat, scorching heat’: The sun is scorching relentlessly. 5. ‘to treat with heat, scorching heat, to keep in a hot environment’: For a cold, you should warm your feet in water. 6. ‘to cause or allow something to steam, become hot, perspire’: Diapers make children’s [children’s] skin sweat. [...] 9. ‘to eat or drink greedily’: The children are gulping down compote. [...] (BŽe). In the examples for the base verb šutinti, šusti, listed in LKŽe and used in the sense ‘to drink intoxicating drinks’ (this sense of šusti is not found in BŽe), only the non-finite form of the verb is used, for example: Perhaps you’re already steamed (heated up – author’s note) a bit? Slm. He keeps coming back from the market steamed (heated up – author’s note) Kp. It may be surmised that the basis for the semantic shift to drinking is temperature (heat). In this particular case, one could discern a conceptual metaphor based on projecting experience from one domain, usually a physical one, onto another, usually an abstract, mental domain; that is, ALCOHOLIC INTOXICATION IS WARMING UP. 2.1.4. An action denoted, similar to the motivating meaning, performed by an animal The verb l akti18 is assigned to this metaphorical model; its primary meaning is ‘to drink (liquid), taking it into the snout with rapid tongue movements’ 18 According to A. Kaukienė, the root of the verb lakti “most likely derives from imitative origins (cf. Skardžius ŽD 482, Pokorny 651), since verbs with the same or very similar meanings in different languages end in various (labial or velar) consonants” (Kaukienė 1994: 31). A. Sabaliauskas also notes that this verb “is probably of onomatopoeic origin” (Sabaliauskas, 1990: 91). 210 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXII Semantinės veiksmažodžio gerti sinonimų atsiradimo priežastys (about animals, usually cats and dogs)’, e.g.: The kitten meows to be given milk. The puppy laps water. (BŽe). The metaphorical meaning of the verb under consideration, ‘to drink greedily, in large quantities (usually alcoholic drinks)’, e.g.: The more you pour, the more he laps. (BŽe), differs from the primary meaning first of all in the subject performing the action: the subject of the primary meaning is an animal, while that of the metaphorical meaning is a human being. Since animals and the actions they perform are generally evaluated negatively in Lithuanian19, the basis for metaphorization of the meaning could be an aesthetic impression, namely, unattractive drinking (which conveys a derogatory connotation). However, a negative evaluation of alcohol consumption prevails in the linguistic community, so in this case we could identify the conceptual metaphor THE DRUNKARD IS AN ANIMAL. The verb liuobti also belongs to this group; its primary meaning in BŽe is ‘to give feed’, e.g.: We feed the pigs potatoes. It is time to feed the cows their lunch. The animals have not been fed yet. (BŽe); its metaphorical meaning is ‘to eat or drink greedily’, e.g.: He devours the bacon, mouth agape. The men guzzle vodka like madmen. (BŽe). The prototypical and metaphorical meanings of this verb have different syntactic argument structures (‘to give feed’: what? (we feed the pigs) and with what? (we feed them potatoes)), whereas ‘to eat or drink greedily’: what? (he devours the bacon / guzzles the vodka). However, the same situation, involving three participants, can also be interpreted differently semantically. For example, in the sentence Jonas feeds oats to the animals, the situation is described differently than in We feed the pigs potatoes. Jonas feeds oats to the animals: the food given to the animals (the oats) is interpreted here as the patient, thereby making it salient. Comparing the meanings and semantic structures of these two sentences with the corresponding situation brings out their different signification: the first states what is done to the animals as patient, while the second states what is done to the food as patient (cf. Sližienė 1994: 26, 2004: 261). When these meanings of liuobti are compared with the metaphorical meaning ‘to eat or drink greedily’, e.g.: He devours the bacon, mouth agape. The men guzzle vodka like madmen. (BŽe), one might perhaps speak of an actant-reducing or interpretive derivation (cf. maitintis Sližienė 1994: 409), in which one actant is ‘removed’ from the initial situation (the recipients of the feed, i.e. the animals being fed); at the same time, a new situation arises with fewer participants than the original one (for more, see Plungian 2011: 46ff.). Thus, the verb’s prototypical meanings ‘to give feed’ and ‘to give to eat’ (following šerti Sližienė 2004: 261), as well as its metaphorical meaning ‘to eat or drink greedily’, have different argument structures, which correlate with different semantic and syntactic valency structures. 