philosophies
A icle
Dis ibu ion o Responsibili y o Clima e Change wi hin
he Milieu
Laÿna D oz
Ci a ion: D oz, L. Dis ibu ion o
Responsibili y o Clima e Change
wi hin he Milieu. Philosophies 2021,6,
62. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
philosophies6030062
Academic Edi o s: E ik Pe sson,
Åsa Knaggå d and Ke s in E iksson
Recei ed: 25 May 2021
Accep ed: 15 July 2021
Published: 28 July 2021
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BC3 Basque Cen e o Clima e Change, 48940 Leioa, Spain; layna_d [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac :
This a icle app oaches he challenges o he dis ibu ion o esponsibili y o clima e
change on a local le el using he amewo k o he milieu. I sugges s ha he amewo k o he
milieu, inspi ed by Japanese and c oss-cul u al en i onmen al philosophy, p o ides pa hways o
add ess he ou challenges o clima e change (global dispe sion, agmen a ion o agency, ins i u-
ional inadequacy, empo al delay). The amewo k o he milieu cla i ies he in e ela ions be ween
he indi idual, he communi y, and he local milieu and is open o a conse a i e iew o human
communi ies and an inclusi e iew o mul ispecies communi ies. On his basis, an accoun o indi-
idual esponsibili y ha is ancho ed in he local milieu and includes a esponsibili y o collabo a e
ac oss milieus is de eloped. I consis s o a o wa d-looking esponsibili y ha balances a deg ee o
con ibu o y esponsibili y o one’s imp in s on he milieu wi h a deg ee o capaci y- esponsibili y
ha a ies ega ding he indi idual’s knowledge and powe s, and he accep abili y o p ac ices
wi hin he local milieu.
Keywo ds:
clima e change; esponsibili y; dis ibu ion; agency; mi iga ion; adap a ion; milieu;
en i onmen al e hics
1. In oduc ion
A key challenge o he ques ion o esponsibili y o clima e change is he global
dispe sion o i s causes and i s e ec s [
1
–
4
]. This leads o a agmen a ion o he agency o
hose who con ibu ed o causing clima e change and o iden i ying who a e he key agen s
bes placed o ake ac ion o mi iga e and adap o clima e change [
5
–
7
]. Meanwhile, mos
human legal and social ins i u ions a e adap ed o e i o ially bounded communi ies wi h
clea bo de s and designed o isola e pe pe a o s who ha e a di ec and signi ican causal
ela ionship o he ha m. Se e al au ho s indica e ha he e is an ins i u ional inadequacy
o ackle phenomena such as clima e change [
8
,
9
]. Las bu no leas , a empo al challenge
o clima e change complexi ies u he he si ua ion: clima e change e ec s a e pe sis en ,
nonlinea and ime delayed [
10
]. These ou challenges (global dispe sion, agmen a ion
o he agency, ins i u ional inadequacy, empo al delay) se he s age o he ques ion o
how esponsibili y o clima e change should be dis ibu ed.
The ques ion o esponsibili y dis ibu ion o clima e change ma e s because clima e
change has ha m ul impac s on human heal h and on o he species’ heal h and habi a s [
11
].
Clima e change has been shown o be closely in e linked wi h land deg ada ion [
12
],
biodi e si y loss [
13
] and ood and wa e secu i y [
14
]. En i onmen al p ocesses a e highly
complex and end o be mu ually ein o cing and in luenced by di ec and indi ec d i e s
a a ious scales [
15
]. The impac s o clima e change can a ec indi idual human heal h,
as well as indi idual p ojec s, li elihood, and he communi y. They change he possible
ways o li e wi hin a pa icula e i o y, he places, milieus, and ecosys ems, he easibili y
o p ojec s, and o he species.
As clima e change is a global issue, i is c ucial o ecognize he di e si y o e hical
sys ems a ound he wo ld be o e assigning esponsibili ies o clima e change. Responsibil-
i y is a ques ion o e hics, which is oo ed in local sociocul u al con ex s and a ies g ea ly
depending on he con ex and he people. The impac s o clima e change also in luence
Philosophies 2021,6, 62. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/philosophies6030062 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/philosophies
Philosophies 2021,6, 62 2 o 15
hese sociocul u al con ex s and he local landscapes and milieus in which communi ies
li e. The in e winemen s be ween local communi ies, hei na u al en i onmen and
socio-cul u al con ex s and he indi idual pe spec i e can be cap u ed by he concep
o milieu.
This a icle app oaches he dis ibu ion o esponsibili y o clima e change a a local
le el using he amewo k o he milieu. I ocuses on indi idual e hical esponsibili y, as
he ( ela ional) indi idual decision make is a p ima y locus o e hical agency. I sugges s
ha he amewo k o he milieu can p o ide pa hways o add ess he ou challenges
o clima e change. Inspi ed by Japanese and c oss-cul u al en i onmen al philosophy,
he amewo k o he milieu was de eloped [
16
] o cla i y he in e linkages be ween
he indi idual, he communi y, and he local milieu and o iden i y possible pa hways
o sus ainabili y while conside ing “ he ex en o di e si y o human ways o li e wi h
na u e” [
17
]. This pape p esen s a amewo k o he milieu open o a conse a i e iew o
human communi ies and an inclusi e iew o mul ispecies communi ies. On his basis,
an accoun o indi idual esponsibili y ha is ancho ed on he local milieu bu includes
a esponsibili y o collabo a e ac oss milieus is de eloped o add ess he challenges o
assigning e hical esponsibili y o clima e change.
