Recei ed: 1 Decembe 2023 Re ised: 15 Feb ua y 2024 Accep ed: 21 Feb ua y 2024
DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.17022
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Heal h, Nu i ion, and Food
A ailabili y and p ope ies o comme cially p oduced ood
p oduc s o e ed in Eu opean public uni e si ies: A
No h–Sou h compa ison
Naia a Ma inez-Pe ez1,2Li ElinTo heim
3Ma a A oyo-Izaga2,4,5
1Depa men o Nu sing I, Facul y o
Medicine and Nu sing, Uni e si y o he
Basque Coun y UPV/EHU, Leioa, Spain
2BIOMICs Resea ch G oup, Mic o luidics
& BIOMICs Clus e , Lasca ay Resea ch
Cen e , Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y
UPV/EHU, Vi o ia-Gas eiz, Spain
3Depa men o Nu sing and Heal h
P omo ion, Facul y o Heal h Sciences,
OsloMe —Oslo Me opoli an Uni e si y,
Oslo, No way
4Depa men o Pha macy and Food
Sciences, Facul y o Pha macy, Uni e si y
o he Basque Coun y UPV/EHU,
Vi o ia-Gas eiz, Spain
5Bioa aba, BA04.03, Vi o ia-Gas eiz,
Spain
Co espondence
Ma a A oyo-Izaga, Depa men o
Pha macy and Food Sciences, Facul y o
Pha macy, Uni e si y o he Basque
Coun y UPV/EHU, Paseo de la
Uni e sidad 7, 01006 Vi o ia-Gas eiz,
Spain. Email: [email p o ec ed]
Funding in o ma ion
E asmus+; S o byuni e si e e ; Euskal
He iko Unibe si a ea; Eusko Jau la i za
Abs ac : To da e, he e a e no s udies ha ha e compa ed uni e si y ood en i-
onmen s (FEs) wi h di e en sociocul u al con ex s. The e o e, we analyzed
di e ences in he a ailabili y and p ope ies o comme cially p oduced oods,
in a no he n and a sou he n Eu opean uni e si y (loca ed in No way and Spain,
espec i ely). A c oss-sec ional obse a ional s udy was conduc ed a OsloMe —
Oslo Me opoli an Uni e si y and a he Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y
UPV/EHU. The nu i ional quali y o ood p oduc s was es ima ed h ough he
ollowing nu ien p o iling models (NPMs): hose p oposed by he Spanish
Agency o Consume A ai s, Food Sa e y and Nu i ion (AECOSAN), he UK
nu ien p o iling model (UK NPM), he No wegian Food and D ink Indus y
P o essional P ac ices Commi ee (Ma b ansjens Fagligle U alg [MFU]), and a
combina ion o hem. In addi ion, ood i ems we e classi ied using he NOVA
sys em. A o al o 251 and 1051 p oduc s we e iden i ied a OsloMe and he
UPV/EHU, espec i ely. The pe cen age ca ego ized as low nu i ional qual-
i y (LNQ) was highe a he UPV/EHU (almos 54.5% o he o al p oduc s)
compa ed wi h a OsloMe (almos 40%) (p<0.001). Mos o he p oduc s
we e ca ego ized as ul a-p ocessed, and he e we e no di e ences in he pe -
cen age o ul a-p ocessed oods be ween he wo uni e si ies (OsloMe 86.1%,
UPV/EHU 83.3%, p>0.05). A highe p opo ion o LNQ p oduc s was ound
a he UPV/EHU han a OsloMe , p obably due o he go e nmen policies
and ac ions o c ea ing heal hy FEs. Consequen ly, he e is a need o de elop
in e en ions o imp o e he FE a he UPV/EHU, adap ed o i s sociocul u al
con ex .
KEYWORDS
ood en i onmen , ood p ocessing le el, nu ien p o iling model, public heal h, uni e si y
ood
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License, which pe mi s use, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he
o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
© 2024 The Au ho s. Jou nal o Food Science published by Wiley Pe iodicals LLC on behal o Ins i u e o Food Technologis s.
2494 wileyonlinelib a y.com/jou nal/j ds J. Food Sci. 2024;89:2494–2511.
CAMPUS FOOD ENVIRONMENTS IN EUROPE 2495
P ac ical Applica ion: This s udy e eals no h–sou h di e ences in e ms
o he a ailabili y o low nu i ional quali y ood p oduc s. In pa icula , a
highe p opo ion o his ype o p oduc was ound a he Uni e si y o he
BasqueCoun yUPV/EHU hana OsloMe —OsloMe opoli anUni e si y.Ou
explo a o y hypo hesis is ha his phenomenon is a consequence o he No dic
go e nmen policies ha ha e g ea po en ial o c ea e heal hy FEs.
1 INTRODUCTION
The ood en i onmen (FE) has been de ined as “ he
oods a ailable o people in hei su oundings as hey
go abou hei e e yday li es and he nu i ional quali y,
sa e y, p ice, con enience, labeling and p omo ion o hese
oods” (Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion o he Uni ed
Na ions—FAO, 2016). F om a socio-ecological pe spec-
i e, wo key domains wi hin he wide FE cons uc ha e
been iden i ied: he “ex e nal domain” and he “pe sonal
domain.”
The ex e nal domain includes ood a ailabili y, p ices,
endo and p oduc p ope ies, and ma ke ing and eg-
ula ion. The pe sonal domain includes ood accessibili y,
a o dabili y, con enience, and desi abili y. In e ac ions
be ween hese domains and dimensions de e mine peo-
ple´s ood acquisi ion and consump ion (Caspi e al.,
2012;Tu ne e al.,2018). Thus, he FE can a ec peo-
ple’s ood pu chasing and ea ing choices, as well as he
quali y o hei die s and, in u n, die - ela ed heal h
ou comes.