19 “[...] the fact that animal names are highly productive in this case attests to a fundamentally negative Lithuanian attitude toward the animal world.” (Gudavičius 2009: 119). Straipsniai / Articles 211 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ 2.1.5. Similar to the motivating meaning: the sound produced during the action described (the flow, pouring, or sloshing of liquid) The drinking-related meanings of the verbs listed below acquired metaphorical meanings through secondary nomination based on the sound feature. a) The SP of the meanings of verbs belonging to this subgroup is the sound produced as liquid flows or pours: (1) pliaupti 1. ‘to rain heavily’: It poured with rain for several days. → 3. ‘to gulp down or drink greedily, in large quantities’: You’re guzzling that coffee without restraint. Gulp down some borscht. (BŽe) (2) kliaukti 1. ‘to rain heavily’: It has been pouring all day. → 4. ‘to drink or gulp greedily’: I’ve been gulping water all day. The helpers are guzzling beer. (BŽe) (3) kliokti KLIAUKTI 1. ‘to rain heavily’: It rained heavily all night. → 4. ‘to drink or gulp greedily’: I’m gulping down water—I’m parched. (BŽe). For the verbs pliaupti, kliaukti (kliokti), we could also distinguish an SP of gulping in large swallows—swallowing a large mouthful. b) The most characteristic SP of the meanings of the verbs listed below is also a sound, but one produced as liquid sloshes. The derived meaning ‘to drink with a gurgling sound’ of the verbs kliukinti and kliunkinti (which are variants) (where kliuksėti means ‘to slosh or splash about with a sound’) is based on the primary meaning ‘to make something gurgle, to make a gurgling sound, to see whether it gurgles’: (1) kliukinti 1. ‘to make something gurgle, to make a gurgling sound, to see whether it gurgles’: Why are you making the eggs gurgle? → 3. ‘to drink with a gurgling sound’: The child is gulping orange juice. He is drinking beer straight from the bottle with a gurgling sound. (BŽe) (2) kliunkinti 1. kliukinti 3 > ‘to drink with a gurgling sound’: The young man is drinking beer straight from the bottle with a gurgling sound. What kind of drink do you like to gulp down in summer? I keep guzzling mineral water [milk]. (BŽe) The first meaning given in BŽe for the verb kliukenti is ‘to flow or run with a gurgling sound’. The primary meaning of the verb under discussion, kliukenti, differs from the primary meanings of the related verbs kliukinti and kliunkinti discussed above, which have the same root, because it refers to the very action of liquid flowing or running: (3) to gurgle 1. ‘to flow, run with a gurgling sound’: Water gurgles out of the bottle. → 2. ‘to drink with a gurgling sound’: The child gurgles milk from the bottle. (BŽe) The derived meaning of the verb to gulp, ‘to drink greedily’, is associated with its principal meaning, ‘to pour, slosh liquid, producing a sound’ (this meaning is not given in BŽe): (4) to gulp 1. ‘to drink greedily’: We gulp down tea in the mornings. (BŽe) 212 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXII Semantinės veiksmažodžio gerti sinonimų atsiradimo priežastys Cf. the first meaning of this word, given in LKŽe: ‘to pour, slosh liquid, producing a sound’. In the above-mentioned verbs of drinking that denote the sounds of flowing, one can discern not only metaphorical transfer (similarity to the sounds made by a stream or rain), but also metonymy, since the transfer occurs through one of the features of drinking—a specific sound that stands for the entire complex physiological process. In summary, it can be said that drinking synonyms are most often formed through metaphor to emphasize or highlight the distinctive nature of the act of drinking itself, or the sound produced as liquid flows or pours. 2.2. Metonymic transfer of meaning Metonymy plays a role only rarely in the formation of the meanings of drinking verbs. We can distinguish the following types of metonymy in the verbs under discussion: result for action, cause for result, and part for whole. These types are discussed in more detail below. 2.2.1. Result instead of action This type of metonymy includes the verbs sprogti, pampti, and pusti. The metonymic meaning of the verb sprogti ‘to gulp, eat, drink greedily’ could be associated with the motivating meaning ‘to be stretched, expanded when very full’, recorded in LKŽe (this meaning is not found in BŽe): (1) sprogti 6. ‘to gulp, eat, drink greedily’: You’ve had enough of gulping down honey; leave some for me too. (BŽe) Cf. LKŽe 4. ‘to be stretched, expanded when very full’: And now his belly is about to burst—he drank too much of that water Lk. From that chaff the calves’ bellies are bursting now, since they eat it Rd. I can’t stand it any longer; my mouth is about to burst! LMD(Sln). The verb sprogti has another meaning as well—‘to drink alcoholic beverages greedily’: He got paid and is binge-drinking. (BŽe), which is specifically associated