2. The F amewo k o he Milieu
The idea o milieu builds on he wo k o se e al schola s, om he pa adigm o
possibilism o he F ench Vidal de la Blache (1845–1918) [
18
] o one o he ounde s o
ecology Jakob on Uexküll (1864–1944) [
19
], as well as on he wo ks o na u alis s such as
Bu on (1707–1788) [
20
,
21
]. A c ucial con ibu ion was made by he Japanese philosophe
Wa suji Te su
¯
o (1889–1960). His key concep o “ ûdo”, oo ed in he ancien Chinese
wo d p onounced
¯
ed
ˇ
u, is composed o he cha ac e s o he wind and o he soil. I is
so closely ela ed o clima e ha he i s ansla ion o his eponymous book in o English
ansla ed di ec ly “ ûdo” as “clima e”. Ye , he concep o “ ûdo”, he ea e ansla ed
as “milieu” [
22
], goes a beyond he idea o clima e [
23
]. The i s line o Was uji’s Fûdo
eads [24]:
“I use ou wo d Fûdo, which means li e ally, “Wind and Ea h”, as a gene al
e m o he na u al en i onmen o a gi en land, i s clima e, i s wea he , he
geological and p oduc i e na u e o he soil, i s opog aphic and scenic ea u es.”
Was uji de elops he idea o milieu ( ûdo) and desc ibes i as he “en i onmen ” as we
pe cei e i h ough a web o signi ica ions and symbols om he s andpoin o a subjec i e
human being. He uses he example o he cold ha we do no eel as an “I” independen
subjec alone con on ed o coldness as an objec , bu ha we expe ience oge he wi h
o he s wi hin he milieu, and which leads us o ake ac ions—e.g., wea clo hes—and o
adop ways o li e—e.g., build houses and collec wood. Phenomena o he milieu, like he
cold, a e “ways o human sel -unde s anding” [
25
]. They ha e a his o y o we, humans,
ha e de eloped webs o p ac ices, alues and usages o he milieu h ough ime ac oss
gene a ions [
26
]. Human communi ies ha e de eloped sociocul u al and echnological
p ac ices and wo ld iews in a con inuously ongoing p ocess o adap a ion o he local
clima e and milieu.
I p opose o see he milieu as he in e media e laye be ween ou subjec i e s andpoin
and he en i onmen ha we canno access di ec ly and neu ally. We canno li e ou side
o he en i onmen , bu we a e pe cei ing and ac ing in i as a milieu laden wi h meanings
and alues. Nei he can we li e ou side o a milieu. In o he wo ds, being in a milieu
is cen al o being human. We li e h ough dynamic cycles o code e mina ion wi h
he milieu. Augus in Be que (1942–) uses he ideas o ma ix and imp in o designa e
hese cons an mo emen s o iden i ica ion and di e en ia ion be ween he sel and he
milieu [
27
]. Ou ways o li e lea e aces on he milieu—imp in s—and ou su oundings
shape ou beha iou s and ou iden i ies, like a ma ix ha nu u es and cons ains us.
Wa suji insis s on he dynamici y o he cycles o code e mina ion be ween he sel and
he milieu, he he e o e ejec s na u al de e minism and adop s a concep ion o he sel as
Philosophies 2021,6, 62 3 o 15
ela ional [
28
]. He also desc ibes he di e si y o cul u es ancho ed in di e en milieus, and
how hese mu ually shape each o he [
29
]. Ne e heless, like mos o he pas philosophe s,
he seems o assume ha cul u es a e di ec ly linked o bounded communi ies g ounded in
a pa icula land. Fo ou con empo a y use in his pape , his is an impo an limi a ion o
his wo k, along wi h he absence o men ion o esponsibili y and o in e nal mechanisms
o opp ession and domina ion wi hin communi ies. In oday’s globalized con ex , any e hic
aiming a assigning esponsibili y o en i onmen al ha m needs o add ess hese issues.
The amewo k o he milieu mee s his need by cla i ying he ela ionships ha bound
oge he he indi idual, he milieu as imp in , he communi y and he milieu as ma ix.
The objec i e o he amewo k o he milieu is no o be ai h ul o he insigh s o he
pionee s o he concep o milieu, bu o p opose a de elopmen inspi ed by hem and o
apply i o issues o con empo a y en i onmen al e hics, such as landscape sus ainabil-
i y [
17
] and indi idual esponsibili y o clima e change as de eloped in his pape . The
amewo k o he milieu goes one s ep u he om Wa suji Te su o’s idea o milieu and
Augus in Be que’s concep o ma ix-imp in and desc ibes a p ocess (see Figu e 1): The
communi y (mo e o less delibe a ely) shapes he su ounding en i onmen h ough habi s
and epea ed p ac ices o e ime. Doing so, he communi y builds he milieu as ma ix,
like a nes o nu u e i s membe s. In u n, he milieu as a ma ix nu u es, guides and
cons ains he p ac ices o i s inhabi an s. The indi idual g ows and li es cons ained,
guided and inspi ed by he web o no ms and meanings o he milieu. Wi hin his ma ix,
he indi idual agen e ains a ela i e lexibili y o make e lexi e e hical choices. E e y
indi idual beha iou hen lea es imp in s on he milieu, like oo s eps in he milieu ha
emain e en a e one has aken he nex s ep. Indi iduals necessa ily use some elemen s
o hei milieu o sus ain hemsel es, om picking up plan s o ea o ha ing a li es yle
suppo ed by a complex social s uc u e. Finally, he whole o he indi idual imp in s o
he inhabi an s o he milieu shapes and changes he milieu. The milieu is main ained and
changed h ough he in e wined imp in s o mul iple agen s who in e ac wi h each o he
and wi h he milieu.
Figu e 1ske ches he amewo k o he milieu. I desc ibes he ela ionships be ween
he indi idual, he communi y and he milieu. The indi idual g ows, ac s and hinks om
wi hin he milieu as a ma ix ha nu u es, cons ains and guides he . Mos indi idual
beha iou s lea e imp in s on he milieu ha main ain and change he milieu, oge he
wi h he mul iple imp in s o he communi y who sha es a pa icula milieu.
Figu e 1
syn hesizes he phenomenological pe spec i e o he indi idual who is in luenced by
and ac s wi hin he milieu (uppe le ); he spa ial aspec o he global in e connec ion
o he milieus ha lead o dis an consequences o indi idual imp in s (lowe le ); he
communi y and he ins i u ional and sociocul u al aspec o he milieu (lowe igh ); he
milieu as a ma ix made o he coun less in luences o mul iple human and nonhuman
agen s h ough ime, and ha , in u n, nu u es and cons ains i s inhabi an s (uppe igh ).
Sou ce: O iginal by he au ho .
Imp in s a e unde s ood he e as all he aces le on he milieu by he ways o li e
o a g oup o o an indi idual. This wide-encompassing concep includes aces le no
delibe a ely by habi s and omissions. Wa suji did no use he ma ix-imp in bi alence
in his desc ip ion o he milieu. Ye , he men ions b ie ly he wo d “imp in ” o wa n
us agains he isk o opposing human ac i i ies and a passi e na u al en i onmen [
30
].
Acco ding o him, we should no misunde s and he ela ion be ween he g oup and
he milieu as i he landscape we e he esul o g oups “ ying o make he shadow o
hemsel es cas on a pa icula na u e las o e e ”. Wa suji no es ha i is possible o
app oach he al e i y and ou side cha ac e o he concep o en i onmen by an abs ac ion
p ocess. Fo example, na u al sciences a emp o each he neu al eali y o en i onmen al
phenomena by minimizing as much as possible in e e ences om human expe ience.
Indeed, while we always g asp he wo ld h ough he in e subjec i e il e o he milieu
ain ed by he cul u al con ex , he ques o na u al sciences can be unde s ood as o a oid
cul u al ela i ism by cons uc ing ano he mode o in e subjec i i y. S ill, Wa suji wa ns
Philosophies 2021,6, 62 4 o 15
ha we should no o ge wo hings. On he one hand, his en i onmen is he esul o
he “exp essions o human exis ence”; ha is he side o he imp in in ou amewo k. On
he o he hand, we should no o ge ha he “subjec i i y o human exis ence can only be
g asped om wi hin” he landscape and he en i onmen , which echoes he ma ix side o
he milieu in ou amewo k. By pai ing he idea o imp in wi h he idea o ma ix, he
amewo k o he milieu a oids he isk o objec i ying he en i onmen and abs ac ing a
subjec –objec ela ion.
Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o 15
Figu e 1. The amewo k o he milieu.
Figu e 1 ske ches he amewo k o he milieu. I desc ibes he ela ionships be ween he indi-
idual, he communi y and he milieu. The indi idual g ows, ac s and hinks om wi hin he milieu
as a ma ix ha nu u es, cons ains and guides he . Mos indi idual beha iou s lea e imp in s on
he milieu ha main ain and change he milieu, oge he wi h he mul iple imp in s o he commu-
ni y who sha es a pa icula milieu. Figu e 1 syn hesizes he phenomenological pe spec i e o he
indi idual who is in luenced by and ac s wi hin he milieu (uppe le ); he spa ial aspec o he
global in e connec ion o he milieus ha lead o dis an consequences o indi idual imp in s (lowe
le ); he communi y and he ins i u ional and sociocul u al aspec o he milieu (lowe igh ); he
milieu as a ma ix made o he coun less in luences o mul iple human and nonhuman agen s
h ough ime, and ha , in u n, nu u es and cons ains i s inhabi an s (uppe igh ). Sou ce: O iginal
by he au ho .
Imp in s a e unde s ood he e as all he aces le on he milieu by he ways o li e o a
g oup o o an indi idual. This wide-encompassing concep includes aces le no delibe -
a ely by habi s and omissions. Wa suji did no use he ma ix-imp in bi alence in his de-
sc ip ion o he milieu. Ye , he men ions b ie ly he wo d “imp in ” o wa n us agains he
isk o opposing human ac i i ies and a passi e na u al en i onmen [30]. Acco ding o him,
we should no misunde s and he ela ion be ween he g oup and he milieu as i he land-
scape we e he esul o g oups “ ying o make he shadow o hemsel es cas on a pa ic-
ula na u e las o e e ”. Wa suji no es ha i is possible o app oach he al e i y and ou side
cha ac e o he concep o en i onmen by an abs ac ion p ocess. Fo example, na u al sci-
ences a emp o each he neu al eali y o en i onmen al phenomena by minimizing as
much as possible in e e ences om human expe ience. Indeed, while we always g asp he
wo ld h ough he in e subjec i e il e o he milieu ain ed by he cul u al con ex , he
ques o na u al sciences can be unde s ood as o a oid cul u al ela i ism by cons uc ing
Figu e 1. The amewo k o he milieu.
The amewo k o he milieu includes ou closely in e wined aspec s. Each o hese
aspec s dis inguishes he idea o milieu om he concep o en i onmen .
1.
Phenomenological pe spec i e. The concep ual amewo k o he milieu dis inguishes he
pe spec i e o he phenomenological agen who inhe i s o a pa icula sociocul u al
milieu which oo s he iden i y and in o ms he p ac ices, om he in e gene a ional
collec i e his o ical p ocesses ha con ibu e o building he medial ma ix. I empha-
sizes he expe ience o he indi idual as he g ound o ex e nal e hical ac ion on he
milieu. In con as , he en i onmen is usually aken o be neu ally and objec i ely
accessible, ega dless o he in e nal s a e o he agen and pe cei e .
2.
Ins i u ional and sociocul u al aspec . The concep o milieu highligh s he mu ual
cyclic ela ionships ha bind oge he indi idual human beings, communi ies, o he
nonhuman li ing beings and hei su oundings, including he na u al en i onmen .
This iew ejec s adical indi idualism as well as he common conno a ion o he
en i onmen as an o e -objec i ied passi e ecep acle. As indi idual human beings,
Philosophies 2021,6, 62 5 o 15
we a e all bo n in o a speci ic place wi hin a pa icula social s uc u e and milieu
ha nu u ed us. The o ganiza ion o his pa icula ma ix, bo h in e ms o social
con ac s and in e ms o usages o he land, is he ui o he ways o li e o pas
gene a ions inhabi ing he place, and o hei in e ac ions wi h a elle s and o he
g oups elsewhe e. This p ocess un olds o e ime, and ha is wha Wa suji e e s
o as his o ici y. He no es ha “we li e wi h he pas human beings wi hin us”, and
ha his “ ich pas con en wi hou limi s ha de ines he p esen ” is he sou ce o
he p esen “uni y o he e hical social o ganiza ion” [
30
]. Fo Wa suji, he social
o ganiza ion is mul ilaye ed, spanning om he scales o he amily, he illage, up o
he scale o he na ion, and e hics eme ges om he ela ions ha bind oge he he
membe s o hese communi ies [31].
3.
Spa ial aspec and global in e connec ion: The bo de s o milieus a e po ous, and hey
a e closely in e connec ed in a global ne wo k con inuously c ossed by a ious lows
(ai , nu ien s, goods, ideas, e c.) While milieus a e local, hey a e cons an ly in lu-
enced and in luencing dis an milieus, as i clea ly appea s wi h global en i onmen al
changes such as clima e change, and wi h he ubiqui y o he in e ne and communica-
ion media. Sp eading h ough he mul iple connec ions o his ne wo k and ampli ied
by collec i e p ac ices, in some cases such as clima e change, he consequences o one
indi idual imp in can be said o each a global scale. This hi d cha ac e is ic insis s
on he in e dependence o locally oo ed milieus and dis inguishes i om he concep
o en i onmen which, by i ue o al eady being an abs ac ion, can be up oo ed in o
he idea o “global en i onmen ”.
4.
Tempo al aspec and in e gene a ional ansmission: Milieus a e cha ac e ized by hei
inhe en dynamic changes. No milieu is ixed and pe manen ly s able. The milieu is
con inuously changing h ough a his o ical p ocess ha un olds ac oss gene a ions
and composes he no ms, usages and meanings in which human beings li e in he
p esen . This con as s wi h he idea o a p is ine o iginal na u e o which we could—
o could no — e u n. The milieu changes h ough he mul iple in e ac ions o i s
human and nonhuman inhabi an s. In place o he pic u e o a linea e olu ion om a
s a e o na u e o a human-con olled wo ld, he concep o milieu se s he s age o a
cons an ly e ol ing and changing wo ld in which mul iple species adap hemsel es,
in e ac and shape hei wo ld.
To summa ize, milieus a e buil in mu ual cyclic ela ionships, expe ienced by phe-
nomenological agen s, connec ed globally in a dynamic ne wo k, and con inuously chang-
ing. The medial ma ix is shaped h ough his o ical p ocesses ha in ol e coun less
in e ac ions o people in pas gene a ions, be ween each o he and wi h hei own milieu,
nonhuman li ing beings, and na u al en i onmen .
These ou aspec s o he amewo k o he milieu echo he ou challenges o assigning
esponsibili y o clima e change (Table 1). The challenge o global dispe sion o causes
and e ec s o clima e change is e lec ed in he spa ial aspec o he global in e connec ion
o milieus. An accoun o indi idual esponsibili y o imp in s on he milieu—including
imp in s ha a e spa ially and empo ally dis an —will be de eloped o add ess his chal-
lenge. The challenge o empo al delay o he e ec s o clima e change is also add essed
by he accoun o indi idual esponsibili y p esen ed below. Mo eo e , shi ing he ocus
om he indi idual li espan o he empo al aspec o he milieu and he in e gene a ional
ansmission o heal hy and meaning ul milieus helps so en his challenge. The hi d
challenge o agmen a ion o he agency ega ding clima e change adap a ion and mi i-
ga ion a he subna ional le el is ackled by ocusing on he indi idual human being as
he locus o he e hical agency and by including a esponsibili y o collabo a e wi h o he s
wi hin indi idual esponsibili y o clima e change. Be o e dwelling in o he accoun o
indi idual esponsibili y g ounded in he amewo k o he milieu, i is necessa y o cla i y
wha coun s as a communi y wi hin he amewo k o he milieu, in o he wo ds, who is a
membe o he communi y and wha a e he bo de s o his communi y. This ques ion is
oo ed in he ins i u ional and sociocul u al aspec o he amewo k and pa ially mi o s
Philosophies 2021,6, 62 6 o 15
wo ies ha exis ing ins i u ions a e inadequa e o ackle he challenges p esen ed by
clima e change.
Table 1. Fou challenges o assigning esponsibili y o clima e change and pa hways o sus ainabili y.
The F amewo k o
he Milieu
Fou Aspec s in he
F amewo k o he Milieu
Fou Challenges o Assigning
Responsibili y o Clima e Change Pa hways o Sus ainabili y
Imp in Spa ial aspec and global
in e connec ion global dispe sion Indi idual esponsibili y o
imp in s
Indi idual Phenomenological pe spec i e agmen a ion o agency Indi idual esponsibili y o
collabo a e wi hin and ac oss
milieus
Ma ix Tempo al aspec and
in e gene a ional ansmission empo al delay T ansmission o meaning ul
milieus as ma ices
(sus ainabili y)
Communi y Ins i u ional and sociocul u al
aspec ins i u ional inadequacy Mul ispecies and human
communi ies
Table 1syn hesizes he ou ace s o he amewo k o he milieu (imp in , indi idual, ma ix and communi y) and he ou aspec s ha
hey e lec (a spa ial aspec , he phenomenological pe spec i e, a empo al aspec , and an ins i u ional and sociocul u al aspec ), and
mi o s hem o he ou challenges o assigning esponsibili y o clima e change (global dispe sion, agmen a ion o he agency, empo al
delay and ins i u ional inadequacy), and he pa hways o sus ainabili y de eloped in his a icle in esponse o hese challenges. Sou ce:
O iginal by he au ho .
3. Mul ispecies and Human Communi ies
Wha coun s as a communi y in he amewo k o he milieu is delibe a ely kep
ague, as i akes e y di e en shapes and o ms depending on he case o which he
amewo k is applied. S ill, inso a as he his o ical p ocesses ha c ea e he medial ma ix
in ol e mul iple li ing beings o e coun less gene a ions, hey a e “collec i e”. In gene al,
he communi y e e s mainly o he people who sha e and inhabi a pa icula milieu.
The li e a u e on he milieu ends no o add ess o he - han-human species and o keep
wha coun s as “human communi y” ambiguous, while e aining om di e en ia ing
indi iduals om he g oups o o d aw clea bo de s o g oups.
We can dis inguish wo iews ega ding who makes up he communi y. A mo e
conse a i e iew es ic s he communi y o he people who inhabi a speci ic milieu. The
inclusi e iew in e p e s i as a mul ispecies communi y ha includes all li ing beings
who sha e and inhabi a milieu, human and o he - han-humans. Whiche e iew is aken,
i is clea ha nonhuman li ing hings ake ac i e pa in he dynamics o milieus and
in ne wo ks connec ing milieus ac oss he globe (e.g., mig a o y species). Like humans,
nonhuman li ing hings a e shaped by hei en i onmen and a e shaping i by hei usage,
consuming ood, building shel e s and lea ing aeces. They a e also impac ed by and
impac ing en i onmen al changes. Nonhuman li ing hings hus play an ac i e ole in
shaping he milieus li ed by human beings. They can become cen al pa s o he cul u al
imagina y and ways o li e o sociocul u al g oups. In e ac ing wi h animals and o he
nonhuman na u al elemen s will in luence he wo ld iew and imagina y o an indi idual
human. Domes ic animals and c ops illus a e o how nonhuman li ing hings a e closely
in e wined wi h meanings, alues and wo ld iews o sociocul u al g oups. Ye , hey
do no delibe a ely and di ec ly ake pa in shaping alues and meanings sha ed by
human communi ies.
Th ough ime, he human and mul ispecies communi ies shape he local milieus as
ma ices ha will guide he indi iduals’ beha io s and p ac ices [
32
,
33
]. Fo ins ance, pa hs,
b idges and buildings es ain and guide he mo emen s o indi iduals wi hin a pa icula
place. Likewise, plan s and animals in luence he beha iou s o human indi iduals, who
migh seek he shades o a ee, admi e a sh ub o wild lowe s, o a oid a wasps’ nes .
Usages and s o ies by pas human indi iduals also help shape he ma ix o he milieu we
a e li ing in oday by ansmi ing webs o symbols and signi ica ions ha s uc u e ou
p esen sense-making.
Philosophies 2021,6, 62 7 o 15
The amewo k o he milieu es s on a concep ion o he human indi idual as ela-
ional [
34
]. Iden i ies, ways o li e, ideas and p ac ices a e buil in ela ion wi h o he s—
humans and o he - han-human [
35
,
36
]. We cons uc ou sel es in e wined in cons i u i e
ela ions wi h o he s and wi h he milieu. Physically and men ally, he indi idual canno
be abs ac ed om he milieu and he en i onmen . These “o he s” include ela i es and
people close o us, bu also people whose wo ks con ibu e and in luence us, such as he
a me s who p oduced he ood we ea and he singe o ou a ou i e song. In an inclusi e
iew, hese o he s also encompass o he - han-human li ing hings, such as key landscape
elemen s ( ees, lowe s, ga dens, e c.) [
37
], pe s, domes ic animals, and he mul i ude o
di e se o he species ha li e nea o wi hin us, ha we migh no e en no ice, bu on some
o which we depend (insec s, mic oo ganisms, plan s, e c.) [
38
]. In his sense, we could say
ha we a e li ing in—and hanks o—con inuous ela ionships wi h mul ispecies socie ies.
Ne e heless, his cons i u i e ela ionali y o he indi idual sel does no e ase he
agency. The indi idual p ese es he capaci y o e lec and choose among he possibili ies
o ac ions and opinions o e ed by he milieu. In pa icula , he indi idual also e ains he
possibili y o esis complying wi h a dominan p ac ice in he milieu, e en i he ailu e o
ollow his p ac ice migh imply some social isks such as c i icisms and pe secu ion [
39
].
Thus, he phenomenological agen and he indi idual imp in s c ucially di e om he
communi y’s collec i e imp in s inso a as he indi idual is a decision-make capable
o e lexi e choices. While Wa suji ends o insis mo e on how he milieu in luences,
cons ains and shapes he indi idual sel , i is c ucial o us o highligh he space o
choice and eedom ha emains o he indi idual o be able o e lec , ac e hically and
be esponsible.
In he globalized con ex , indi iduals a e in e connec ed in webs eaching a ound
he globe a beyond hei milieu. On he one hand, mo e and mo e people a e nowadays
a elling and mig a ing beyond hei o iginal local milieu, and hey a e being in luenced
by a away milieus h ough communica ion media and he in e ne [
40
]. On he o he hand,
he imp in s o one’s way o li e a e no limi ed o hei immedia e milieu, bu hey can ha e
consequences in dis an en i onmen , h ough global mechanisms such as he in e na ional
economic ies o clima e change. To use he amewo k o he milieu o assign esponsibili y
o en i onmen al ha m ha spans ac oss la ge dis ances such as clima e change, we need o
ake he con ex o globaliza ion in o accoun . Two aspec s o globaliza ion a e pa icula ly
ele an : de e i o ializa ion and in e connec edness [
41
]. Fi s , in he line o he challenge
o global dispe sion o clima e change e ec s and causes, de e i o ializa ion [
42
] due o
he ubiqui y o long-dis ance anspo a ion and communica ion challenges he common
assump ion o limi ing he each o e hics and esponsibili y o wi hin gi en e i o ially
bounded communi ies. Second, sys ems and people a e inc easingly in e connec ed, which
led some o a gue ha he e is no “global”, bu only in e connec ed locals, coining he
wo d “glocal” [
43
]. These wo aspec s a e no limi ed o human communi ies, bu hey also
impac o he species, as exempli ied by he issue o in asi e alien species, which is one
o he i e main di ec d i e s o biodi e si y loss a he global le el [
13
]. O he species
ake ad an age o human anspo a ion o mig a e o a e o ce ully in oduced by legal o
illegal wildli e a icking o new ecosys ems.
A milieu is always oo ed locally in a pe spec i al indi idual exis ence. In he easies
case o bounded human communi ies ha coincide wi h a speci ic milieu, he seden a y
indi idual li es and ac s e hically in o med, cons ained and guided by he consensual
signi ica ions and p ac ices o his milieu. Ye , indi iduals a e a ely a ached exclusi ely o
a single bounded communi y ancho ed in one local milieu. Ins ead, indi iduals a e shaped
by mul iple milieus as ma ices. Indi iduals ca y a mul iplici y o milieus: bi hplace,
a el places, wo kplaces, cu en li ing places, e c. By a elling and mo ing, some
indi iduals a e in luenced by o he milieus. By mee ing o he a elle s, he indi idual
en e s in con ac wi h hei espec i e signi ican milieus, o which one ca es because
hey a e pa o he iden i y o he che ished o he s [
28
]. By in e ac ing wi h o he dis an
Philosophies 2021,6, 62 8 o 15
communi ies h ough communica ion media, indi iduals a e also in luenced by hei
imagina ies and p ac ices, and by he a e o hei milieus.
De e i o ialisa ion and in e connec edness highligh he issue o mul iplici y o mem-
be ships o di e en communi ies and milieus, and he possibili y o be pa o communi ies
ha a e seemingly a-spa ial wi h cybe ne wo king. One could a gue ha de e i o ialisa-
ion and aspa ial cybe ne wo king h ea en he ele ance o he milieu as a ma ix shaping
indi iduals’ wo ld iew and beha iou . To answe b ie ly, yes, globaliza ion exace ba es ex-
changes and con ac s be ween di e en milieus. Howe e , he milieu whe e he indi idual
exis s and ac s s ill plays a c ucial ole, because i shapes he indi idual beha iou mo e
han any o he dis an in luences, by es aining app op ia e p ac ices and possible usages
o he space.
4. Imp in s on he Milieu and E hical Responsibili y
Humans ha e always le imp in s on hei milieu. Nowadays, howe e , he imp in s
ha mos o us lea e on he en i onmen ha e mo e impac s han e e , and an indi idual
can lea e imp in s a om he local milieu one li es in. This is e lec ed in he challenge o
global dispe sion o causes and e ec s o clima e change. Indi idual agen s lea e signi ican
imp in s on milieus simply by i ue o being a membe o a social s uc u e [
44
], ega dless
o hei in en ions, awa eness, knowledge, e c. Fo example, an in an al eady has media ed
impac s on he milieu, because she is aken as a u u e po en ial consume in ma ke analysis
deciding o he quan i y o p oduc ion o some goods, leading o u he dep eda ion o
na u al esou ces. One’s appea ance, social ole and body language also ha e in luences on
o he s’ beha iou s. By being somewhe e, one indi idual e en in luences he beha iou s o
animals. Then i comes as no su p ise ha e en one’s inac ion and passi i y ha e impac s
on he milieu, including on dis an milieus whe e he indi idual will ne e se oo .
Wi hin he amewo k o he milieu, sus ainabili y and en i onmen al ha m a e
di ec ly connec ed o indi idual agency. The wide scope o wha coun s as a medial imp in
b ings us o a i s c ucial ye con o e sial conclusion, namely, ha all hese elemen s
(ac ions, bu also ways o li e, omissions, e c.) should be included as possible objec s o
esponsibili y asc ip ion o en i onmen al ha m [
45
]. When hinking abou e hics, he
milieu as an imp in is he exp ession o he agency o he indi idual. Con e sely, he
milieu as a ma ix can appea as a se o cons ain s. In summa y, he indi idual is shaped
by in luences om mul iple milieus and communi ies. And he indi idual is lea ing aces,
some ha m ul, in mul iple milieus, including in spa ially and empo ally dis an milieus.
Then, e hical esponsibili y o dis an ha m comes om he ac ha he indi idual (e en
passi ely and no delibe a ely) con ibu es o lea ing aces on his dis an milieu. This
con ibu o y esponsibili y a ies in deg ees, depending on he numbe o in e en ions
by o he agen s in he causal chain, ega dless o he empo al and spa ial dis ances be ween he
agen and he ha m.
In sho , he capaci y o he indi idual o be esponsible is cons ained by he milieu
as a ma ix, and he con ibu o y esponsibili y amoun s o he imp in s on he milieu. The
indi idual esponsibili y o an en i onmen al ha m depends on he causal con ibu ion
o he ha m (imp in ), and on he capaci y o ac o he wise, ha is, o ake e ec i e
epa a i e o adap i e ac ions (ma ix). Bo h capaci y esponsibili y and con ibu o y
esponsibili y a y in deg ee and weigh di e en ly on he balance o esponsibili y o
e e y indi idual [
46
]. Wi hin he limi s o he capaci y, he indi idual is esponsible o
engaging in he p ac ices ha lea e he leas ha m ul imp in s on he milieu.
Capaci ies a e la gely de e mined by he milieu. Th ee c i e ia a ec he capaci y o
he agen , each o hem di ec ly ela ed o aspec s o he milieu as a ma ix (see
Figu e 2)
.
Fi s , he s a e o knowledge o he agen and he capaci y o imagine al e na i es a e
mainly de e mined by how she makes sense o he wo ld [
47
] and he cul u al imagina y
she is in [
48
,
49
], bo h o which a e ea u es o he milieu as a ma ix. Second, he ease
wi h which he agen could ac ually change he beha iou depends di ec ly on he social
accep abili y and a ailabili y o al e na i e p ac ices ha also a e pa o he milieu as a
Philosophies 2021,6, 62 9 o 15
ma ix. Finally, powe s and ulne abili ies o he agen a e de e mined by he milieu she is
in, and he posi ion in he communi y [50–52].
Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 o 15
Figu e 2. Responsibili y o en i onmen al ha m and epa a i e ac ions. Sou ce: D oz, L. The Concep o Milieu in En i on-
men al E hics: Indi idual Responsibili y Wi hin an In e connec ed Wo ld. Rou ledge: Oxon, Uni ed Kingdom, 2021, p. 158.
Ske ches he accoun o indi idual esponsibili y o en i onmen al ha m. Indi idual esponsibili y esul s om he bal-
ance be ween pas -o ien ed con ibu o y esponsibili y and o wa d-looking capaci y esponsibili y. The indi idual con-
ibu ion o en i onmen al ha m amoun s o he impac s o he indi idual ways o li e, including omissions and domino-
e ec consequences. These ha m ul impac s can be global and dis an . Ye , he capaci y o an agen la gely depends on he
knowledge, a ailable p ac ices and he powe s, which a e all mainly oo ed in he local milieu. As a esul , he indi idual
has he highes capaci y o ake epa a i e ac ions on he local sha ed milieu. To ace he global consequences o dis an
impac s, collabo a ion ac oss milieus is necessa y.
5. Collabo a ion ac oss Milieus
Wi hin he amewo k o he milieu, indi idual esponsibili y does no end wi h wha
he indi idual can do alone. Some ac ions mus be discussed, decided on and coo dina ed
wi h o he s, and he indi idual has a esponsibili y in engaging in ui ul dialogue o os e
such common ac ions. As a membe o a communi y who enac s and designs some p ac ices
and ways o li e in a milieu, one has a communal esponsibili y, sha ed wi h o he s, o he
ela ions ha she builds wi h o he s and he milieu [54]. I aims a changing he imp in o
he communi y as a whole, by empowe ing o he s o inc ease hei capaci y o uphold
hei own indi idual esponsibili ies, and by aking common ac ions oge he . These de-
pend s ongly on he ela i ely lexible posi ion and ole he indi idual holds in he com-
muni y.
Collabo a ing wi h o he s is c ucial especially because eelings o powe lessness a e
o en men ioned as he main hind ance p e en ing he agen s o change beha iou s owa ds
mo e sus ainable li es yles [55,56]. Social sciences show ha he main obs acle o ake p o-
en i onmen al beha iou is o en no he lack o en i onmen al awa eness o i a ionali y, bu
i is he ac ha “ he powe o make a signi ican di e ence, one way o he o he , o global o
e en local en i onmen al change, is immensely une enly dis ibu ed” [57].
I hese indings
poin ou o he need o common ac ions, hey do no exclude indi idual ac ions, especially i
we unde s and indi iduals as ela ionally de eloping hei posi ions and powe s wi hin he
g oup [58]. Ye , agen s o en use obse a ions ega ding he une en dis ibu ion o powe s
wi hin he g oup as an excuse o a oid aking esponsibili y [59]. They migh delega e he
esponsibili y o ake communal ac ions o indi iduals whose oles a e appa en ly mo e
powe ul o hie a chically highe (e.g., go e nmen o icials o p i a e company execu i e
o ice s). Addi ionally, hey migh ei y social p ocesses leading o he ha m ul p ac ices and
o he une en dis ibu ion o powe , claiming ha “nobody can do any hing abou i ”.
Figu e 2.
Responsibili y o en i onmen al ha m and epa a i e ac ions. Sou ce: D oz, L. The Concep o Milieu in En i-
onmen al E hics: Indi idual Responsibili y Wi hin an In e connec ed Wo ld. Rou ledge: Oxon, Uni ed Kingdom, 2021, p. 158.
Ske ches he accoun o indi idual esponsibili y o en i onmen al ha m. Indi idual esponsibili y esul s om he balance
be ween pas -o ien ed con ibu o y esponsibili y and o wa d-looking capaci y esponsibili y. The indi idual con ibu ion
o en i onmen al ha m amoun s o he impac s o he indi idual ways o li e, including omissions and domino-e ec
consequences. These ha m ul impac s can be global and dis an . Ye , he capaci y o an agen la gely depends on he
knowledge, a ailable p ac ices and he powe s, which a e all mainly oo ed in he local milieu. As a esul , he indi idual
has he highes capaci y o ake epa a i e ac ions on he local sha ed milieu. To ace he global consequences o dis an
impac s, collabo a ion ac oss milieus is necessa y.
As he milieu is local, so a e mos o he capaci ies o he agen . Gene ally, wi h he
no able excep ion o scien i ic knowledge, he agen knows be e he own milieu, so he
capaci y o ind be e solu ions o en i onmen al p oblems is highe in he own milieu.
The agen also knows be e he local p ac ices han p ac ices in dis an milieus. She is
bes placed o es ima e wha al e na i e p ac ices she could adop and o assess he social
accep abili y o hese p ac ices. Plus, o be a membe o he same communi y and o sha e
la gely o e lapping milieus a e c ucial elemen s when i comes o judging, ad ising and
c i icizing o he s’ p ac ices. Gene ally, we a e mo e p omp o us and o accep ad ice
om people who a e close o us and who sha e simila ways o li e and s uggles, han
om s ange s. As a esul , i is easie o he agen o change he p ac ices and o discuss
o p ac ices locally han o a emp o in e ene in dis an places [53].
Mos o he powe s o he agen a e ancho ed in he local milieu. Fo agen s owning o
ha ing legal igh s o use some s ips o land, hey can con ol i s sus ainable usage. Thei
p ac ices on he land ha e di ec consequences, and so hey ha e ull esponsibili y abou
i (unless hey a e cons ained by o he s o use i in ce ain ha m ul ways). Many people
pu chase commodi ies ha a e p oduced wi h high impac s on he en i onmen , such as
ag icul u al goods. As buye s, hey can also in luence hese local ma ke s and boyco
commodi ies wi h highes en i onmen al impac s. Fu he , mos o he social esou ces
o he agen a e also mainly local, such as epu a ion, powe o in luence o he s, igh o
o e, e c. The mos powe ul impac s ha an agen can ha e end o be limi ed o he
local scale, e en i some ac ions can in luence dis an milieus, such as boyco a ec ing
p oduc ion plans.