O e he pas decades, ene gy-dense and nu ien -poo
ood p oduc s and ul a-p ocessed ha e become mo e
a ailable compa ed o esh, minimally p ocessed, o
unp ocessed oods, os e ing obesogenic FEs in Eu ope
and globally (Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion o he
Uni ed Na ions—FAO, 2016). Con e sely, making he en i-
onmen mo e conduci e o heal hy choices has he
po en ial o be a key aspec o a success ul obesi y p e-
en ion in e en ion (Lake and Townshend, 2006). In
pa icula , o ganiza ional FEs, such as schools and wo k-
si es, cons i u e a s a egic se ing o he implemen a ion
o comp ehensi e s a egies, as hey p o ide an app o-
p ia e in as uc u e o he p e en ion o obesi y and
o he nu i ion- ela ed diseases (New on e al., 2016). In
his sense, uni e si ies manage di e en ood and ca e ing
es ablishmen s ha se e a la ge numbe o wo ke s and
s uden s (Dohe y e al., 2011), whe e he la e g oup is a
a high- isk pe iod o weigh gain.
Du ing he ansi ion om high school o uni e si y,
which coincides wi h he ansi ion om adolescence
o adul li e, au onomous decision-making, and pe sonal
independenceg ow(Holm-Denoma e al., 2008), andsome
o he mos impo an beha io s o adul li e a e modeled.
Thus, uni e si y FE should posi i ely in luence indi idual
ood choices by making he heal hy choice he easy choice.
S udies conduc ed so a on campus indica e ha hese
FEs a e po en ially obesogenic due o he high a ailabil-
i y and p omo ion o ene gy- ich, nu ien -poo oods (Roy
e al., 2016). These ypes o p oduc s a e mos ly comme -
cially p oduced oods, ha is, indus ially manu ac u ed
oods, such as swee o sa o y snack oods, o swee ened
be e ages.
To da e, ew s udies ha e assessed FE a he uni e si y
le el,and heseha emainlybeenca iedou inAus alian,
New Zealand, and La in Ame ica uni e si ies (F anco
e al., 2020; Roy e al., 2019; Tam e al., 2017). The e is a
lack o esea ch in Eu opean uni e si ies ha e alua es
he FE in dep h, and none has compa ed di e en Eu o-
pean uni e si ies. As sociocul u al ac o s ( ha is, cul u e,
economic a iables, and poli ical elemen s, among o he s)
a e decisi e in ood supply and choice (Chen & An onelli,
2020), he compa ison o e ia y educa ion ins i u ions
wi h a di e en geog aphical loca ion and sociocul u al
con ex can be o g ea in e es o iden i y simila i ies and
di e ences.
The e o e, h ough his s udy, we aimed o analyze
di e ences in he a ailabili y and p ope ies (nu i ional
quali y and p ocessing le el) o comme cially p oduced
oods, in a no he n Eu opean and a sou he n Eu opean
uni e si y (loca ed in No way and Spain, espec i ely). In
discussing No h–Sou h di e ences, we a emp ed o p o-
ide plausible explana ions conside ing he ole o socio-
cul u al aspec s. In addi ion, we analyzed he ag eemen
le el be ween se e al nu ien p o iling models (NPMs)
and, among hese NPMs and he p ocessing le el o com-
me cially p oduced ood p oduc s sold in he uni e si ies
men ioned.
Conside ing he go e nmen ’s measu es o p omo e
heal h and p e en disease h ough a heal hie die in
bo h coun ies (Spain and No way) (Pineda e al., 2022),
we hypo hesized ha he pe cen age o oods o low
nu i ional quali y (LNQ) and ul a-p ocessed would be
highe a he Spanish uni e si y han a he No wegian
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2496 CAMPUS FOOD ENVIRONMENTS IN EUROPE
uni e si y. On he o he hand, because o he di -
e ences in he c i e ia o he NPMs, we hypo he-
sized ha he pe cen age o LNQ ood p oduc s sold
a bo h uni e si ies would a y conside ably acco d-
ing o he models applied. Fo his eason, we decided
o use a combina ion o he h ee selec ed NPMs.
Finally, aking in o accoun he e idence om o he
s udies (Maldonado-Pe ei a e al., 2022; Ma ínez S eele
e al., 2017) con i ming he LNQ o ul a-p ocessed p od-
uc s, we hypo hesized ha he LNQ ood p oduc s would
be mos ly ul a-p ocessed.
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 S udy design and se ing
The s udy is pa o a b oade in es iga ion in which no
only he ex e nal bu also he pe sonal domain o he
FE was analyzed (Ma inez-Pe ez & A oyo-Izaga, 2021;
Ma inez-Pe ez e al., 2022a,2022b). I is a c oss-sec ional
obse a ionals udyconduc eda woEu opeanpublicuni-
e si ies: OsloMe —Oslo Me opoli an Uni e si y (loca ed
in No way, no he n Eu ope) and he Uni e si y o he
Basque Coun y UPV/EHU (loca ed in Spain, sou he n
Eu ope). Da a we e eco ded a he UPV/EHU du ing he
2016/17 and 2017/18 academic yea s, and a OsloMe du ing
he 2019/20 academic yea .
A OsloMe , da a we e egis e ed be o e he s a o he
COVID-19pandemic,a he maincampusesin e mso s u-
den s and s a numbe s, which we e he Piles ede and
Kjelle campuses. These wocampuseshad19,500 s uden s
and 2200 s a in he academic yea 2019/20, whe eas he
campus excluded in he p esen s udy, he Sand ika cam-
pus, had abou 500 s uden s and only 1 employee (Oslo
Me opoli an Uni e si y, 2019).
Howe e , a he UPV/EHU, da a we e egis e ed a i s
3 campuses, which had a o al o 42,218 s uden s (deg ee
s uden s by campus: Ála a/A aba 7163 s uden s, Bizkaia
22,078, Gipuzkoa 10,119; and pos g adua e s uden s: Doc-
o al School loca ed in Bizkaia Campus 2858 s uden s) and
7453 s a (Ála a/A aba Campus, 1233; Bizkaia Campus,
4460; and Gipuzkoa Campus, 1760) in he academic yea
2016/17.
The me hod used o eco d da a was an audi , which
is he mos equen ly epo ed me hod in he li e a u e
o measu ing consume FE (Ly le & Sokol, 2017). In
he p esen s udy speci ically, we used i o assess he
a ailabili y o p oduc s and cha ac e ize hei p ope ies
(nu i ional quali y and p ocessing le el). We chose o
ocus on hese indica o s o comme cially p oduced ood
p oduc s o e ed on campus, as hey p o ide essen ial
in o ma ion on he FE and can con ibu e o imp o ing
he in e p e a ion o da a collec ed in di e en eali ies
(Fe ei a e al., 2021). Pe mission o conduc he s udy was
ob ained om he Founda ion o S uden Li e in Oslo and
Ake shus (S uden samskipnaden i Oslo og Ake shus—
SiO) and Vice Managemen o Asse s and Con ac ing o
he UPV/EHU.
2.2 Regis a ion o da a a OsloMe
A o al o ou can eens, h ee co ee shops, and wo end-
ing machines we e analyzed a OsloMe . The dis ibu ion
o ood ou le s by campus was as ollows: eigh on he
Piles ede campus (six can eens and wo co ee shops) and
ou on he Kjelle campus (one can een, one co ee shop,
and wo ending machines, one o ho d inks, and one o
snacks).
The ood ou le swi hinPiles ede and Kjelle campuses
we e iden i ied, hanks o he in o ma ion p o ided by
SiO. SiO is a s uden wel a e o ganiza ion ha ope a es
ood se ices on all campuses o he uni e si ies o Oslo
and Ake shus (No way). The lis o oods and d inks and
ela ed in o ma ion (p oduc desc ip ion, including la o
o ing edien a ia ions, ne weigh , and b and) we e also
ob ained h ough SiO (i should be no ed ha his lis did
no include ho d inks such as co ee o chocola e).
2.3 Regis a ion o da a a he
UPV/EHU
Du ing he pe iod in which da a we e eco ded a
he UPV/EHU, a o al o 21 companies we e subcon-
ac ed by he UPV/EHU o p o ide ood se ices, 18 o
ca e e ias/ es au an s/can eens, 2 o ending machines,
and 1 o he supe ma ke se ice. The dis ibu ion
o ood ou le s by campus was as ollows: 16 on he
Ála a/A aba campus (5 ca e e ias/ es au an s/can eens
and 11 ending machines), 37 on he Bizkaia campus
(8 ca e e ias/ es au an s/can eens, 1 supe ma ke , and
26 ending machines), and 27 on he Gipuzkoa cam-
pus (7 ca e e ias/ es au an s/can eens and 20 ending
machines).
These subcon ac ed companies did no change
du ing he s udy pe iod, and no did he p ice o
he p oduc s, excep o he p ices o h ee ou o
se en ca e e ias/ es au an s/can eens on he campus
o Bizkaia. In o al, 203 ending machines, 20 ca e-
e ias/ es au an s/can eens, and 1 supe ma ke we e
analyzed a he UPV/EHU. In he p esen s udy, we
did no include 24 ending machines ha a e no
usually accessed by unde g adua e s uden s because
hey a e in buildings ea ma ked o esea ch, and 2
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CAMPUS FOOD ENVIRONMENTS IN EUROPE 2497
ca e e ias/ es au an s because he companies in cha ge
o hese se ices we e no con ac ed by he UPV/EHU.
Da a om ca e e ias/ es au an s/can eens and he
supe ma ke we e ob ained h ough in e iews wi h he
s a in cha ge o hese se ices by a single in e iewe ,
and da a om ending machines we e eco ded by a
single obse e a he poin o sale. In bo h cases, da a
we e collec ed h ough o ms de eloped o his s udy
be o e da a egis a ion ( hese o ms a e a ailable om he
co esponding au ho on easonable eques ). The ollow-
ing in o ma ion was eco ded: p oduc name (including
la o o ing edien a ia ions, such as ba becue po a o
chips), b and, ne weigh , ing edien s, and p ice. Howe e ,
p ice da a we e no included in his manusc ip . In he
case o ending machines, o he da a eco ding a he
UPV/EHU, in addi ion o he o m, pho og aphs also we e
akeninsi u.
2.4 Da a p ocessing o comme cially
p oduced ood supply in ou le s o OsloMe
and he UPV/EHU
F om he da a egis e ed in bo h uni e si ies, in o ma ion
on ing edien s, ing edien pe cen age (i a ailable), and
nu i ion labeling in o ma ion (i a ailable) we e ob ained
by consul ing p oduc labeling and/o he manu ac u e ’s
websi e. Food p oduc s sold we e ca ego ized acco ding
o he documen on ood in schools de eloped by he
Spanish Agency o Consume A ai s, Food Sa e y and
Nu i ion (AECOSAN) (2010) and he Global Food Mon-
i o ing G oup ood ca ego iza ion sys em (Dun o d e al.,
2012)(TableS1).
Each ood p oduc o e ed was coun ed once, and only
he p oduc ca ego ies a ailable a bo h uni e si ies we e
included in he analysis o he cu en s udy. Solid oods
and be e ages we e analyzed sepa a ely. Ho d inks we e
no included in his s udy, no e en hose om ending
machines, because he amoun o added suga could be
a iable. Table S2 shows he ood and d ink ca ego ies
we e excluded om he analysis, as hey we e only sold
a UPV/EHU. No p oduc ca ego y was only o e ed a
OsloMe .
An o e iew o he me hods, eco ded da a, es ima ed
a iables, and da a de i ed ela ed o he ood supply in
ou le s a he UPV/EHU and OsloMe a e shown in Table 1.
Nu i ional in o ma ion on he p oduc s sold in ou le s
om bo h uni e si ies was also ob ained om di e en
sou ces, as ollows (in o de o p e e ence): nu i ion label-
ing, he manu ac u e ’s websi e, and/o ood composi ion
da abase om each o he coun ies.
As a as ood composi ion da abases a e conce ned, o
he p oduc s o e ed a OsloMe , Kos holdsplanlegge en
(No wegian Di ec o a e o Heal h & No wegian Food
Sa e y Au ho i y, 2023) was used, and o hose o e ed
a he UPV/EHU, he DIAL p og am 2.12 (O ega e al.,
2016). This las p og am was comple ed wi h he ood com-
posi ion ables o Ma aix (2009) whene e necessa y. In
hose p oduc s in which ans a y acid (TFA) da a we e
no a ailable in he nu i ion labeling, no on he manu-
ac u e ’s websi e, o in he ood composi ion da abases,
hey we e es ima ed using he epo “Con en o T ans
Fa y Acids in Foods in Spain, 2015” (Spanish Agency o
Consume A ai s,FoodSa e y and Nu i ion[AECOSAN],
2016), and he ood composi ion da abase o he Uni ed
S a es Depa men o Ag icul u e, Ag icul u al Resea ch
Se ice (USDA) (2019).
Fo bo h uni e si ies, om he nu i ional in o ma ion
o each p oduc , he ene gy con en and he ollowing
nu ien s we e es ima ed: p o eins, suga s, die a y ibe ,
o al a , TFA, sa u a ed a y acids (SFA), and sodium con-
en . In addi ion, ui , ege able, and nu con en we e
es ima ed. These da a we e calcula ed pe 100 g o p oduc .
2.5 Analysis o he nu i ional quali y
and p ocessing le el o he comme cially
p oduced ood supply in ou le s o OsloMe
and he UPV/EHU
To indica e he nu i ional quali y o each ood o d ink
i em, he ollowing NPMs we e used: hose p oposed by
he Spanish Agency o Consume A ai s, Food Sa e y and
Nu i ion (AECOSAN) (2010), he UK NPM (Depa men
o Heal h o he Uni ed Kingdom, 2011), and hose o he
No wegianFoodandD inkIndus yP o essionalP ac ices
Commi ee (Ma b ansjens Fagligle U alg—[MFU] [No -
wegian Food and D ink Indus y P o essional P ac ices
Commi ee], 2013). The o me c i e ia a e hose designed
o he ood supply p esen in ending machines, can eens,
and kiosks in educa ion cen e s.
The AECOSAN c i e ia ha e six componen s: ene gy,
o al a , SFA, TFA, suga , and sal . These c i e ia se he
ollowing limi s pe 100 g o mL o p oduc : in oods
≤400 kcal, ≤15.6 g o al a , ≤4.4 g SFA, ≤1gTFA,≤30 g
suga , and ≤1 g sal ; and in d inks, ≤100 kcal, ≤3.9 g o al
a , ≤1.1 g SFA, ≤0.25 g TFA, ≤7.5 g suga , and ≤0.25 g sal .
P oduc s ha we e o e a leas one o he cu -o s we e
conside ed LNQ.
These c i e ia ocus on ene gy densi y and nu ien s ha
ha e he po en ial o nega i ely a ec heal h o on “a - isk”
nu ien s, which can be a limi a ion when analyzing he
nu ien p o ile. Fo his eason, we also used he UK NPM,
which was de eloped by he UK Food S anda ds Agency
(Depa men o Heal h o he Uni ed Kingdom, 2011). This
ins umen is one o he mos equen ly alida ed models
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2498 CAMPUS FOOD ENVIRONMENTS IN EUROPE
TABLE 1 O e iew o he me hods, eco ded da a, es ima ed a iables, and da a de i ed ela ed o he comme cially p oduced ood
supply in ou le s a OsloMe —Oslo Me opoli an Uni e si y and he Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y UPV/EHU.
Da a- eco ding me hods Reco ded da a Es ima ed a iables
Da a de i ed om eco ded
and/o es ima ed a iables
Di ec eco ding o da a: di ec
obse a ion and ace- o- ace
in e iews, using p e-designed
o ms, and pho og aphs aken in
si ua
Indi ec eco ding o da a h ough
he supplying companies,
p oduc labeling and/o
manu ac u e ’s websi e, using
p e-designed o ms, and ood
composi ion da abases
Desc ip ion (including la o o
ing edien a ia ions, such as
ba becue o plain po a o chips),
ne weigh , b and, ing edien s,
ing edien pe cen age (i
a ailable), and nu i ion labeling
in o ma ion (i a ailable)
Ene gy, p o ein, o al a ,
SFA, TFA, ibe , suga ,
sodium and ui ,
ege able, and nu
con en
Classi ica ion acco ding o he ype
and sub ype o ood (Dun o d
e al., 2012; Spanish Agency o
Consume A ai s, Food Sa e y and
Nu i ion—AECOSAN, 2010)
NPMs: he Spanish Agency o
Consume A ai s, Food Sa e y and
Nu i ion—AECOSAN (2010), he
UK NPM (Depa men o Heal h o
he Uni ed Kingdom, 2011), and
he Ma b ansjens Fagligle U alg
(MFU) (2013) c i e ia
NOVA ood classi ica ion sys em
(Mon ei o e al., 2018a)
Abb e ia ions: AECOSAN, Spanish Agency o Consume A ai s, Food Sa e y and Nu i ion; MFU, No wegian Food and D ink Indus y P o essional P ac ices
Commi ee; NPM, nu ien p o iling model; SFAs, sa u a ed a y acids; TFAs, ans a y acids.
aThis me hod was only used in he UPV/EHU.
(Labon é e al., 2018). In addi ion o he “a - isk” nu ien s,
he UK NPM also includes oods and nu ien s conside ed
o ha e a bene icial e ec on heal h (i.e., ui , ege ables,
nu s, p o ein, and ibe ).
The UK NPM uses a simple sco ing sys em whe ein
poin s a e alloca ed based on he nu ien con en o 100 g
o ood o d ink. To do so, he nu ien con en o each
ood and d ink was assessed agains a se o published c i-
e ia o de e mine whe he i con ains ce ain nu ien s
abo eo below pa icula h esholds.Thismodelhasse en
componen s—ene gy, SFA, suga , sodium, “ ui , ege a-
bles and nu s”, ibe and p o ein—and p o ides a single
sco e o any gi en ood p oduc , based on calcula ing he
numbe o poin s o “nega i e” nu ien s ha can be o se
by poin s o “posi i e” nu ien s o ing edien s.
Poin s we e awa ded o ene gy, SFA, suga , and sodium
( o al “A” poin s =[poin s o ene gy] +[poin s o sa -
u a ed a ] +[poin s o suga s] +[poin s o sodium])
and ui , ege able, and nu con en , ibe , and p o ein
( o al “C” poin s =[poin s o % ui , ege able & nu
con en ] +[poin s o ibe ] +[poin s o p o ein]). The
amoun s o hese componen s we e de e mined om he
ood labeling (ing edien lis , p opo ion o he ing edi-
en s lis ed on he label ha ha e he highes pe cen ages,
and nu i ion labeling), manu ac u e ’s websi e, and/o
he die a y assessmen ha was ca ied ou wi h he
abo e-men ioned ood composi ion da abase.
The sco e o “C” nu ien s and ing edien s was sub-
ac ed om he “A” nu ien sco e o gi e a inal sco e.
I he sco e was <4 o oods o <1 o d inks, he p od-
uc was classi ied as HNQ. When sco es exceeded hese
limi s, howe e , he p oduc was classi ied as LNQ (e.g.,
high-sa u a ed a , suga , and/o sal con en ). None he-
less, his model also has limi a ions, as ce ain oods wi h
high le els o a pa icula “a - isk” nu ien (e.g., a ),
which a e also key sou ces o some mic onu ien s, may
be classi ied as LNQ. Fo example, some cheeses may be
classi ied as LNQ, despi e being key sou ces o die a y
calcium and ibo la in. To o e come his limi a ion, we
added o he c i e ia in he e alua ion o he nu ien
p o iling, hose ha a e commonly used o egula e he
ma ke ing o p oduc s o LNQ o child en in No way,
which is a sel - egula ion scheme ope a ed by he indus y
h ough hei o ganiza ion, he MFU c i e ia (Ma b an-
sjens Fagligle U alg—[MFU] [No wegian Food and D ink
Indus y P o essional P ac ices Commi ee], 2013).
The MFU p o ides a lis o p oduc s o LNQ acco ding
o hei con en in one o mo e o he ollowing compo-
nen s, in mos cases pe 100 g o p oduc : o al a , SFA,
suga , sal ,nu i ionaldensi y, andene gydensi y.Thelim-
i ses ablished o eacho hesecomponen s a y acco ding
o he ype o ood. An example is ha milk p oduc s wi h
mo e han 15 g added suga pe li e , b eak as ce eals wi h
mo e han 20 g suga in o al pe 100 g, and yoghu wi h
mo e han 11 g suga in o al pe 100 g a e classi ied as LNQ
acco ding o he MFU c i e ia.
Finally, he esul ingca ego iesa e applying heabo e-
men ioned h ee c i e ia, he AECOSAN, he UK NPM,
and he MFU c i e ia, we e combined as ollows: I a p od-
uc had been classi ied as LNQ acco ding o he h ee
classi ica ions, i wasconside edLNQ.The es o hep od-
uc s we e ca ego ized as HNQ. This c i e ion was ag eed
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CAMPUS FOOD ENVIRONMENTS IN EUROPE 2499
o be mo e igo ous han he one ha would be conside ed
LNQ hose p oduc s ha we e classi ied as such acco d-
ing o only one o wo classi ica ion sys ems. Table S2
p esen s he nu i ional p o ile o he oods and d inks only
sold a he UPV/EHU ha we e excluded om he analy-
sis. Mo eo e , because he esul s o he analysis we e no
en i ely consis en ac oss NPMs, he LNQ p oduc s “wi h
inconsis en classi ica ion,” ha is, hose ha we e classi-
ied as LNQ o only one o wo classi ica ion sys ems we e
analyzed sepa a ely.
Addi ionally, he ood o d ink i ems we e classi ied
using he NOVA sys em (Mon ei o e al., 2018a), which
ca ego izes oods acco ding o hei na u e, pu pose, and
deg ee o indus ial p ocessing. This sys em dis inguishes
be ween he ollowing g oups: (i) unp ocessed o mini-
mally p ocessed oods, (ii) p ocessed culina y ing edien s,
(iii) p ocessed oods, and (i ) ul a-p ocessed p oduc s.