with the consumption of alcoholic beverages. This phenomenon, in which a word comes to be used not for the entire class it denotes but only for a certain part of it, is called semantic narrowing. The other two verbs belonging to this model are pampti and pusti. Their metonymic meanings related to drinking most likely developed from their basic (prototypical) meanings: Straipsniai / Articles 213 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ (2) pampti 1. ‘to swell, expand, become bloated, puff up’: The cow ate clover wet with dew and began to swell. An overfed, bloated bullock needs to be driven around. → 2. ‘to drink, eat, gulp down greedily and in large quantities’: How much of that beer can you guzzle? (BŽe) (3) pusti 1. ‘to increase in volume, size (usually of harmful swelling after eating too much)’: Cows bloat from clover. The belly swells from overeating. → 2. ‘to eat or drink greedily’: How much beer can you guzzle?! All he cares about is guzzling; he won’t lift a finger to work. (BŽe) The most salient semantic feature of these verbs could be identified as the physiological sensation of fullness. 2.2.2. Cause for result The prototypical (motivating) meaning of the verb pilti is related to pouring liquid into an object, cf. ‘pour (liquid) into’: Pour wine from the bottle into a glass. He pours her coffee [some coffee]. The host pours sparkling beer into a jug. Lithuanians poured boiling water over them and threw stones. (BŽe). The motivated meaning is also related to pouring liquid, except that the object used metonymically is a person’s interior, cf. ‘drink a lot’: They poured beer all day. (BŽe). 2.2.3. Part for whole The verb ryti belongs to this metonymic type. Its motivating meaning, ‘to push food down the throat into the stomach’, denotes an essential stage of eating—the swallowing of food—whereas its metonymic meaning, ‘to eat or drink greedily’, denotes the entire eating process. (1) ryti 1. ‘to push food down the throat into the stomach’: I have no teeth, so I swallow everything without chewing, like a heron. Swallow only a bite you can fit in your mouth (flk.). → 3. ‘to eat or drink greedily’: Why are you swallowing your food standing up, you weasel?! He eats like a horse and works like a rooster (flk.). (BŽe) The article then presents a preliminary network of Lithuanian drinking verb synonyms. 214 A c t a L i n g u i s t i c a L i t h u a n i c a LXXII Semantinės veiksmažodžio gerti sinonimų atsiradimo priežastys FIG. 2. Preliminary synonym network of Lithuanian drinking verbs GENERAL CONCLUSIONS Analysis of the meanings of verbs belonging to the concept DRINK leads to the following conclusions: 1. The verbs of primary nomination lie closer to the center of the concept DRINK; the semantic features recorded in their meanings are related to the physiology of the drinking action in humans or animals, that is, the motor movements of the lips, teeth, tongue, and throat, e.g.: gurkti, siurbti. The drinking verbs in this nomination group are most often externally motivated, that is, their roots iconically represent specific sounds accompanying drinking. 2. Most of the meanings of synonyms belonging to the concept DRINK have arisen through semantic derivation. 2.1. Metaphorical polysemous relations play an important role in shaping the semantic structures of drinking synonyms. The following models of transfer of metaphorical meanings related to drinking are distinguished: 1) an energetic, purposeful action described similarly to that in the motivating meaning, e.g.: Straipsniai / Articles 215 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ to carve; 2) resembles a movement described by the motivating meaning, e.g.: to throw; 3) resembles the temperature produced during the action described by the motivating meaning, e.g.: to scald; 4) resembles an action described by the motivating meaning and performed by an animal, e.g.: to lap; and 5) resembles the sound produced during the action described by the motivating meaning (the flowing, pouring, or splashing of liquid), e.g.: to gurgle. The study showed that drink synonyms most commonly arise through metaphor to emphasize or highlight the distinctive nature of the act of drinking itself, e.g.: to knock back, to guzzle, to throw back, or the sound produced as liquid flows or pours, e.g.: to splash, to gurgle. 