Produktyvieji daiktavardžių ir būdvardžių vedinių naujadarų tipai

JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ Vilnius University Šiauliai Academy ORCID id: orcid.org/0000-0002-8516-8608 Research areas: word formation, morphology, text linguistics, stylistics. DOI: doi.org/10.35321/all87-09 PRODUCTIVE TYPES OF NOUN AND ADJECTIVE DERIVATIONAL NEOLOGISMS Productive Types of Noun and Adjective Neologisms ANNOTATION The article analyses noun and adjective neologisms formed with suffixes and belonging to productive derivational types, collected from texts by Lithuanian authors. (Neologisms are formations not recorded in the reference sources – The Dictionary of the Standard Lithuanian Language, the Dictionary of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language, the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language, and the Catalogue of Supplements to the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language.) The study is based on an analysis of 374 neologisms belonging to six noun and adjective derivational types: the article discusses verb abstracts with the suffixes –imas / -ymas and –tis, nominal abstracts with –umas, -ybė, -ystė, as well as adjectives with the suffix –iškas, –a. The study seeks to reveal the derivational, semantic, and usage characteristics of neologisms of these types. The empirical analysis data are compared with descriptions of these derivational types presented in works on word formation and grammars, as well as with the insights of researchers of the Lithuanian Neologism Database. Several recommendations for lexicographers are offered. KEYWORDS: neologism, derivational type, productivity, formation, derivative, compound, suffix, (potential) base word. ANNOTATION The article analyses the noun and adjective neologisms of the productive types of word formation made with suffixes and collected from the texts of Lithuanian authors Straipsniai / Articles 177 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ (neologisms are derivatives not recorded in the supporting sources – Dictionary of the Standard Lithuanian Language, Dictionary of the Modern Lithuanian Language, Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language and Supplement Catalogue of the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language). The study is based on the data of the analysis of 374 neologisms belonging to six types of the formation of nouns and adjectives. The article discusses the abstracts of verbs with the suffixes –imas/-ymas and –tis, the abstracts of nominals with the suffixes –umas, -ybė, -ystė, as well as the adjectives with the suffix –iškas, –a. The research aims to reveal the peculiarities of the formation, semantics and use of these types of neologisms. The data from the empirical analysis have been compared with the descriptions of these types of formation presented in word formation works and grammars, as well as with the insights of the researchers of the Database of Neologisms of the Lithuanian language. The article provides some recommendations for lexicographers. KEYWORDS: neologism, type of word formation, productivity, derivative, compound, (potential) base word. INTRODUCTION A derivational type is “an abstract form and semantic schema of word formation. A derivational type is realized by specific formations that coincide in three principal derivational differentiating features: 1) categorical derivational meaning, 2) the part of speech (or parts of speech) of the base word(s), 3) the derivational formant. A derivational type is “both a comprehensive general characterization of words already formed and a programme for forming future neologisms” (LKE 129; Keinys 1999: 107; Urbutis 2009: 293–308; cf. Soida 2009: 56–61). Some derivational types have produced many formations, while according to others only one or two words have been formed. As a rule, neologisms are also formed according to existing derivational types; such neologisms occur to a greater or lesser extent in both spoken and written language and in various texts. A considerable number of neologisms of the contemporary language are presented in the continually expanding Lithuanian Neologism Database (ND). In recent years, the neologisms published in ND (including formations) have attracted researchers’ attention (Murmulaitytė 2021; Aleksaitė 2022; on the database and its research potential, see also Murmulaitytė 2016; Miliūnaitė 2015; 2018). The object of this study consists of neologisms extracted from texts by Lithuanian authors¹. (Neologisms are understood as formations not recorded in the reference sources: the Dictionary of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language ¹ The quantitatively largest groups of derivatives were obtained after analysing approximately 1,500 neologisms of various formations found in several dozen books by various Lithuanian authors, but the list of sources specifies only those books from which usage examples are provided in the article (the abbreviation of the book and the page are given with each example). It should be noted that the neologisms were collected manually, using the monitoring 178 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII Produktyvieji daiktavardžių ir būdvardžių vedinių naujadarų tipai (DLKŽ), the Dictionary of the Standard Lithuanian Language (BLKŽ), the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (LKŽ) and the Catalogue of Supplements to the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (LKŽPK) – formations not recorded there.) The aim of the article is to determine which types of suffixal noun and adjective derivational neologisms are most productive, how this correlates with existing insights into productive noun and adjective types, and to discuss the derivational and usage characteristics of neologisms. The study is based on data from an investigation of 374 neologisms (194 nouns and 180 adjectives) belonging to six derivational types. Its tasks are: 1) to select the largest groups of noun and adjective derivatives from the neologisms extracted from texts by Lithuanian authors and analysed derivationally; 2) to discuss neologisms belonging to productive types from the derivational, semantic, and usage perspectives; 3) in order to identify tendencies characteristic of noun neologisms, to compare the data obtained with the results of studies of neologisms in ND (Murmulaitytė 2021; Aleksaitė 2022). It should be noted that the collected empirical material is primarily used for qualitative research. The study applies derivational, semantic, and textual-analysis methods, as well as interpretation, calculation, and comparison. The research proceeds inductively – from the analysis of specific formations to generalizing insights. Several recommendations for lexicographers are offered. 1. THEORETICAL INSIGHTS Word-formation theory reveals two opposing views of productivity: proponents of the first believe that productivity belongs to diachrony (i.e., it is thought that the productivity of a derivational type can be discussed only from a historical perspective), whereas proponents of the second maintain that productivity is an essential feature of a type; therefore, only productive and active derivational types are assigned to the language system and included in a synchronic description of word formation (Urbutis 2009: 309). In other words, the issue of grouping is raised: a formation must not only have a base word (base words), but also a formant recurring in other formations (and method – while analysing works of fiction, essays, and texts by literary scholars, formations were sought that might not be recorded in the reference dictionaries. A preliminary list (inventory) of neologisms was subsequently refined. Of course, when empirical material is collected manually, some formation not included in the dictionaries may be overlooked. It should be noted here that no automated search for neologisms in texts of the desired style exists; moreover, ND is also a manually compiled database of neologisms, but this does not prevent scholars from studying the lexical units presented in it and offering generalizing insights into the state of neologism formation in Lithuanian and tendencies in neology. Straipsniai / Articles 179 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ only then is it considered to represent some derivational type)². The question of which characteristic – quantitative, qualitative, or both – is more important when discussing productivity is considered, and the phenomenon of analogy is not ignored either (attention is drawn to the fact that new words are formed by analogy with real, existing ones). Nevertheless, productivity or derivability is most often regarded as a quantitative feature, i.e. a type whose model has produced or produces dozens and hundreds of formations is considered productive or derivable. Thus, the productivity of a derivational type in “synchronic word formation is now usually understood as the power of a type to serve as a word-formation model, its ability to produce (real or potential) neologisms” (Urbutis 2009: 309–310; Keinys 1999: 107; cf. Plag 2003: 55; Booij 2005: 68; see also Baayen 1991; Bauer 2001; Plag 2006; Lieber, Štekauer 2014: 67–83; Soida 2009: 63). Languages with word formation have productive and unproductive (or derivable and non-derivable) derivational types. In all languages, more neologisms are formed according to the models of some types and fewer according to others (or none at all); for example, in Lithuanian, a formation can be made from almost every verb with the suffix –imas or its variant –ymas³, whether it is recorded in lexicographic sources or created during the communication process, whereas other derivational types do not display such productivity and potential possibilities⁴. Moreover, it is emphasized in some places that neologisms themselves are an excellent indicator of productivity (Brown 2005: 8421). Indeed, neologisms often belong to productive derivational types and can frequently be considered potential formations (on potential formations, see Urbutis 2009: 316; Plag 2003: 57)⁵. 2. PRODUCTIVE DERIVATIONAL TYPES OF NOUN AND ADJECTIVE DERIVATIVES Analysis of the collected empirical material revealed that most neologisms belong to several noun derivational types and one adjective derivational type. ² The article follows the position of Vincas Urbutis (2009: 126), according to which the principal factor determining whether a word is a (non-)formation is the (non-)existence of a base word (base words). ³ In the article, the suffixes –imas / –ymas are considered variants of the same suffix, i.e. one derivational type (Jakaitienė, Laigonaitė, Paulauskienė 1976: 11; Ambrazas 1993: 21–26; Murmulaitytė 2021: 34). ⁴ On productivity and derivational types with different degrees of productivity in various languages, see also Greenbaum 1996: 442, 457; Booij 2005, 67–71; Pervuxina 2007; Lieber, Štekauer 2014: 620–630. ⁵ Attention should be drawn to the terms potential words and actual words – the former is customary and understood in Lithuanian in the same way, whereas there is no established (uniformly used) Lithuanian equivalent of the latter; terms such as real, existing, recorded in lexicographic sources, systemic words are used instead. 180 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII Produktyvieji daiktavardžių ir būdvardžių vedinių naujadarų tipai 2.1. Neologisms of productive derivational types of suffixal nouns Nouns exhibit all the main methods of word formation, as well as the mixed method. Suffixal derivatives are the most numerous, ending derivatives occupy second place, compounds are only slightly less numerous, and prefixal derivatives are the least numerous (LKE 112–116, 121; Keinys 1999: 36; Ružė 2008: 58–71). According to derivational meaning, suffixal and ending nouns are divided into 14 derivational categories, within which derivational types of varying productivity are distinguished6. Analysis of the empirical material showed that the largest groups of noun neologisms consist of five derivational types of abstracts (see Fig.). FIG. Types of suffixal noun formations 2.1.1. Verb abstracts (or names of actions) in the derivational category are formed with various suffixes and endings. This derivational category contains many suffixal derivational types, arranged by productivity as follows: –imas, –ymas, –tis, –esys, –ulys, –yba (–ybos), –smas, –sena, –tynės, etc. (see LKG 1965: 289–297; DLKG 2005: 94–97; Keinys 1999: 39–41; 6 Some derivational categories contain hundreds of derivational types, while others contain a dozen or a few. See LKG (1965: 251–473) for noun derivational types. Straipsniai / Articles 181 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ cf. Ambrazas 1993: 20–86). Research on neologisms shows the same sequence of the most productive types – in texts by various authors, most verb abstracts are formed with the suffixes –imas / –ymas⁷ (75 derivatives) and –tis (14 derivatives). Neologisms with the suffix –imas / –ymas often are based on base words recorded in lexicographic sources, e.g.: apsimokslinimas (: apsimokslinti⁸ ‘to acquire some learning’ LKŽ), apverkavimas, atsigręždinėjimas, blūkčiojimas, gremženimas, įsirasojimas, apmigdymas, etc.⁹ In some neologisms, the lexical meaning essentially coincides with the derivational meaning (the action is simply named substantivally by the derivative), e.g.: having experienced intense […] blūkčiojimo moments SN92; the primary manner of įbangavimo in the poem R203; klegiojimas subsides KPN13; džiaugaus ir įteikaus paradavimo SRIV388; and that other thought […] like a horse’s žvangenimas A132. The neologism apsimokslinimas (used in the meaning ‘acquiring some knowledge’) and its base verb are linked by adjacent sentences; moreover, the addressee’s attention is drawn by repeated attributes (epithets): Obscurantist learning. To learn in an obscurantist manner – that is, to be unable to reach either true knowledge or […] the limits of ignorance K78. Some –imas / –ymas abstracts become concrete (are used in the plural, have modifying words, etc.), e.g.: sensible // ramblings on television MP69; the child’s boredom with brief susirėkavimais KK88 (pakliedėjimai apparently means ‘unwise, foolish talk’, susirėkavimai ‘shouts’). However, it should be noted that neologisms with –imas / –ymas more often are based on potential base words – those not included in dictionaries. D. Murmulaitytė (2021: 35, 36–37) has likewise drawn attention to the fact that the base verbs of most –imas / –ymas derivatives presented in ND are not recorded in the database, although some of them are actually used. Neologisms derived from potential base words are usually second-degree formations, e.g.: apgelžėjimas ⁷ Neologisms with the suffix –imas / –ymas occur in the texts of all authors, and the number of formations also depends on the nature of the work and on functional and individual style. It should be noted that there are incomparably fewer neologisms with –ymas than formations with –imas. ⁸ The base word is indicated for the first neologism, but is generally not repeated for the following ones. The form of the base word on which the formation directly depends is selected; if, for example, the stems of all the principal forms of a verb coincide, the infinitive is written. The source is indicated for word meanings, whereas the meanings of neologisms are explained as understood by the article’s author. An asterisk (*) is placed before the base words of neologisms not recorded in BLKŽ, DLKŽ, LKŽ, or LKŽPK; examples are given in italics, the neologism is boldfaced, and words to which attention is to be drawn are underlined. ⁹ The following also rely on base words given in lexicographic sources: išperšėjimas, įteškėjimas, iškūkavimas, ištikimas, klegiojimas, liutanizavimas, medžiaginimas, niužgėjimas, pakliedėjimas, palinksėjimas, paradavimas, praskylėjimas, sudylavimas, sugarbėjimas, suraugėjimas, susirekavimas, užtamsiojimas, vaizdijimas, žvangenimas. It should be noted that the derivatives įbangavimas and ritmavimas are absent from the reference dictionaries but are recorded in bilingual dictionaries. 182 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII Produktyvieji daiktavardžių ir būdvardžių vedinių naujadarų tipai (: *apgelėžio: geležėti), duonėjimas (: *duonėjo: duona), išbūtinimas (: *išbūtinti: būti), kryžkelėjimas (: *kryžkelėti: kryžkelė), nuliaudėjimas (: *nuliaudėjo: liaudėti), etc.¹⁰. Second-degree formations įveiksminimas (: *įveiksminti: veiksminti) and keiksmažodžiavimas (: *keiksmažodžiavo: keiksmažodis) are based on the verbs įveiksminti (‘to enable to act’) and keiksmažodžiauti (‘to swear; to use swear words’) presented in ND. Some neologisms with –imas / –ymas are third-degree formations, e.g.: įsilaikinimas (: *įsilaikinti: *laikinti(s): laikas), šventžodžiavimas (: *šventžodžiavo: *šventžodis: šventas, žodis)¹¹. Incidentally, both the neologism šventžodžiavimas (the boundary of sluggish šventžodžiavimo MRR39) and its base word šventžodžiauti (Holy and at the same time šventžodžiaujantys žodžiai? K222) occur in the texts of Donaldas Kajokas. The derivational chain of the third-degree neologism šūdmaliavimas can also be reconstructed without difficulty: šūdmaliavimas: *šūdmaliavo: *šūdmala: šūdas, malti (the neologism šūdmala ‘deliberate talking of nonsense’ is already presented in ND). Although the meaning of second- and third-degree neologisms formed from potential base words is more difficult to understand, context and fairly clear derivational chains facilitate this task: Protected from [...] nuliaudėjimo AŽII220; he invented a secret word – pasilabanaktinimas KE200; The sound of language is also įskambėjimas R216 (in the latter example, the repetition of words containing the root skamb- draws the addressee’s attention). Some neologisms based on potential verbs are used in the plural and thus tend to become concrete, e.g. reikšmažodžiavimai may be understood as ‘curses, swear words’, and piktaakiavimai as ‘angry glances’: With his [...] Keiksmažodžiavimais AŽII201; Fewer deceptions, piktaakiavimų AŽII207. The neologism nusikalėjimas is the title of a poem, and its meaning becomes clearer only after reading the entire work in which the potential base verb nusikalėti is used and in which lexical units containing sakal- perform a cohesive function: And taking the falcon in his arms / As if plucking feathers from a hen. // And he himself together with it nusikalėji JSI393. The semantics of neologisms sometimes makes it possible to determine the base word correctly; for example, it is clear that the abstract duonėjimas (: *duonėjo: duona)¹² is based on a potential base word. Yes, it was not the stoning of bread but the breading of stone K288 (attention should be drawn to the repetition of abstracts with –imas and to the unusual word combination akmens duonėjimas – in Lithuanian, it is metaphorically said that bread hardens and turns into stone, but not the reverse, that stone turns into bread). Sometimes ¹⁰ These also include apkarsdinėjimas, apnerdinėjimas, išpalvinimas, išerdvėjimas, sąskambėjimas, svyruoklėjimas, piktaakiavimas. ¹¹ These also include įtekstinimas, nusikalėjimas, pasilabanaktinimas, stribukavimas. ¹² Although LKŽ contains the verb duonėtis (“to become entangled, said of bread”), the context shows that the abstract duonėjimas is based not on it but is formed from duonėti, meaning ‘to become bread’, which in turn is derived from the noun duona. Straipsniai / Articles 183 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ the work of the neologism and its meaning require a larger context; for example, the lexical environment of the neologism stribukavimas (for mano stribukavimą davė man prikurty Č112) makes it possible to understand that being a stribas is meant; thus the following sequence of derivational stages can be reconstructed: stribukavimas: *stribukavo: *stribukas: stribas. Several –imas neologisms are based on verbs with the prefix ne–¹³, e.g. netroškimas, negyvenimas, nesidavimas. Such potential formations may be considered formations with an unsettled sequence of derivational stages¹⁴, i.e. neologisms could form two derivational oppositions each: netroškimas (: netroškti / troškimas), negyvenimas (: negyventi / gyvenimas), nesidavimas (: nesidavė / davimasis): I long for [...] deep netroškimo MRR42; Thus began negyvenimas AŽII185. The verb abstracts presented in ND also most often have the suffix –imas / –ymas – as shown by the research data of Daiva Murmulaitytė (2021: 34–38) and Agnė Aleksaitė (2022)¹⁵. Thus, it may be said that –imas / –ymas is generally the most productive derivational type for noun abstracts. Consequently, studies of neologisms found in various sources confirm Saulius Ambrazas’s (1993: 21) claim that “[d]erivatives with the suffix –imas / –ymas are the most numerous derivational type of action names both in contemporary and in Old Lithuanian”¹⁶. “Both in contemporary Lithuanian [...], and in old writings [...], derivatives with the suffix -(s)tis occupy second place among all suffixal action names according to the number of derivatives” (Ambrazas 1993: 42). That –tis is the second most derivable suffix is shown by the ND study (Aleksaitė 2022: 45, 49) and the analysis of the collected empirical material. The overwhelming majority of neologisms with –tis are based on base words recorded in lexicographic sources; moreover, there is an evident tendency to form –tis derivatives from prefixed verbs¹⁷ – the neologism neigtis (: neigti) is based on an unprefixed base word, whereas the others are formed from prefixed verbs: apgaubtis, apmirtis, atitvertis, atlieptis, atpirtkis, įgaubtis, išgaubtis, išvengtis, pamirštis, sukauptis, sutelktis, sutik­tis. The neologism neatmintis (: neatminti / atmintis) should be considered a formation with an unsettled sequence of derivational stages. LKG (1965: 290–291) states that action ¹³ Verbs with the negation are generally not included in dictionaries as separate headwords, because with the particle-derived prefix ne– a formation can be made from almost every verb. ¹⁴ On these, see Vincas Urbutis (2009: 110–111). ¹⁵ According to A. Aleksaitė (2022: 45), most of the neologisms recorded in ND in 2011–2019 were formed with the suffix –imas, while none with –ymas were recorded. ¹⁶ On –imas / –ymas formations in contemporary Lithuanian, see Murmulaitytė 1997. ¹⁷ This is also evident from the –tis derivatives presented in ND, e.g.: apleistis, aprėptis, atgręžtis, atpažintis, atstumtis, įmestis, išreikštis, ištrintis, išvestis, įtrauktis, etc. 184 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII Produktyvieji daiktavardžių ir būdvardžių vedinių naujadarų tipai action names are generally more concrete than –imas / –ymas abstracts. The semantics of the neologisms partly confirms this claim. –tis neologisms often retain the categorical abstract meaning (they mean the same as –imas abstracts), e.g.: Gamtos apgaubti patyrusiam SS19; pereini visas neišvengiamas stadijas–stacijas: šoką [...], apatiją. Apmirti... DK145; blokada, sukelianti [...] klaikų atitverti nuo visų ir visko K207; keliones, kelio, keleivio atlieptis E138; Membraniškoji atlieptis TK73; skausmas jau būtų atpirties pradžia. O atp irkties čia nėr K155 (attention should be drawn to the repetition of the neologism); laiko įgaubties akimirka K449; jos išvengtis reiškia mirtį E235; kas savyje turi absoliučią neigti E362; atitraukti žmogų nuo maldos ir sukaupties valandėlių K403; Sutikties ametisto karolius Jas136. The usage of some –tis derivatives shows them becoming concrete; e.g., the neologism sutelktis is sometimes a clear abstract (meaning ‘concentration’, e.g., Ir ypatinga sutelktis į lietuviškos pasaulėjautos [...] vietą E73), while at other times it approaches the name of an action result (meaning ‘gathering’, e.g., universitetas yra [...] istorinės–kultūrinės patirties sutelktis R82). The plural and locative indicate more concretely understood neologisms pamirštis and neatmintis: Tenai, neužliūliuojamose / Pamirštyse, krūvom lavonai budi AŽII342; sutirpo / Neatminy AŽII111. The neologism išgaubtis should probably be understood not so much as ‘bulging’ but as ‘water that bulges (undulates)’: pažvelgsime į trapias [...] kriaukles, slapt ingos išgaubties ridenamas vandenyno pakrante K414. 2.1.2. The derivational category of nominal abstracts (or names of properties) has “a relatively non-diverse formation – in the standard language, 15 suffixal derivatives are more common, while another 6 suffixal derivatives are used only in dialects” (Keinys 1999: 45), and the three most frequent suffixes are –umas, –ybė, and –ystė (see LKG 1965: 306; DLKG 2005: 100–102)¹⁸. Analysis of the neologisms revealed that derivatives regarded as nominal abstracts are most often formed with the suffix –umas (56 derivatives), –ybė occupies second place (36 derivatives), while the group of –ystė derivatives is third in size (13 derivatives). Abstracts with the suffix –umas are most often formed from adjectives¹⁹, participles, and (rarely) other parts of speech (see DLKG 2005: 100–101). Analysis of the neologisms essentially confirms this tendency: 49 neologisms are formed from adjectives and 7 from participles. There is a tendency to form neologisms with –umas from adjectives containing the suffix –iškas, –a – such formations account for 73 percent of all formations. In 16 neologisms, the base word is an adjective with the suffix –iškas, –a recorded in the reference lexicographic sources, e.g.: augališkumas (: augališkas), budeliškumas, dabartiškumas, giesmiškumas, gynybiškumas, gulbiškumas, iškrypėliškumas, kalbiškumas, ¹⁸ Old writings contained particularly many –ybė and –ystė derivatives, whereas –umas derivatives began to spread when the productivity of the former decreased (see Ambrazas 2000: 8, 17, 21). ¹⁹ An abstract can be formed with the suffix –umas from all qualitative adjectives. Straipsniai / Articles 185 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ karùiškumas, minkštakūniškumas, sraigiškumas, šarkiškumas, našlaitiškumas, pradminiškumas, sakrališkumas, namiškumas²⁰. Some neologisms are based on base words of a different structure, e.g.: sandermringumas, varganumas, vienetinumas, akinamumas, atskirtumas, įkreiptumas, išblokštumas, nebaigtumas, neišsakomumas, palaužtumas²¹. In principle, the neologism sakumas could form a derivational opposition with the adjective sakus, –i (‘able to follow, discover’, ‘in which it is possible to trace (routes), not misleading’ LKŽ) and with sakyti²²: Sakinį kviečiasi mintis [...]; sakumas mintį ir formuoja, galiausiai virsdamа sakiniu S148. The lexical meaning of all first-stage neologisms is clear: dabartiškumo prestižą lenkų literatūroje R37; ryškus kalbėjimo įkreiptumas PM569; neįdesdamas už tokį minkštakūniškumą SR115; Tas vienetinumas [...] yra svarbiausia [...] sąlyga DK125; Šis vasaros rytas – daugia dienių liūčių išskalbtas, iki akinamumo išbalintas, iki tokio akinamumo išbalintas, kad nė atsimenkti negali VP8; Supoento šarkiškumo pritvinkus šarka beržo viršūnėje UM26 (in the latter examples, the repetition of cognate words and the word combination draws attention). Half of the –umas neologisms are based on potential base words; almost all of them are adjectives in –iškas, –a, e.g.: bekalbiškumas (: *bekalbiškas: bekalbis), dialogiškumas (: *dialogiškas²³: dialogas), rituališkumas (: *rituališkas²⁴: ritualas)²⁵. Only several second-stage neologisms are formed from other potential base adjectives, e.g.: sąskambingumas (: *sąskambingas: sąskambis), stinglumas (: *stinglus²⁶: stingti). The abstract noun tekstualumas is formed from the adjective tekstualus, –i, which is not found in the reference dictionaries but is recorded in a bilingual dictionary and is used by specialists in text linguistics, literary scholars, and others. ²⁰ The adjectives namiškas, sakrališkas are recorded in LKŽPK. ²¹ Derivatives with the suffix –umas are entirely usual; language users form them whenever needed. For this reason, it seems, bilingual dictionaries provide the abstracts atskirtumas, iškrypėliškumas, varganumas, which are not included in DLKŽ, BLKŽ, or LKŽ. ²² In this case, it would belong to the category of verb abstracts (on this unproductive type, see LKG 1965: 300). ²³ The adjective dialogiškas, –a is provided only in bilingual (Lithuanian–English and English–Lithuanian) dictionaries, but is absent from DLKŽ, BLKŽ, LKŽ, and LKŽPK. Perhaps this is an oversight and the adjective could be included in the aforementioned dictionaries (or some of them). DLKT contains 72 examples of the use of dialogiškas, –a; thus, it is known to language users. ²⁴ BLKŽ contains the adverb rituališkai, but not its base word (the adjective rituališkas, –a). ²⁵ The same applies to daugartiškumas, didžiaponiškumas, likimiškumas, paradoksiškumas, poemiškumas, pokalbiškumas, priešybiškumas, raudiškumas, reikmeniškumas, romansiškumas, sąlytiškumas, sonetiškumas, svetimkūniškumas, švytuokliškumas, vieninteliškumas, visavertiškumas. ²⁶ The adjective stinglus, –i is absent from the dictionaries, but LKŽ includes the adverb stinglu. 186 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII Produktyvieji daiktavardžių ir būdvardžių vedinių naujadarų tipai The neologism dviplaniškumas (: *dviplaniškas: *diplanis²⁷: dvi, planas) may be regarded as a third-stage derivative. It should be noted that some –umas neologisms are recorded in bilingual dictionaries (bereikšmiškumas, daugkart iškumas, dvipoliškumas, paradoksiškumas, rituališkumas), while bekiaušiškumas (‘lack of masculinity, combativeness’) is included in ND. The lexical meaning of all –umas abstracts is clear even from minimal context: paniekinamai vadini bekiaušiškumu K337; minties ir bemintiškumo K231; tariamu bereikšmiškumu bylo­jant apie tai, kas visų svarbiausia K60; nevalia kategoriškai neigti ir jų [priešybių] priešybiškumo K300; Mylime jos [meditacijos] vieninteliškumą K133; paslaptis [...] ir paradoksiškumas K299. The repetition of neologisms of the same derivational type, semantically meaningful, draws the addressee’s attention to the content and form of the language: į pirminį rituališkumą, visatos giesmiškumą atsako dvasios ritualais GĮT109; Kalbame atskirais balsais, organiškas kalbiškumas ir pokalbiškumas – vis didesnė retenybė KM19. In Valdas Papievis’s works, both the neologism stinglumas, meaning ‘freezing’, and its base word (also a neologism), stinglus, –i, are used: labai stingliame ore dūmai beveik nesisklaido VP89; Prieš šį dužlų stinglumą VP128. Fewer neologisms belong to the –ybė type. According to DLKG (2005: 101–102), these derivatives, which often name an especially pronounced, strongly manifested quality, are usually based on adjectives; a smaller group consists of derivatives from nouns and passive present-tense participles, while some are formed from other nominal parts of speech. Analysis of the empirical material revealed that similar numbers of neologisms are based on adjectives (1), participles (2), and nouns (3), and only three neologisms are formed from other parts of speech (pronouns and an adverb) (4), e.g.: (1) atmintinybė (: atmintinis ‘said from memory’ DLKŽ²⁸), balsvybė, dažnybė, gelsvybė, nuosaikybė, varganybė, vienkartybė, vidurinybė, žalsvybė; (2) apčiuopiamybė (: apčiuopiamas), kintamybė, negendamybė, nuspejamybė, pasiekiamybė, suprantamybė, nesugrąžinamybė, nekintamybė, apleisty bė; (3) gudragalvybė (: gudragalvis), kurčnebylybė, nebylybė, pranciškonybė, ruden ybė, mėnul ybė, pavasarybė, žvaigždybė; (4) kitapusy bė (: kitapus), manybė (: mano), kitybė (: kitas, –a) (the latter neologism is included in ND). Several neologisms, e.g., moralybė, beviltybė, could form derivational oppositions with two base words—moralė or moralus, –i, a noun or the adjective bevil tis, –ė. In either case, the neologisms belong to the same derivational category and the same derivational type. Meanwhile, the abstracts neamžinybė (: neamžinas / ²⁷ It should be noted that the compound dviplanis, not included in lexicographic sources, is not particularly rare in Lithuanian—DLKT contains 15 examples of its use, and even more were found using the search tool Google. ²⁸ It cannot be ruled out that this abstract is based on the adverb atmintinai. Straipsniai / Articles 187 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ amžinybė), neaiškybė (: neaiškus / aiškybė), negalimybė (: negalimas / galimybė) should be regarded as derivatives with an unsettled sequence of derivational stages. Some neologisms with –ybė retain the categorical meaning of an abstract, while others are understood more concretely; in all cases, however, their lexical meaning is readily understood from the context, e.g.: Sykiu ji [banalybė] nėra savaime suprantamybė DRT151; sunkiai virškinamą // suvulgarintą kitapusybę MP124. Neologisms are often used alongside actual derivatives belonging to the same derivational type, e.g., jūra [...] įkūnijo ir amžinybę, ir kintamybę SRIV252; Nakties gūd ybėje, / Apjaukusioje pusnakčio kurčnebylybėje AŽII300; maloni išimtis nuobodybės ir nuosaikybės jūroje DD87; reikia, kad šį kūnas apsivilktų negendam ybe, šis marus kūnas apsivilktų nemarybe SR171 (the neologism negandamybė may be understood not only as ‘non-perishability’ but also as ‘that which does not perish’). The neologism dažnybė likewise has the meaning ‘that which is frequent, a frequent thing’ (Malonė bus ne išimtis – dažnybė AŽII344), while mėnulybė probably means ‘moonlight’: stangrioj mėnulio / mėnulybėje AŽII112 (in the latter example, mėnulybė forms part of a repetition figure; cf. the analogous word combination žvaigždžių žvaigždybės AŽII283). Sometimes the same derivational affix is repeated; for example, the neologisms karštatikybė (: *karštatikis: karštai, tikėti), sunkiatikybė (: *sunkiatikis, –ė: sunkiai, tikėti), based on potential base words, are used alongside actual –ybė derivatives: Sunkiatikybės antpuolius, karštatikybės priepuolius, / Taurybės ir tautybės nuosmukius AŽII124. A much smaller group of neologisms consists of –ystė-type derivatives. “The suffix –ystė, the third most productive one, is the characteristic formative of noun abstracts” (DLKG 2005: 102), while there are few –ybė derivatives made from adjectives that are close to –umas and –ybė abstracts. The analysis of the neologisms partly confirms this grammatical statement29: 8 –ystė neologisms are based on nouns (1), 3 are formed from adjectives (2), while the abstracts keliakalbystė and vienkalbystė could be based on either an adjective or a noun30. (1) mecenatystė (: mecenatas), padlaižystė, pamaivystė, subinlaižystė, vedlystė, vienmylystė; (2) išdidystė (: išdidus), luošystė, vienišystė. Two –ystė derivatives are based on potential base nouns: citatmeldystė (: *citatmeldys: citata, meldėsi), geradirbystė (: *geradirbis / –ys: geras / gerai, dirbti). The lexical meanings of the neologisms essentially coincide with their derivational meanings and are readily understood from the context, e.g., Citata kaip vedlys, kaip nuodėmklausys, kaip tėvas. Citatmeldystė K162; Nuolankiai priimu luošystę, išdidžiai K392; Vienam tai verslo rūšis, kitam – vienišystė KF161; ypatinga vienmylystės atmaina KE121; 29 But this may also be determined by the small number of neologisms with –ystė. 30 For example, BLKŽ lists dvikalbis, –ė, daugiakalbis, –ė as both adjectives and nouns. 188 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII Produktyvieji daiktavardžių ir būdvardžių vedinių naujadarų tipai nežiūrint jos uolios subinlaižystės PI/I188–89; grabdirbystė kletės ŠAMS104. In some examples, neologisms of analogous formation are used; thus, the addressee’s attention is drawn both by the use of a neologism and by the repetition of a derivational affix, e.g.: noromis nenoromis kamuoj u savo [...] protą tėvų vienkalbystės ir „mišrių“ vaikų keliak al bystės problema LS45; karališkai dvasios išda ystei ir neišvengiamai vienišystei PM534. It should be noted that the neologisms mecenatystė, vedlystė, vienišystė ir citatmeldystė are included in ND, while the variant vienakalbystė of the neologism vienkalbystė is recorded in a bilingual dictionary. 2.2. Neologisms of the Productive Adjective-Formation Type As with nouns, adjectives exhibit all word-formation methods: derivatives with suffixes, endings, and prefixes are distinguished, as are compounds; there are also adjectives formed by mixed derivation (Keinys 1999: 75–83; LKE 97–9; Ružė 2008: 88–94; on the development of adjective formation, see Ambrazas 2011). Adjectives are formed with approximately 130 suffixes, but many of them have low productivity. Particularly productive suffixes include –inis, –ė; –ingas, –a; –iškas, –a; –uotas, –a; –otas, –a; –okas, –a, etc. (Keinys 1999: 75, 78). Analysis of the empirical material showed that the largest group of adjective neologisms (180 neologisms) consists of derivatives with the suffix –iškas, –a31. The characteristic derivational meaning of denominal adjectives in –iškas, –a is “similar to the thing denoted by the base word,” but they often also have a figurative meaning, i.e. they denote not “like what,” but “like whose, of what” (see DLKG 2005: 207). Productive derivatives with the suffix –iškas, –a form the core of the adjectives of similar and characteristic qualities. They “name a quality primarily according to its similarity to the thing denoted by the base noun” (Keinys 1999: 76)32. Although grammars state that derivatives with this suffix are formed from “underived nouns, less often from derivatives and compounds” (DLKG 2005: 207), the number of –iškas, –a adjectives formed from base words (derivatives) of varied structure is increasing. Analysis of neologisms with –iškas, –a showed that they very often have a figurative meaning and are formed from nouns denoting living beings: a large group consists of adjectives formed from nouns denoting persons (1), while fewer adjectives are formed from other kinds of 31 It should be noted that far fewer derivatives with other suffixes (including productive ones, e.g., –inis, –ė) were found in the texts studied (i.e. derivatives with other suffixes did not form large groups). This may, of course, also be determined by the style of the texts from which the neologisms were collected. 32 It should be noted that in the oldest writings (sixteenth–seventeenth centuries), the suffix –iškas, –a denoted not similarity but belonging (for more details, see Ambrazas 2011: 82–86). Straipsniai / Articles 189 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ living or mythological beings (2); there are also many adjectives formed from nouns denoting various inanimate things (3): (1) These –iškas, –a adjectives have the meanings “characteristic of the person denoted by the base word,” “such as the person denoted by the base word.” Some neologisms formed from personal names are understandable to most readers even without context (or from minimal context)33, e.g.: baltrušaitiškas34 ‘characteristic of Baltrušaitis, like Baltrušaitis’ (: Baltrušaitis), binkiškas, bodleriškas, brazauskiškas, bradūniškas, cvetajeviškas, cvirkiškas, čechoviškas, donelaitiškas, faustiškas, kafkiškas, huserliškas, janoniškas, karamazoviškas, kudirkiškas, kajokiškas, keruakiškas, mažvydiškas, paskališkas, radauskiškas, rafaeliškas, šveždiškas, stalkeriškas, šelingiškas, šekspyriškas, tarkovskiškas, vaižgantiškas, vangogiškas, and so on. Some neologisms require broader context to understand because they are formed from personal names not known to everyone, e.g., almodovariškas (: Almodovaras)35, or are formed from a personal name used in a particular work—the name of a character, e.g.: aleksiškas (: Aleksas), panceriškas (: Panceris), tarvy diškas (: Tarvydas), and so on. Adjectives in –iškas formed from common nouns denoting persons have the same meanings, e.g.: arhatiškas ‘characteristic of an arhat, like an arhat36, emigrantiškas, judėjiškas, samurajiškas, saugumietiškas, papūkel iškas, pranciškon iškas, dendiškas, didžiaponiškas, generoliškas, maneken iškas, šventak ūpriškas, and so on. (2) Adjectives in –iškas, –a formed from nouns denoting living beings other than persons have analogous meanings, e.g.: drugeliškas ‘characteristic of butterflies, like butterflies’, eržiliškas, musiškas, panteriškas, šešiškas, vikšriškas, and so on. (3) The –iškas, –a adjectives in this group are based on nouns of various semantics and most often have a derivational meaning close to the figurative meaning of similarity: “characteristic of, usual for, attributable to the thing denoted by the base word, associated with that thing” (on such adjectives, see DLKG 2005: 207). The base nouns of the neologisms are usually names of specific things, e.g.: ažūriškas, archyviškas, dienoraštiškas, gyvsidabriškas, kupoliškas, laiškiškas, labirintiškas, operiškas, pieštukiškas, proteziškas, smilgiškas, and so on. Adjectives in –iškas, –a formed from nouns denoting more abstract things denote “essential properties of a thing, i.e. show that the thing expressed by the base word constitutes the essence, foundation of the thing expressed by the modified word” 33 Of course, this also depends on the addressee’s background knowledge—persons known to Lithuanians (and derivatives formed from them) may not be readily understood by readers who are not interested in Lithuanian history and realities. 34 Only one form of the neologism is given—the masculine form—but in texts adjectives occur in forms of both genders or in an invariable form. 35 Spanish film director (see VLE 2001: 376). 36 Arhatas ‘a Buddhist saint [...]’ (VLE 2001: 763). 190 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII Produktyvieji daiktavardžių ir būdvardžių vedinių naujadarų tipai (DLKG 2005: 207). Such are, for example: būsen iškas, fenomenologiškas, gelmeniškas, gelmiškas37, sueitiškas, tuštybiškas, and so on. Several neologisms are formed from place names: brabantiškas (: Brabantas), babiloniškas (: Babilonas), senegališkas (: Senegalas); the adjective radisonSASiškas38 is considered a derivative of atypical formation—it is formed from the name of a hotel and means ‘a high (like at the Radisson SAS hotel) price’: suteikti man kuo daugiau malonumų už prieinamą RadisonSASišką „Astorijos“ kainą ST17. The –iškas derivatives maskveniškas, vištaprotiškas40 are based on potential base words39. Only two adjectives are not based on nouns—the derivative keliaprasmiškas (: keliaprasmis, –ė) and tuolaikiškas (: tuolaik41). The meaning of most –iškas, –a neologisms does not require context; sometimes neologisms have a more specific meaning that requires minimal context to understand, e.g., šagališkas is used in the meaning ‘characteristic of Chagall’s works, reminiscent of Chagall’s works’ (Kaunas tikrai atrodo šiek tiek šagališkas DRT170), rachitiškas should be understood as ‘characteristic of someone suffering from rickets, affected by rickets’ (rachitiškų kojų šunelis KE190), while kamaniškas means ‘resembling bumblebees’ (from kamaniškų musių MP83). There is a pronounced tendency to characterize a thing denoted by a noun with adjectives in –iškas, –a (the absolute majority of neologisms function as attributes); this expresses the meaning clearly and concisely, since the derivative is much shorter than a word combination expressing approximately the same meaning, e.g., in addition to those mentioned: kvepia čechoviškom ūkanom Vaič39; granauskiškas siekinys lyg ir paprastose situacijose išvelgti kažką žmogui neišvengiamo, lemtingo GĮT101; pristabdo griovejišką žodžių laviną LS177; keruakiškas svajones DRT93; sizifišką būties paradoksalumo neįveikiamumą PM790; graudut graudutė laitis kochana ušiškas trenas42 SRIV27; 37 The adjectives gelmiškas and gelmeniškas essentially mean the same thing; the neologism gelmiškas could be formed from either gelmė or gelmuo, whereas gelmeniškas is formed from gelmuo, but relies on the longer stem of the base word, gelmen-. 38 Attention should be drawn to the stylistically (incorrectly) spelled form of the neologism. 39 Proper words serving as derivational bases (personal names and place names) are not considered potential—although they are absent from the reference lexicographic sources, they are known (provided in dictionaries of given names and surnames, on the Pasaulio vietovardžių website, in encyclopedias, etc.). 40 DLKT contains no examples of the neologism vištaprotiškas, –a, but contains 8 examples of the neologism maskveniškas, –a and 197 examples of the use of its base word maskvenas. 41 In principle, the derivative tuolaikiškas could also be based on the phrase tuo laiku with the suffix –iškas, –a added. 42 This is most likely an editing error, and what is intended is trenas (‘a poem, song, or short instrumental composition of serious, mournful content, intended to lament the dead’ TŽŽ 755). Straipsniai / Articles 191 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ Didelis vakaras – ir paskenduoliškos mintys MS439; Tokios jų vienkieniškos godos GĮT131, and so on.⁴³. In some texts, words sharing a root or derivatives containing the same derivational affix are repeated, e.g.: That is indeed so almodovariška. Airinė likes Almodóvar. Marijus—not KK35; and “The Appearance of the Grasshopper,” in whose title something everyday, natural, vabališka is joined with that which belongs to a miracle GĮT140. It should be noted that some –iškas, –a adjectives not recorded in BLKŽ, DLKŽ, LKŽ, or LKŽPK are used quite widely in contemporary Lithuanian, e.g., the adjective čiurlioniškas, –a⁴⁴. The bilingual dictionaries record himniškas, kupoliškas, pranciškoniškas, saviveikliškas, and also paraidiškumas and žanriškumas, but not the –iškas, –a adjectives that serve as their base words, paraidiškas, žanriškas, while LKŽ contains the adverb šešiškai and the noun visatiškumas, but not their base words, šešiškas, visatiškas. Lexicographers should take note of this—failure to include some words in lexicographic works may also be an oversight. The adjective šekspyriškas, –a is included in ND (there are no examples of the other neologisms in the corpus). CONCLUSIONS 1. The formation of neologisms found in texts by Lithuanian authors shows that the same suffixal word-formation types of nouns and adjectives remain the most productive, while the main features of neologism formation also remain unchanged. 2. Neologisms of all derivational types are usually based on base words provided in lexicographic sources, and are therefore first-stage derivatives—they constitute 77 percent of all neologisms. Twenty-three percent of the neologisms are based on potential base words and are usually second-stage derivatives. 3.1. Study of various neologisms—both those included in ND and those collected from texts by Lithuanian authors—reveals a general tendency that users of the Lithuanian language, ⁴³ More combinations with –iškas, –a derivatives: binbiška reaction, bitliška šv el iūra, bradūniška phrase, cvetajeviška prigimtis, cvirkiška pašmaikštavimas, čiurlioniškas pavasaris, čiurlioniška puokštė, čiurlioniškos spalvos, chaldėjiškos giesmės, dekartiškos formos, emigrantiškas sklialinas, kavoliška nuostata, mačerniškieji siužetai, maironiškas klausimas, medėjiškos aistros, rembrantiški atspalviai, saugumietiški labirintai, sokratiškas sąmoningumas, vydūniškoji programa, papai keliškas žygis, sapališki sapnynai, babiloniškas užkalbėjimas, geliškas aromatas, dienoraštiški eilėraščiai, gyvusidabriška prigimtis, lėliškas veidas, panteriškas kūnas, slibiniška gerklė, subiniškas veidas, šeškiški smirdalai, and so on. ⁴⁴ DLKT contains 67 examples of the use of the adjective čiurlioniškas, –a. 192 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII Produktyvieji daiktavardžių ir būdvardžių vedinių naujadarų tipai when wishing to name an action as a thing, generally create lexical units according to existing, usual derivational models, and that the sequence of verb-abstract derivational types given in grammars (–irmas / –yrmas, –tis) remains the same. 3.2. Nominal neologism types are likewise ordered by productivity as indicated in grammars: –umas, –ybė, –ystė. Although research on neologisms recorded in ND has revealed a somewhat different sequence of derivative affixes (–ystė, –umas, –ybė; see Aleksaitė 2022: 49–56), the three most frequent types of nominal abstract formation remain unchanged. 3.3. Although neologisms of verb and nominal abstracts are essentially no different from actual derivatives, a considerable proportion are formed from potential base words (not included in dictionaries): such are 63 percent of –imas / –ymas derivatives and 52 percent of –umas derivatives. 4.1. The most productive type of adjective neologism is the suffix –iškas, –a. Neologisms of this type are more often formed from nouns denoting living beings (personal names, common nouns denoting persons, or names of other living creatures); they constitute 60 percent of all –iškas, –a neologisms. A tendency is emerging to use as bases not words with a relatively simple structure (as indicated in works on word formation and grammars), but base words with a fairly complex morphemic structure. 4.2. The productivity of the type with the suffix –iškas, –a is demonstrated not only by the abundant use in texts of adjective neologisms with –iškas, –a, but also by the abundance of –umas abstracts formed from potential –iškas, –a adjectives: 45 percent of –umas neologisms are based on –iškas, –a neologisms. 5. The meanings of neologisms of all derivational types become clear from minimal or broader context. Understanding the meaning is also aided by the productivity of the type and knowledge of analogous actual derivatives (recorded in dictionaries). Thus, when necessary, a neologism is created according to typical models, and the author of the text in which the neologism is found probably does not even suspect that they are using a derivative not included in lexicographic sources. 6. Although a large proportion of neologisms can be considered potential derivatives, some of them nevertheless attract the addressee’s attention; they are atypical either because of the potential base word or because of their atypical usage. Sometimes neologisms perform a text-linking function, and they are quite often used for various kinds of repetition: neologisms are used alongside established derivatives because of derivational similarity (the same derivational affix is repeated), several cognate derivatives are used (the root is repeated), analogous word combinations are used (the combination model is repeated), and so on. 7. There is a particularly pronounced tendency to use adjectives with –iškas, –a to describe the thing denoted by a noun—the overwhelming majority of neologisms function as epithets with a direct or figurative meaning. Some adjectives with –iškas, –a are used as implicit comparisons (laišiškas—as a letter, pieštukiškas—as a pencil). In addition, neologisms with –iškas, –a make the text more concise—by using an adjective rather than an approximately Straipsniai / Articles 193 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ equivalent word combination, the same meaning is conveyed more briefly and expressively; thus, the principle of economy is at work. 8.1. Twenty-one neologisms are not found in BLKŽ, DLKŽ, LKŽ, but they are recorded in bilingual dictionaries—lexicographers should take note of this, and some neologisms of typical formation recorded in bilingual dictionaries and used in the contemporary language could be included in DLKŽ or BLKŽ. Ten neologisms have already been included in ND (which means that they are used by other authors as well). 8.2. Lexicographers’ attention should also be drawn to cases in which BLKŽ, DLKŽ, LKŽ, LKŽPK, or bilingual dictionaries provide derivatives but not their base words (the dictionaries contain visatiškumas, paraidiškumas, žanriškumas, šešiškai, rituališkai, but not visatiškas, –a, paraidiškas, –a, žanriškas, –a, šešiškas, –a, rituališkas, –a). LEXICOGRAPHICAL AND OTHER SOURCES BLKŽ – Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, editorial board D. Liutkevičienė (editor-in-chief), D. Murmulaitytė, V. Sakalauskienė, A. Gritėnienė, A. Gaidienė, D. Daugirdienė, L. Jonušys. Available online: https://ekalba.lt/bendrinės-lietuvių-kalbos-žodynas/ [accessed 2022–06–09]. DLKT – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos tekstynas. Available online: http://tekstynas.vdu.lt/tekstynas/ [accessed 2022–06–09]. DLKŽ – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, editor-in-chief St. Keinys, 8th revised and supplemented edition, electronic version, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2021. Available online: https://ekalba.lt. G – Search tool Google. LKŽ – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas 1–20 (1941–2002), editorial board G. Naktinienė, J. Paulauskas, R. Petrokienė, V. Vitkauskas, J. Zabarskaitė, editor-in-chief G. Naktinienė, electronic version, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2005 (updated version, 2018). Available online: www.lkz.lt; https://ekalba.lt. LKŽPK – Lietuvių kalbos žodyno Papildymų kartoteka, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2015. Available online: https://ekalba.lt. ND – Miliūnaitė Rita, Aleksaitė Agnė. Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas [Continuing online reference work since 2011], comp. R. Miliūnaitė, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Available online: https://ekalba.lt/naujazodziai/naujienos [accessed 2022–06–09]. TŽŽ – Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas, Vilnius: Alma littera, 2003. VLE – Universal Lithuanian Encyclopedia 1, Vilnius: Institute of Science and Encyclopedia Publishing, 2001. 194 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII Produktyvieji daiktavardžių ir būdvardžių vedinių naujadarų tipai ŠALTINIAI A – Aputis Juozas 1986: Gegužė ant nulūžusio beržo, Vilnius: Vaga. AŽ – Žukauskas Albinas 1986: Rinktiniai raštai 1–2, Vilnius: Vaga. Č – Čigriejus Henrikas Algis 2011: Ir parnešė apynio kvapą, Vilnius: Lietuvos rašytojų sąjungos leidykla. DD – Sabaliauskaitė Kristina 2012: Danielius Dalba & kitos istorijos, Vilnius: Baltos lankos. DK – Kalinauskaitė Danutė 2015: Skersvėjų namai, Vilnius: Tyto alba. DRT – Staponkutė Dalia 2014: Iš dviejų renkuosi trečią, Vilnius: Apostrofa. E – Daujotytė Viktorija 2001: Esė apie poeziją ir esimą, Vilnius: Lietuvos rašytojų sąjungos leidykla. GĮT – Daujotytė Viktorija 2017: Granas: įtrūkstantį tikrovę, Vilnius: Odilė. Jas – Jasukait y tė Vidmantė 2002: Tikrasis nebūties veidas, Vilnius: Eitkoma. JS – Strielkūnas Jonas 2009: Lyrika. Rinktinė 1–2, Vilnius: Lietuvos rašytojų sąjungos leidykla. K – Kajokas Donaldas 2002: Lietaus migla Lu kalne, Vilnius: Lietuvos rašytojų sąjungos leidykla. KE – Kajokas Donaldas 2012: Ežeras ir kiti jį lydintys asmenys, Vilnius: Tyto alba. KK – Kavaliauskaitė Akvilė 2020: Kūnai, Vilnius: BALTO leidybos namai. KM – Daujotytė Viktorija 2009: Kalba ir jos menas, Vilnius: Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos institutas. KPN – Karčiauskas Mykolas 2007: Kada persiklausim namo, Vilnius: Kronta. LS – Staponkutė Dalia 2007: Lietumi prieš saulę, Vilnius: Apostrofa. MP – Marčėnas Aidas 2005: Pasauliai, Vilnius: Lietuvos rašytojų sąjungos leidykla. MRR – Kajokas Donaldas 2000: Mirti reikia rudenį, Vilnius: Lietuvos rašytojų sąjungos leidykla. MS – Martinaitis Marcelijus 1998: Sugrįžimai, Vilnius: Tyto alba. PI/II – Sabaliauskaitė Kristina 2021: Petro imperatorė II, Vilnius: Baltos lankos. PM – Daujotytė Viktorija 2001: Parašyta moterų, Vilnius: Alma littera. R – Daujotytė Viktorija 2003: Raštai ir paraštės apie Justino Marcinkevičiaus kūrybą, Vilnius: Lietuvos rašytojų sąjungos leidykla. Straipsniai / Articles 195 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ S – Daujotytė Viktorija 2002: Sakiniai, Vilnius: Tyto alba. SN – Daujotytė Viktorija 2004: Salomėja Nėris. Fragmento poetika, Vilnius: Lietuvos rašytojų sąjungos leidykla. SR – Sabaliauskaitė Kristina 2008: Silva Rerum, Vilnius: Baltos lankos. SRIV – Sabaliauskaitė Kristina 2016: Silva Rerum IV, Vilnius: Baltos lankos. SS – Daujotytė Viktorija 2007: Sauganti sąmonę, Vilnius: Dailės akademijos leidykla. ST – Gavelis Ričardas 2002: Sun-tzu Vilniaus mieste, Vilnius: Tyto alba. ŠAMS – Radvilavičiūtė Giedra 2010: Šiąnakt aš miegosiu prie sienos, Vilnius: Baltos lankos. TK – Daujotytė Viktorija 1998: Tekstas ir kūrinys, Vilnius: Kultūra. UM – Jonuškaitė Birutė 2011: Užsagstyk mane, Vilnius: Lietuvos rašytojų sąjungos leidykla. Vaič – Vaičiūnaitė Judita 2000: Skersgatvių šešėliais aš ateisiu, Vilnius: Žuvėdra. VP – Papievis Valdas 2010: Eiti, Vilnius: Lietuvos rašytojų sąjungos leidykla. LITERATŪRA Aleksaitė Agnė 2022: Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių daryba (2011–2019 m. Naujažodžių duomenyno pagrindu): daktaro disertacija, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Ambrazas Saulius 1993: Daiktavardžių darybos raida, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Ambrazas Saulius 2000: Daiktavardžių darybos raida 2, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. Ambrazas Saulius 2011: Būdvardžių darybos raida, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. Baayen Harald 1991: Quantitative aspects of morphological productivity. – Yearbook of Morphology 1991, eds. G. Booij, J. van Marie, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 109–149. Bauer Laurie 2001: Morphological Productivity, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Booij Geert 2005: The Grammar of Words. An Introduction to Linguistic Morphology, Oxford: Oxford University Press. 196 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII Produktyvieji daiktavardžių ir būdvardžių vedinių naujadarų tipai Brown Keith 2005: Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, 2nd edition, ed. in chief K. Brown, eBook, San Diego: Elsevier Science Imprint; Elsevier Science & Technology Books. DLKG 2005: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika, 4-oji pataisyta laida, red. V. Ambrazas, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. Greenbaum Sidney 1996: The Oxford English Grammar, Oxford: Oxford University press. Jakaitienė Evalda, Laigonaïtė Adelė, Paulauskienė Aldona 1976: Lietuvių kalbos morfologija, Vilnius: Mokslas. Keinys Stasys 1999: Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodžių daryba, Šiauliai: Šiaulių universiteto leidykla. Lieber Rochelle, Štekauer Pavol 2014: The Oxford Handbook of Derivational Morphology, Oxford: Oxford University Press. LKE – Lietuvių kalbos enciklopedija, sud. K. Morkūnas, red. V. Ambrazas, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2008. LKG 1965: Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 1, vyr. red. K. Ulvydas, Vilnius: Mintis. Miliūnaitė Rita 2015: Naujažodžių atranka ir pateikimas Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne. – Leksikografija ir leksikologija 5, 161–184. Miliūnaitė Rita 2018: Naujažodžių pateikimas ir paieškos galimybės Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne. – Bendrinė kalba 91, 1–21. Murmulaitytė Daiva 1997: „Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodyno“ veiksmažodinių daiktavardžių semantinė ir statistinė analizė (priesagos –imas / –ymas ir galūnės -a vediniai): daktaro disertacijos santrauka, Vilnius. Murmulaitytė Daiva 2016: Naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos. – Bendrinė kalba 89, 1–27. Murmulaitytė Daiva 2021: Daiktavardžių darybos ir morfemikos tyrimo perspektyvos (Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyno atvejis), Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Pervuxina Irina I. 2007: Первухина, Ирина Ю. Продуктивные типы и модели современного словообразования (на материале Нижегородской прессы конца XX – начала XXI века) [Produktyvieji tipai ir modeliai sovremennoго slovoobrazovanija (na materiale Nižnegorodskoj pressy konca XX – načala XXI veka]: диссертация кандидата филологических наук [dissertacija kandidato filologičiесkix nauk], Нижний Новгород: Нижегородский государственный университет им. Н. И. Лобачевского [Nižnij Novgorod: Nižegorodskij gosudarstvennyj universitet im. N. I. Lobačevskogo]. Straipsniai / Articles 197 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ Plag Ingo 2003: Word-Formation in English, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Plag Ingo 2006: Productivity. – The Handbook of English Linguistics, eds. B. Aarts, A. McMahon, Oxford: Blackwell, 537–556. Rūže Albertas 2008: Lietuvių kalbos morfologija 1, Vilnius: Vilniaus universitetas. Soida Emīlija 2009: Vārd darināšana, Rīga: LU Akadēmiskais apgāds. Urbutis Vincas 2009: Žodžių darybos teorija, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. Productive Types of Noun and Adjective Neologisms SUMMARY Neologisms found in the texts of Lithuanian authors were selected as the object of this study. The article analyses suffixed nouns and adjectives belonging to the productive types of word formation. The research is based on the data from the study of the formation, semantics and use of 374 neologisms (194 nouns and 180 adjectives) belonging to six types of formation. In summary it can be said that the formation of neologisms still shows the same productive types of the formation of suffixed nouns and adjectives, the main features of the formation of neologisms also remain unchanged. Neologisms of all types of formation are usually based on the base words provided in the sources of lexicography, thus, they are first-level derivatives (they make up 77 percent of all neologisms). Twenty-three percent of neologisms are based on potential base words and are mostly second-level derivatives. The study of various neologisms – both presented in the Database of Neologisms of the Lithuanian language and collected from texts by Lithuanian authors – reveals a general tendency that in order to nominally name an action, the users of the Lithuanian language most often create lexical units according to the usual patterns of word formation and that the sequence of the most derivable types of verb abstracts presented in grammars (–imas/–ymas, –tis) remains the same. The nominal types of neologisms are arranged according to productivity in the same way as indicated in the grammars: –umas, –ybė, –ystė. Although the study of the neologisms recorded in the Database of Neologisms of the Lithuanian language has revealed a slightly different sequence of derivable affixes, the three most derivable types remain unchanged. Although the neologisms of the abstracts of verbs and nominals do not in principle differ from real derivatives, a considerable part 198 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII Produktyvieji daiktavardžių ir būdvardžių vedinių naujadarų tipai of them are formed from potential base words; such are 63 percent of the -imas/-ymas derivatives and 52 percent of the -umas derivatives. The most derivable type of adjective neologisms is the suffix -iškas, -a. Neologisms of this type are more often formed from nouns denoting living things (they make up 60 percent of all the adjectives). A tendency to be based on words with a rather complex morphemic structure is becoming pronounced. The productivity of the type of the suffix -iškas, -a is also evidenced by the abundance of abstracts with -umas made from the potential -iškas, -a adjectives: 45 percent of neologisms with -umas are made from the neologisms with the suffix -iškas, -a. The absolute majority of adjectives with -iškas are epithets with a literal or figurative meaning. Some adjectives with -iškas are used as hidden comparisons. In addition, neologisms with -iškas compress the text. The meanings of the neologisms become clear from a minimal or wider context. Productivity of the type and knowledge of analogous real derivatives also helps us to understand the meaning. Although a large part of neologisms can be considered potential derivatives, nevertheless, some of them catch the eye of the addressee, they are not typical because of a potential base word or because of atypical usage. Sometimes neologisms also have the function of linking the text and are often used for various repetitions. A total of 21 neologisms are not listed in the supporting dictionaries, however, they are recorded in bilingual dictionaries – it would be worthwhile for lexicographers to pay attention to this. Ten neologisms are already presented in the Database of Neologisms of the Lithuanian language, which means that they are also used by other authors. The attention of lexicographers should also be drawn to those cases where the dictionaries contain derivatives, but they do not contain their base words. Įteikta 2022 m. rugsėjo 12 d. JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ Vilniaus universiteto Šiaulių akademija Vytauto g. 84, LT-76352 Šiauliai, Lietuva [email protected] Straipsniai / Articles 199