This las g oup, ul a-p ocessed oods, a e o mula ions
made mos ly o en i ely om subs ances de i ed om
oods (e.g., casein, lac ose, whey, glu en, hyd ogena ed
oils, and mal odex in, among o he s) and addi i es (e.g.,
colo s abilize s, la o enhance s, non-suga swee ene s,
and emulsi ie s, among o he s), wi h li le i any in ac
unp ocessed o minimally p ocessed.
In he p esen s udy, he ca ego y “p ocessed culina y
ing edien s” was no assessed, because his ype o p oduc
was only o e ed in he UPV/EHU supe ma ke . Howe e ,
hese ypes o p oduc s we e pa o eady- o-ea oods such
as salads wi h d essing sold in he ending machines ha
me he c i e ia o be classi ied as p ocessed oods.
2.6 Quali y managemen o he da a
All da a we e collec ed by a single esea che (N.M.-P.)
and e iewed by ano he esea che (M.A.-I.). We used
unique ou le iden i ica ion numbe s ha we e a ached o
each eco ding shee . To check o quali y da a and de i ed
indices (NPMs and le el o p ocessing), subsamples o ou -
le s and p oduc s we e epea edly examined. The da a se
was made a ailable o analysis on a p o ec ed cen al
da a se e . Access o he da a is es ic ed o au ho ized
membe s o he esea ch eam.
2.7 Sociocul u al ac o s o No way and
Spain
Sociocul u al ac o s o No way and Spain ha could in lu-
ence ood supply and p ope ies o comme cially p oduced
ood p oduc s o e ed a e shown in Table S3. The pu pose
o his summa y is o con ex ualize he possible in luences
o hese ac o s on ood supply in he uni e si ies unde
s udy. These sociocul u al ea u es we e selec ed based
on he Food-EPI moni o ing ool (Swinbu n e al., 2013;
Swinbu n e al., nd), which aims o p opose a moni o ing
amewo k o assess go e nmen policies and ac ions o
c ea ing heal hy FEs. The key componen s a e classi ied
in o “cul u e,” “economic a iables,” “quali y o li e,” and
“poli ical elemen s.”
2.8 S a is ical analysis
The da a we e analyzed using SPSS o Windows e sion
24.0 (SPSS Inc.). All desc ip i e s a is ics we e epo ed in
numbe and pe cen age. Fo bi a ia e analysis, Chi-squa e
o Fishe ´s exac es was used o compa e ca ego ical a i-
ables. All es s we e wo-sided, and p- alues less han
0.05 we e conside ed s a is ically signi ican . The κcoe i-
cien was calcula ed o in es iga e he deg ee o ag eemen
be ween he h ee NPMs used ( he AECOSAN, he UK
NPM, and he MFU c i e ia) and be ween hese models
and NOVA classi ica ion. The κ esul s we e in e p e ed
as ollows: alues ≤0 no ag eemen , 0.1–0.20 none o
sligh , 0.21–0.40 ai , 0.41–0.60 mode a e, 0.61–0.80 sub-
s an ial, and 0.81–1.00 almos pe ec (Landis & Koch,
1977).
3RESULTS
3.1 A ailabili y o comme cially
p oduced oods
In o al, 251 oods and d inks we e iden i ied a OsloMe .
The mos common p oduc s we e swee snacks (48.5% o
he solid oods and 32.7% o he o al p oduc s) and suga -
swee ened ca bona ed d inks (23.2% o he cold d inks and
7.6% o he o al p oduc s) (Table 2).
3.2 Nu i ional quali y o comme cially
p oduced oods
App oxima ely hal o he p oduc s did no mee he
AECOSAN c i e ia (53.0%) and he UK NPM c i e ia
(47.4%). Mo eo e , nea ly h ee qua e s (72.9%) did no
mee he MFU c i e ia. The AECOSAN c i e ion ha was
mos equen ly un ul illed was he SFA (43.2%) con en in
solid oods and he suga (31.7%) con en in d inks. The
combina ion o he h ee c i e ia abo e-men ioned, he
AECOSAN c i e ia, he UK NPM c i e ia, and he MFU
c i e ia, showed ha 40.2% o he p oduc s we e classi ied
as LNQ. The pe cen age o LNQ was highe in solid oods
han in d inks o he h ee NMPs (p<0.001).
17503841, 2024, 4, Downloaded om h ps://i .onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1750-3841.17022 by Uni e sidad Del Pais Vasco, Wiley Online Lib a y on [30/04/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License
2500 CAMPUS FOOD ENVIRONMENTS IN EUROPE
TABLE 2 Di e ences in nu i ional p o ile o comme cially p oduced ood p oduc s sold in ood ou le s a OsloMe —Oslo Me opoli an Uni e si y and he Uni e si y o he Basque
Coun y UPV/EHU.
Type o
p oduc
n(%)a
pb
Pe cen age no mee ing he c i e ia, LNQ
AECOSAN
c i e iac,%
pb
UK NPMd,%
pb
MFUe,%
pb
AECOSAN +UK
NPM +MFU ,%
pb
OM EHU OM EHU OM EHU OM EHU OM EHU
Solid oods
F ui and ui
de i a i es
8(3.2) 56 (5.3) 0.158 50.0 16.1 0.047 37.5 12.5 0.102 37.5 12.5 0.102 37.5 12.5 0.102
Dai y p oduc s
Yogu s 18 (7.2) 23 (2.2) <0.001 – – – 5.9 8.7 1.000 52.9 56.5 0.051 – – –
O he dai y
p oduc sg
18 (7.2) 37 (3.5) <0.001 –78.4<0.001 16.7 83.8 <0.001 83.3 83.8 1.000 – 67.6 <0.001
Nu s 6(2.4) 56 (5.3) 0.050 83.3 72.7 1.000 – 29.1 0.326 83.3 87.3 1.000 – 29.1 0.326
Sal y snacks 19 (7.6) 185 (17.6) <0.001 68.4 95.3 <0.001 21.1 66.5 <0.001 36.8 89.2 <0.001 21.1 63.8 <0.001
Sandwiches 3(1.2) 31 (2.9) 0.116 100.0 90.3 1.000 100.0 41.9 0.094 100.0 96.8 1.000 100.0 41.9 0.094
Swee snacks 82 (32.7) 384
(36.5)
0.250 81.7 95.3 <0.001 84.1 88.8 0.239 96.3 100.0 0.005 76.8 86.7 0.023
Swee s and chewing gums
Wi h added
suga s
11 (4.4) 14 (1.3) <0.001 90.9 92.9 1.000 90.9 85.7 1.000 100.0 100.0 – 90.9 85.7 1.000
Wi h
swee ene s
5(2.0) 37 (3.5) 0.219 40.0 –0.012 40.0 –0.012 100.0 100.0 –40.0 –0.012
To al o solid
oods
169
(67.3)
822
(78.2)
<0.001 61.5 81.0 <0.001 56.2 66.3 0.013 81.1 88.7 0.007 50.3 63.7 <0.001
D inks
Bo led wa e 3 (1.2) 18 (1.7) 0.562 – – – – – – – – – – – –
Ca bona ed d inks
Wi h added
suga s
19 (7.6) 29 (2.7) <0.001 84.2 82.8 1.000 89.5 89.7 1.000 100.0 100.0 – 84.2 82.8 1.000
Wi h added
suga s and
swee ene s
1 (0.4) 9 (0.9) 0.453 –55.6 1.000 100.0 66.7 1.000 100.0 100.0 – – – 1.000
Wi h
swee ene s
16 (6.4) 11 (11.0) <0.001 – – – – – – 100.0 100.0 – – – –
(Con inues)
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CAMPUS FOOD ENVIRONMENTS IN EUROPE 2501
TABLE 2 (Con inued)
Type o
p oduc
n(%)a
pb
Pe cen age no mee ing he c i e ia, LNQ
AECOSAN
c i e iac,%
pb
UK NPMd,%
pb
MFUe,%
pb
AECOSAN +UK
NPM +MFU ,%
pb
OM EHU OM EHU OM EHU OM EHU OM EHU
Wi hou
added
suga s o
swee ene s
(soda)
2 (0.8) 2 (0.2) 0.119 – 50.0 1.000 – 50.0 1.000 – 100.0 0.333 – 50.0 1.000
Dai y d inks 18 (7.2) 47 (4.5) 0.078 66.7 80.9 0.323 22.2 70.2 <0.001 –36.2 0.002 –34.0 0.003
Juices 10 (4.0) 71 (6.8) 0.103 10.0 69.0 0.001 10.0 36.6 0.153 – 19.7 0.197 – 1.4 1.000
Milk 2 (0.8) 15 (1.4) 0.429 –100.0 – – 33.3 1.000 – – – – – –
Non-ca bona ed d inks
Wi h added
suga s
9(3.6) 19 (1.8) 0.082 –15.8 0.530 11.1 47.4 0.098 100.0 100.0 – – 10.5 1.000
Wi h
swee ene s
1 (0.4) 1 (0.1) 0.271 – – – – – – 100.0 100.0 – – – –
Vege able
d inks
1 (0.4) 7 (0.7) 0.624 – – – – 14.3 1.000 – – – – – –
To al o d inks 82 (32.7) 229
(21.8)
<0.001 35.4 52.4 0.008 29.3 46.7 0.006 56.1 44.5 0.072 19.5 21.4 0.719
To al o
p oduc s
251 1051 <0.001 53.0 74.8 <0.001 47.4 62.0 <0.001 72.9 79.1 0.035 40.2 54.5 <0.001
Abb e ia ions: AECOSAN, Spanish Agency o Consume A ai s, Food Sa e y and Nu i ion; EHU, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y UPV/EHU; LNQ, p oduc o low nu i ional quali y; MFU, No wegian Food and
D ink Indus y P o essional P ac ices Commi ee; NPM, nu ien p o iling model; OM, OsloMe —Oslo Me opoli an Uni e si y.
aPe cen ages wi h espec o he o al o p oduc s o each uni e si y (only he p oduc ca ego ies a ailable a bo h uni e si ies a e included in his able).
bχ2 es o he Fishe exac es was used o assess di e ences be ween uni e si ies, signi ican p- alues a e highligh ed in bold.
cSpanish Agency o Consume A ai s, Food Sa e y and Nu i ion—AECOSAN (2010).
dDepa men o Heal h o he Uni ed Kingdom (2011).
eMa b ansjens Fagligle U alg (MFU) (2013).
The h ee NPMs we e combined as ollows: I a ood o d ink had been classi ied as LNQ acco ding o he Spanish Agency o Consume A ai s, Food Sa e y and Nu i ion—AECOSAN (2010), he UK NPM (Depa men
o Heal h o he Uni ed Kingdom, 2011) and he Ma b ansjens Fagligle U alg (MFU) c i e ia (2013), i was conside ed LNQ.
g“O he dai y p oduc s”: cus a d, c eam ca amel, cheese, pudding, and so on.
17503841, 2024, 4, Downloaded om h ps://i .onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1750-3841.17022 by Uni e sidad Del Pais Vasco, Wiley Online Lib a y on [30/04/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License
2502 CAMPUS FOOD ENVIRONMENTS IN EUROPE
A o al o 1051 oods and d inks we e iden i ied a he
UPV/EHU. The mos common p oduc s we e swee snacks
(46.7% o he solid oods and 36.5% o he o al p oduc s),
ollowed by sal y snacks (22.5% o he solid oods and
17.6% o he o al p oduc s), and juices (31.0% o he d inks
and 6.8% o he o al p oduc s) and suga -swee ened ca -
bona ed d inks (12.7% o he d inks and 2.7% o he o al
p oduc s).