2.2. Metonymic transfer of meaning among drink synonyms is uncommon. Several cases of metonymic meaning transfer were identified, which can be classified into the following types of metonymy: result for action (the ‘sensation of fullness’ SP), e.g.: to burst; cause for result (the ‘object’ SP), e.g.: to pour; and part for whole (the ‘throat’ SP), e.g.: to gulp. 3. The study revealed that the emergence of semantic synonyms of the verb to drink is driven by speakers’ desire to name the act of drinking in various ways, highlighting one cognitive feature or another. The SP most often activated when naming the act of drinking are of several kinds: they relate to the physiology of the mouth and movement, and to the sound made by liquid. ABBREVIATIONS IN THE SYNONYM NETWORK FGP – physiological sensation of the throat FLDP – physiological sensation of lip and tooth activity FLLP – physiological sensation of lip and tongue activity FP – physiological features of drinking GP – throat feature GPP – feature of drinking with an implement GTP – feature of the purpose of drinking MetafP – metaphorical transfer of meaning MetonP – metonymic transfer of meaning OP – object feature Resembles ETV – resembles an energetic, purposeful action described by the motivating meaning 216 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXII Semantinės veiksmažodžio gerti sinonimų atsiradimo priežastys Similar to GV – similar to an action denoted by the motivating meaning, performed by an animal Similar to J – similar to a movement denoted by the motivating meaning Similar to KG – similar to a sound produced during an action (the flowing, pouring, or splashing of liquid) denoted by the motivating meaning Similar to T – similar to a temperature emitted during the action denoted by the motivating meaning PP – an indicator of the feeling of fullness LITERATURE AND SOURCES Apresjan – Апресян Юрий Д. 1974: Лексическая семантика: синонимические средства языка. Москва: Наука. BŽe – in preparation Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian. Editorial board: D. Liutkevičienė (editor-in-chief), G. Naktinienė, R. Petrokienė, D. Svetikienė, K. Vosilytė, J. Zabarskaitė. Programmer V. Satkevičius. Vol. 1: Introduction, B, C, H, I, O. Vilnius: Institute of the Lithuanian Language, 2013. Vol. 3: Č, E, Ę, Ė, F, Z. – Vilnius: Institute of the Lithuanian Language, 2014. Available online: http://bkz.lki.lt; BŽe manuscript. Cruse D. Alan 1986: Lexical Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, MA. DLKT – Corpus of Contemporary Lithuanian. Kaunas: VDU. Available online: http://tekstynas.vdu.lt/tekstynas/. DŽe – Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian: sixth (third electronic) edition, editor-in-chief Stasys Keinys. Vilnius: Institute of the Lithuanian Language, 2006; online version, 2011. Available online: http://dz.lki.lt. Fraenkel Ernst 1962–1965: Litauisches etymologisches Wörterbuch 1–2. Heidelberg: Winter. 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Plungian Vladimir 2011: Gramatinių kategorijų tipologija 2. Vilnius: Asociacija „Academia Salensis“: Vilniaus universitetas. Popova, Sternin – Попова З. Д., Стернин И. А. 2010: Когнитивная лингвистика. Москва: Восток – Запад. Sližienė Nijolė 1994–2004: Lietuvių kalbos veiksmažodžių junglumo žodynas 1–2. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. Sližienė Nijolė 2005: Veiksmažodžių stigti, stokoti, trūkti sinonimiškoji reikšmė ir jų vartojimo ypatumai. – Kalbos kultūra 78, 128–132. Šmeliov – Шмелев Дмитрий Н. 2008: Очерки по семасиологии русского языка. Москва: Издательство ЛКИ. Taylor John 2003: Near synonyms as coextensive categories: ‘Tall’ and ‘high’ revised. – Language Sciences 25, 263–284. Ungerer Friedrich, Schmid Hans-Jörg 1996: An introduction to cognitive linguistics. London: Longman. Urbutis Vincas 1978: Žodžių darybos teorija. Vilnius: Mokslas; 2-asis leidimas, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2009. Urbutis Vincas 1965: Žodžio trumpas keleto tarminių sinonimų etimologija. – Baltistica 1(1), 67–81. Urbutis Vincas 1998: Lie. pašinas ir (trm.) pašaiža – bendrašakniai sinonimai. – Baltistica 33(1), 49–57. Valiulytė Elena 1998: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos sintaksiniai sinonimai: vietos, laiko ir priežasties raiška. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. Vaskelienė Jolanta 2000: Darybiniai sinonimai [mokomoji knyga filologijos specialybių studentams]. Šiauliai: Šiaulių universitetas. Straipsniai / Articles 219 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ Semantic Reasons of Appearance of Synonyms of the Verb to drink SUMMARY The object of this article is a rich semantic group which has not yet been analysed before – drinking verbs taken from the version of the Dictionary of the Standard Lithuanian Language which is currently in the process of compilation. The research seeks to estimate which features of the actual phenomena, things or actions become semantic features in the language, which determine the rise of new drinking verbs. The research also seeks to estimate the efficiency of these semantic features. A preliminary synonym network of the verb to drink is given at the end of the article. Submitted on September 1, 2014. ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language 5 Petro Vileišio St., LT-10308 Vilnius, Lithuania [email protected] 220 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXII