RUNNING HEAD: MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT AND LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION
Al a illa, J., Elosua, P., & Solano-Flo es, G. (2023). Academic achie emen in a language
e i alisa ion con ex : a s udy on he in luence o language and socioeconomic
ac o s. Jou nal o Mul ilingual and Mul icul u al De elopmen , 44(10), 1092–1107.
Academic achie emen in a language e i aliza ion con ex : A s udy on he in luence o
language and socioeconomic ac o s
This is an Accep ed Manusc ip o an a icle published by Taylo & F ancis in Jou nal o Mul ilingual and
Mul icul u al De elopmen on 17 Jan 2021, a ailable a : h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/01434632.2020.1865382. I is
deposi ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial-NoDe i a i es License (h p://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which pe mi s non-comme cial e-use, dis ibu ion, and
ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed, and is no al e ed, ans o med, o buil
upon in any way.
MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT AND LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 2
Academic achie emen in a language e i aliza ion con ex : A s udy on he in luence o
language and socioeconomic ac o s
Abs ac
We examined he in luence o language and socioeconomic ac o s on academic achie emen in
he Basque Au onomous Communi y (BAC): a mul ilingual socie y wi h a ecen his o y o
language e i aliza ion. We analyzed sco es ob ained by G ade 4 and G ade 10 s uden s on a
diagnos ic ma hema ics es adminis e ed in ei he Basque o Spanish in he BAC. We ound ha
L1 Basque use s who we e o high socioeconomic s a us (SES) we e he op pe o me s ac oss
language g oups. A la ge pe cen age o high-SES L1 Spanish use s ea ned op sco es when
es ed in hei home language. In con as , low-SES L1 use s o Spanish pe o med be e when
es ed in Basque. These indings co obo a e and expand upon indings om p e ious esea ch
conduc ed in he BAC (Elosua & Egaña, 2017; Flo es, 2019; San iago, Lukas, Joa is i,
Lizasoain, & Moyano, 2008), which show ha SES and language shape academic achie emen
in con ex s o success ul language e i aliza ion e o s.
Keywo ds: Basque, language e i aliza ion, language a ia ion, socioeconomic s a us
MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT AND LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 3
In oduc ion
This pape explo es how language and socioeconomic ac o s ela e o academic achie emen
in mul ilingual socie ies ha a e unde going language e i aliza ion. Wo ldwide, app oxima ely
2,500 languages a e endange ed o ecen ly ex inc (Moseley, 2010). A ound he globe—and
pa icula ly in Eu ope—some endange ed languages a e being e i alized h ough he educa ion
sys em. This is he case o I ish (Ceallaigh, & Dhonnabhain, 2017; O’Sulli an, Bi d, & Bu ns,
2019) and Welsh (Jones, 2016). In Spain, schools ha e been si es o e i aliza ion o he
au onomous languages o Ca alan, Galician, and Basque (Lasagabas e , 2017).
We examine academic achie emen in he con ex o he e i aliza ion o Basque. We ocus
speci ically on he Basque Au onomous Communi y (BAC), a egion in Spain whe e mos L1
Basque use s eside (Cenoz & Go e , 2019). The knowledge gene a ed he ein is imely. Spain,
ollowing a global end, has begun o use es sco es o d i e educa ional policy e o m, measu e
accoun abili y, and inc ease he anspa ency o poli ical agendas (Ve ge & Cu an, 2014). In
ecen yea s, schola s and policymake s ha e begun o examine he s anda dized es sco es o
s uden s wi hin he BAC (Flo es, 2019; Go aza , 2018). Gi en ha s uden s a e, by and la ge,
augh in he mino i y language in he BAC, i is imp uden o analyze academic achie emen
wi hou accoun ing o he language e i aliza ion con ex .
I is pa icula ly impo an o conside ha high en ollmen in Basque-medium schools—
while indica i e o e i aliza ion—may belie unde lying inequi ies. Since 1983, amilies in he
BAC ha e been able o choose om h ee linguis ic models (Sie a, 2008). Model A schools a e
hose whe e Spanish is he language o ins uc ion and Basque is augh as a subjec . In Model B
schools, con en is augh in Spanish and Basque. Basque is he language o ins uc ion (and
Spanish is a subjec ) in Model D schools (Lasagabas e , 2017). As o 2017, 96% o p ima y-
MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT AND LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 4
school s uden s and 91% o seconda y s uden s a ended schools whe e Basque was one o he
languages o ins uc ion (Cenoz & Go e , 2019). Al hough mos s uden s ecei e all o some o
hei ins uc ion in Basque and ake s anda dized assessmen s in ha language, mos BAC
esiden s speak Spanish a home (Cenoz & Go e , 2019; Go aza , 2018). The misalignmen
be ween home language and language o ins uc ion and assessmen may impac academic
achie emen . E idence om he Uni ed S a es sugges s ha s uden s ypically pe o m be e on
es s ha ma ch hei home language (Abedi, 2002; Solano-Flo es & T umbull, 2003). This has
also been shown o be ue o s uden s in he BAC (Elosua, 2016; Elosua, & Mujika 2014;
Go aza , 2018). Thus, Basque-medium schools— he mos common o he h ee linguis ic
models o schools (Cenoz & Go e , 2019) —may p i ilege he ela i ely ew L1 use s o
Basque o e L1 Spanish use s.
Socioeconomic s a us (SES) may in e sec wi h language o exace ba e educa ional inequi y
in he BAC. Nume ous s udies o la ge-scale assessmen da a show ha SES is posi i ely
co ela ed wi h academic pe o mance (Akh a & Niazi, 2011; OECD, 2016; Si in, 2005; Whi e,
1982). In he BAC, SES has been shown o in e ac wi h language o ins uc ion o home
language o in luence achie emen in ma h (Elosua & Egaña, 2017) and o he subjec s like
science and eading (Flo es, 2019). The ela ionship among language, SES, and academic
achie emen is especially c i ical o unde s and in ega d o ma hema ics. Al hough ma hema ics
is commonly assumed o ca y a lowe linguis ic load han o he subjec s, i is, in ac ,
cha ac e ized by language- ela ed challenges (Abedi & Lo d, 2001; Solano-Flo es, Ba ne -
Cla ke, & Kachcha , 2013; Halliday, 1978). Thus, in he s udy he ein, we ocus on ma hema ics
achie emen .
MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT AND LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 5
Pu pose o he S udy
The ela ionship among SES, academic pe o mance, and language in he BAC is well-
es ablished (Elosua, 2016; Elosua & Egaña, 2017; Elosua, & De Boeck, 2019; Flo es, 2019;
Go aza , 2018; San iago, Lukas, Joa is i, Lizasoain, & Moyano, 2008; Vega-Bayo & Ma iel,
2015). Howe e , he ways in which hose ac o s impac he ela i e dis ibu ion o ma hema ics
sco es has no ye been add essed. Using measu es o ma hema ics achie emen om a la ge-
scale es , we examine es sco e di e ences be ween s uden s o di e en SES and di e en
home languages es ed in ei he Basque o Spanish. Fi s , using adi ional analyses o a iance,
we examine he s a is ical signi icance o mean sco e di e ences a ibu able o he main and
in e ac ion e ec s o SES and language o assessmen , by home language. Second, using sco e
dis ibu ions, we examine he ela i e equencies o s uden s, by socioeconomic s a a, home
language, and language o assessmen . Toge he , hese complemen a y app oaches aid us in
explo ing his ques ion:
How a e SES, home language, and language o assessmen ela ed o ma hema ics
achie emen among elemen a y and seconda y s uden s in he Basque Au onomous
Communi y (BAC)?
Be o e del ing in o ou me hodology and esul s, we summa ize he sociolinguis ic con ex
o he BAC and desc ibe he ole ha schools ha e played in he language e i aliza ion p ocess.
Then, we explain he connec ion be ween language and sco e a ia ion on ma hema ics es s.
Con ex o Basque Re i aliza ion
Al hough Basque and Spanish ha e coexis ed wi hin he BAC o cen u ies, a hos o o ces
ha e g adually shi ed language use owa d Spanish (Lasagabas e , 2017). Those o ces ha e
included (bu ha e no been limi ed o) u baniza ion, indus ializa ion, and, unde F anco’s
MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT AND LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 6
dic a o ship, poli ical p essu e o a monolingual s a e (De Luna, Zalbide, Da quennes, &
Sube biola, 2014; Zalbide & Cenoz, 2008). In addi ion, au onomous languages like Basque only
ha e co-o icial s a us wi hin hei espec i e communi ies; Spanish is he o icial na ional
language (Lasagabas e , 2017). Al hough social s a us o Basque ela i e o Spanish has
g adually imp o ed (Aldekoa and Ga dne 2002), Basque is s ill an unlikely candida e o
success ul e i aliza ion. Use s o his language a e sca e ed ac oss h ee small egions ( wo in
Spain and one in F ance). Fu he mo e, Basque is he only exis ing non-Indo-Eu opean language
in Wes e n Eu ope (Elosua & Egaña, 2017). While Basque has been in con ac wi h Spanish and
F ench o cen u ies, i bea s li le syn ac ical o mo phological esemblance o ei he language
(Cenoz & Go e , 2019). This ac is c i ical o ou s udy because he dis ance be ween Basque
and Spanish means ha aking ma hema ics es s in Basque may be challenging o L1 Spanish
use s.
Ano he de ail abou he language e i aliza ion con ex ha is impo an o ou s udy is ha
he s anda dized Basque (‘euske a ba ua’) augh in schools in he BAC coexis s wi h many
egional a ie ies (Hualde, & Zuazo, 2007; Zalbide & Cenoz, 2008). S uden s who speak a
a ie y o he han s anda dized Basque may encoun e challenges in school. Fo example, use s
o egional a ie ies may no know ma hema ical e ms in s anda dized Basque o may be
un amilia wi h o mal ma hema ical discu si e s yles in Basque. Local a ie ies may ha e lowe
s a us in schools, as compa ed o s anda d Basque (Sil e s ein, 2003). In o he wo ds, bo h L1
Spanish use s and use s o egional dialec s o Basque who a end Basque-medium schools a e
aced wi h he double challenge o being es ed in ma hema ics con en while hey a e con inuing
o de elop hei ‘euske a ba ua’ skills.
Basque Re i aliza ion and Schools
MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT AND LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 7
S uden s in he BAC a e now being augh in a language ha hei g andpa en s we e
o bidden o speak. Du ing F anco’s dic a o ship, public use o all au onomous languages was
p ohibi ed (Cenoz, 2008). Th oughou ha ime, in o mal Basque-medium schools ope a ed
clandes inely, some imes ou o p i a e homes. Ma e ial esou ces we e sca ce, in pa because
w i en Basque was no s anda dized un il 1968, in he inal decade o F anco’s egime
(Lasagabas e , 2001). A e F anco’s dea h and he e-es ablishmen o he Spanish democ acy,
he e i aliza ion mo emen was aken up p ima ily by he Basque go e nmen (Lasagabas e ,
2001). S ill, widesp ead o mal educa ion in Basque only began in 1982, a e he Law o he
No maliza ion o Basque gua an eed access o educa ion in ha language (Sie a, 2008).
Today, al hough communi ies and amilies also play i al oles in he p ese a ion o Basque
(Aldekoa & Ga dne , 2002; Elosua and Egaña, 2017), schools con inue o be he main d i e s o
la ge-scale e i aliza ion e o s (Go e & Cenoz, 2011). E en in a eas wi h many L1 Basque
use s, Basque is no widely used ou side o school o he home (Cenoz & Go e , 2019; Valadez,
E xebe ia, & In xaus i, 2015). Tha is because Spanish and, inc easingly, English a e u ilized in
mo e p es igious social, poli ical, and economic spaces (Cenoz & Go e , 2019; Lasagabas e ,
2017). In addi ion, o e all numbe s o Basque use s in he BAC a e s ill low (Cenoz & Go e ,
2019) and concen a ions o Basque use s a e une enly dis ibu ed ac oss he egion (Al una &
U la, 2013; Cenoz, 2008; Nelde, S ubell, & Williams, 1996). Fo hese easons, schools a e s ill
c i ical o language e i aliza ion.