A he UPV/EHU, nea ly h ee qua e s o he o al com-
me cially p oduced ood p oduc s we e classi ied as LNQ
acco ding o he AECOSAN c i e ia (74.8%), he UK NPM
c i e ia (62.0%), and he MFU c i e ia (79.1%). The combi-
na ion o he h ee c i e ia abo e-men ioned showed ha
54.5% o he p oduc s we e classi ied as LNQ. Simila o he
o e a OsloMe , hepe cen ageo LNQ washighe in solid
oods han in d inks o he h ee NMPs (p<0.001). The
AECOSAN c i e ia ha solid oods mos equen ly did no
mee we e he ene gy (53.8%) and o al a con en (55.1%);
and in d inks, he suga con en (50.7%).
The analysis o di e ences in he nu i ional p o ile o
comme cially p oduced oods o e ed in he wo uni e -
si ies showed ha he pe cen age o p oduc s classi ied
as LNQ was highe a he UPV/EHU compa ed o a
OsloMe (p<0.001). Speci ically, he subca ego ies in
which hese di e ences we e obse ed we e: sal y snacks,
swee snacks, dai y p oduc s o he han yogu , and dai y
d inks(p<0.05).Theonlysubca ego yinwhich he esul s
we e he o he way a ound, ha is, he pe cen age o p od-
uc s classi ied as LNQ was highe in OsloMe han in he
UPV/EHU, was swee s and chewing gums wi h swee ene s
(p<0.05). Howe e , his esul was no con i med when
he less igo ous c i e ion was applied, ha is, in sepa a e
analyses o LNQ p oduc s wi h inconsis en classi ica-
ion (Table S4). In con as , he pe cen age o swee s and
chewing gums wi h swee ene s classi ied as LNQ “wi h
inconsis en classi ica ion” was highe in he UPV/EHU
han in OsloMe .
In any case, he esul s ela ed o he o e o sal y snacks
and swee snacks classi ied as LNQ a he UPV/EHU com-
pa ed o hose o OsloMe we e con i med in sepa a e
analyses o LNQ p oduc s “wi h inconsis en classi ica-
ion.” Mo eo e , employing his less igo ous c i e ion, he
ollowing di e ences in subca ego ies we e obse ed, in
a o o he UPV/EHU: sandwiches, swee s and chewing
gums wi h added suga s, ca bona ed d inks wi h added
suga s, and juices.
On he o he hand, a compa ison o he esul s ob ained
wi h he h ee NPMs o ood supply a OsloMe showed
subs an ial ag eemen be ween he esul s ob ained wi h
he UK NPM and he AECOSAN c i e ia and a mode a e
ag eemen be ween he UK NPM and he MFU c i e ia
(Table 3). The ag eemen be ween he AECOSAN and he
MFU c i e ia was ai . Howe e , in he case o he ood sup-
ply a he UPV/EHU, he ag eemen be ween he esul s
ob ainedwi h he UKNPMand he AECOSANc i e iawas
mode a e, and be ween he UK NPM and he MFU c i e-
ia, and be ween he AECOSAN and he MFU c i e ia we e
ai .
3.3 P ocessing le el o comme cially
p oduced oods
Acco ding o he NOVA sys em, mos o he p oduc s
o e ed we e ca ego ized as “ul a-p ocessed,” which was
he case o 87.6% o he solid oods and 82.9% o d inks
o OsloMe , and 85.5% o he solid oods and 75.5% o
d inks o he UPV/EHU (Table 4). No di e ences we e
ound be ween he wo uni e si ies analyzed ega ding
he sha e o ul a-p ocessed oods, nei he o o al o
p oduc s, o solid oods, no o d inks. In any case,
he p oduc subca ego y ha p esen ed a highe pe cen -
age o p oduc s o LNQ was dai y p oduc s o he han
yogu a OsloMe compa ed o he UPV/EHU (p<0.001),
and juices a he UPV/EHU in compa ison wi h OsloMe
(p<0.05).
3.4 Compa ison be ween he
nu i ional p o ile and p ocessing le el o
comme cially p oduced oods
Rega ding he compa isonbe ween he NPMsandp ocess-
ing le el classi ica ion, a bo h uni e si ies, he e was om
none o ai ag eemen be ween he NOVA classi ica ion
and he h ee NPMs combined. Fo each o he NPMs sep-
a a ely, a OsloMe , he e was a none- o-sligh ag eemen
be ween he NOVA sys em and he AECOSAN c i e ia,
whe eas, a he UPV/EHU, he e was a ai ag eemen
be ween hese wo c i e ia. A bo h uni e si ies, he e was
ai ag eemen when compa ing he p ocessing le el clas-
si ica ion wi h he UK NPM and mode a e ag eemen wi h
he MFU c i e ia (Table 5). In gene al, d inks p esen ed a
lowe ag eemen compa ed o solid oods when compa -
ing he NOVA sys em wi h he h ee NPMs combined and
sepa a ely, excep o he compa ison wi h he AECOSAN
c i e iaa OsloMe , and he UKNMP a UPV/EHU. Inbo h
cases, solid ood p esen ed a lowe ag eemen .
4DISCUSSION
The p esen s udy aimed o assess di e ences in he
nu i ional p o ile and p ocessing le el o comme cially
p oduced oods o e ed a ood ou le s a he UPV/EHU
and OsloMe , as well as disc epancies be ween he
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CAMPUS FOOD ENVIRONMENTS IN EUROPE 2509
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