Sou ces o Sco e Va ia ion on Ma hema ics Tes s
Resea che s in he Uni ed S a es (Solano-Flo es & Li, 2009) and in he BAC (Elosua, 2016)
ha e ound ha sco e a ia ion on ma hema ics es s is ela ed o language a ie y. Language
a ie y is a pa icula ly c i ical ac o o conside in he BAC because a s anda d w i en a ie y
MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT AND LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 8
o Basque was no adop ed un il 1968 (Hualde, & Zuazo, 2007). To his day, mul iple egional
a ie ies o Basque a e s ill u ilized (Cenoz & Go e , 2019). Consequen ly, s uden s who use
Basque dialec s a home may no lea n s anda d Basque un il hey en e school (Zalbide &
Cenoz, 2008). L1 Spanish s uden s and hei L1 Basque pee s who use dialec s o Basque a
home migh , he e o e, s uggle wi h ma hema ics es i ems w i en in s anda dized Basque.
Socioeconomic s a us (SES) may also con ibu e o sco e a ia ion on ma hema ics es s o
s uden s in he BAC (Elosua & Egaña, 2017; Vega-Bayo & Ma iel, 2015). In he BAC, mos
s uden s— ega dless o SES o home language—a e educa ed in Basque (Cenoz & Go e , 2019;
De Luna, Zalbide, Da quennes, & Sube biola, 2014). One possible implica ion is ha high-SES,
L1 Basque use s in Basque-medium schools may ou pe o m L1 Spanish use s om simila
income le els on s anda dized ma hema ics es s. Tha may be due o he ac ha Spanish use s
in hose schools a e nei he ins uc ed no ypically es ed in Spanish.
Me hods
Pa icipan s
The da abase con ained sociodemog aphic in o ma ion and ma hema ics es sco es o
18,298 s uden s in G ade 4 and 16,981 s uden s in G ade 10. We applied wo inclusion c i e ia:
(1) pa icipan s had o be bo n in he BAC, and (2) pa icipan s had o sel - epo ei he Basque
o Spanish as hei home language.
Al hough immig an s make up an inc easingly la ge p opo ion o he popula ion in he
Basque Coun y (Go aza , 2018), we op ed o exclude hem om ou analyses. Immig an s o
Basque communi ies end o be om lowe socioeconomic backg ounds, a e less likely o a end
Basque-medium schools, and a e mo e likely speak non-Romance languages a home (Cenoz &
Go e ; Go aza , 2018). Fo hese easons, he dis ibu ion o hei ma hema ics sco es may be
MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT AND LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 9
qui e di e en om ha o L1 Spanish o L1 Basque s uden s. Indeed, hose di e ences a e so
consequen ial ha we belie e a sepa a e s udy is wa an ed, which examines he achie emen o
immig an s uden s ela i e o s uden s bo n in he BAC. (No e 1)
Va iables
Socioeconomic S a us (SES)
In his o iginal da abase, s uden s we e ca ego ized acco ding o i e SES le els, based on he
Index o Socioeconomic and Cul u al S a us (ISEC). (No e 2) To acili a e in e p e abili y, we
agg ega ed cases in o h ee ca ego ies: low-, middle-, and high-SES. The dis ibu ion o s uden s
by SES was oughly he same o G ade 4 and G ade 10: App oxima ely 40, 20, and 24 pe cen
o he s uden s we e espec i ely low-, middle-, and high-SES.
Home language (L1)
Home language was ei he Spanish o Basque, as sel - epo ed by s uden s’ amilies. L1 is
he language mos commonly (always o almos always) used a home wi h membe s o he
household. Ou wo king da abase con ained 12,036 L1-Spanish use s and 4,025 L1-Basque use s
in G ade 4 (n=16,061), and 11,469 L1-Spanish use s and 3,231 L1-Basque use s in G ade 10
(n=14,700).
Language o Assessmen
Language o assessmen is he language in which s uden s ook he ma hema ics es . The
language o assessmen was de e mined by es cen e adminis a o s, bu ypically co esponded
o he linguis ic model o s uden s’ schools (Ins i u o Vasco de E aluación e In es igación
Educa i a, 2012a, b). Indeed, es cen e adminis a o s elec ed o es mos s uden s—93.52% o
G ade 4 es ing g oups and 94.35% o G ade 10 es ing g oups—in ma hema ics in he language
o ins uc ion (Ins i u o Vasco de E aluación e In es igación Educa i a, 2012a, b). (No e 3)
MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT AND LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 16
composi e SES le el among all school ypes in he BAC. Mos non-immig an s uden s a Model
A schools a e L1 Spanish use s (Elosua & Egaña, 2017; Lasagabas e , 2001). Typically, as in ou
s udy, s uden s a Spanish-medium schools a e es ed in Spanish (Ins i u o Vasco de E aluación e
In es igación Educa i a, 2012a,b). Wha his sugges s is ha he s a is ically signi ican sco e
di e ences and ela i ely la ge e ec sizes ha we no ed o he main e ec o SES on
cumula i e ma hema ics sco es may be indica i e o he unique challenges aced by low-SES
s uden s a Spanish-medium schools.
Ou analyses o he sco e dis ibu ions o L1 Spanish s uden s p o ide u he e idence ha
low-SES s uden s who a e augh and assessed in Spanish may be a a disad an age. We ound
ha low-SES L1 Spanish s uden s who ook he es in Spanish pe o med wo se han hose who
ook he es in Basque. This is no he pa e n one would expec , especially o G ade 4 s uden s,
gi en he challenges inhe en o lea ning ma hema ics while de eloping he language in which i
is augh and assessed (Abedi, 2009; Haku a, Bu e & Wi , 2000; Mu ay, 2010; Ní Río dáin &
O’Donoghue, 2008; Schleppeg ell, 2007). One plausible explana ion is ha , because low-SES
L1 Spanish s uden s es ed in Basque we e augh ma hema ics in Basque, hey pe o med well
when es ed in ha language. Tha hypo hesis is suppo ed by esea ch in o he con ex s o
e i aliza ion, which shows ha ha L1 English s uden s can pe o m well in I ish (Ní Río dáin
& O’Donoghue, 2011) and Welsh (Jones, 1998) i hey a e augh in hose languages.
Al e na i ely, school-le el SES may con ibu e o di e ences in achie emen among low-
SES s uden s es ed in Basque and Spanish. San iago e al. (2008) ound ha school-le el SES
had a la ge impac on academic pe o mance o s uden s in he BAC han amily-le el SES. I
could be ha he Spanish-medium schools a ended by low-SES L1 Spanish s uden s may be
unde - esou ced, as compa ed Basque-medium schools. Indeed, as was p e iously no ed, Model
MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT AND LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 17
A public schools—popula ed p ima ily by L1 Spanish use s—ha e, on a e age, highe
pe cen ages o low-SES s uden s han o he educa ional ins i u ions in he BAC (Flo es, 2019).
Wha his means is ha al hough s uden s a e es ed in hei home language, hey may lack high-
quali y ins uc ional ma e ials o eache s. Thus, despi e he alignmen be ween home language
and language o assessmen , which has been ound o posi i ely con ibu e o academic
achie emen in he BAC (Elosua, 2016), low-SES L1 Spanish s uden s may no pe o m well on
ma hema ics es s, i hey a end low-SES schools.
A hi d possibili y is ha low-SES L1 Spanish s uden s a e no being adequa ely suppo ed,
as compa ed o high-SES pee s. S udies ha e ound ha , among L1 Spanish s uden s, hose who
a end Spanish-medium schools exhibi highe le els o SES han hose who a end bilingual o
Basque-medium schools (Elosua & Egaña, 2017). I a Spanish-medium school is p ima ily
popula ed by high-SES, L1 Spanish s uden s, he needs o low-SES s uden s may be o e looked.
The la e g oup may no be p o ided wi h ex a language suppo s in class o on es s, gi en ha
hey a e L1 use s o he language o ins uc ion and assessmen . Howe e , low-SES s uden s may
no be amilia wi h he language p ac ices a school, which o en e lec middle o uppe -class
no ms (Sil e s ein, 2003). Thus, hey may s ill equi e suppo s.
An impo an limi a ion o he s udy is ha , due o cha ac e is ics o he da a a ailable, we
we e unable o analyze he ela ionship be ween he s uden s’ sco es on he ma hema ics es and
hei sco es on he Basque and Spanish language p o iciency es s. P io esea ch has ound an
impo an ela ionship be ween pe o mance on es s and li e acy skills in he language o
assessmen (e.g., Ku dek & Sinclai , 2001; Ní Río dáin, & O’Donoghue, 2011; Walke , Zhang,
& Su be , 2008). While hose indings we e ob ained wi h o he popula ions, i is easonable o
assume ha some o he sco e a ia ion ha we a ibu e o language o SES may be ela ed o
MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT AND LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 18
s uden s’ li e acy skills in he language o assessmen . Fu u e esea ch abou achie emen in he
BAC should add ess he ela ionship be ween ma hema ics and language p o iciency sco es.
Fo now, ou esul s show ha impo an di e ences in academic achie emen s ill exis in
he BAC, despi e he success ul e i aliza ion o Basque. Toge he , ou ANOVA analyses and
ou analyses o sco e dis ibu ions sugges ha low-SES, L1 Spanish s uden s may be a an
especial disad an age. I is c i ical, he e o e, o conside how mino i y e i aliza ion e o s may
impac language g oups di e en ly, depending on SES.
MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT AND LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 19
Acknowledgemen s
This esea ch was pa ially suppo ed by XXXXXXXXXXXXXX, unde g an
XXXXXXXXXXX.
The au ho s wish o hank XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX o hei commen s on
ea lie e sions o his pape .
Decla a ion o In e es
The opinions exp essed in his pape do no necessa ily e lec he opinions o ou colleagues o
hose o he unding agency. We ha e no po en ially ele an in e es s o decla e.
MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT AND LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 20
Endno es
No e 1
We also op ed o exclude immig an s uden s because hey comp ised a ela i ely small
p opo ion o ou sample. Immig an s uden s ep esen ed 7 pe cen (n=1,131) o s uden s in
G ade 4, and 9 pe cen (n=1,369) o s uden s in G ade 10.
No e 2
SES was measu ed using he Index o Socioeconomic and Cul u al S a us (ISEC.) Each
s uden was assigned a socioeconomic ank, anging om 1 ( he lowes le el) o 5 ( he highes
le el.) Those ankings we e calcula ed by a e aging he alues associa ed wi h ac o s such as
household income, pa en al occupa ion, le el o pa en al educa ion, numbe o books in he
house, and access o he In e ne (Flo es, 2019). Tha a e age was con e ed in o a desc ip o o
o e all SES: Lowe class, lowe -middle class, middle class, uppe -middle class, and uppe class.
No e 3
S uden s we e g ouped acco ding o he linguis ic model o hei school. I es cen e
adminis a o s op ed o es s uden s in he language o ins uc ion, all s uden s ook he
ma hema ics es in he same language, which co esponded o linguis ic model. I adminis a o s
elec ed o es s uden s in hei home language, s uden s wi hin he same es g oup could ake he
es in di e en languages. In hose ins ances, he language o assessmen was based on sel -
epo ed in o ma ion abou home language use. Fo example, wi hin a single es ing g oup om a
Basque-medium school, L1 Spanish s uden s could ake he ma hema ics es in Spanish and
L1Basque use s could ake i in Basque.
In G ade 10, nea ly 99% o s uden s in Basque-medium schools ook he es in Basque,
90.83% o s uden s in Spanish-medium schools ook i in Spanish, and 88.78% o s uden s in
MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT AND LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 21
bilingual schools ook i in he wha e e language hey ecei ed ma hema ics ins uc ion
(Ins i u o Vasco de E aluación e In es igación Educa i a, 2012b). Pe cen ages o s uden s
es ed in he language o ins uc ion we e simila o G ade 4 s uden s: 97.01% o Basque-
medium, 93.15% o Spanish-medium and 85.24% o bilingual schools (Ins i u o Vasco de
E aluación e In es igación Educa i a, 2012a).
No e 4
In o ma ion a ailable o he esea che s did no include he p ocess o de elopmen and
ansla ion o he es , o whe he Basque o Spanish was he language in which he es was
o iginally de eloped. Also, he da a a ailable did no con ain in o ma ion on he cen e whe e
each s uden ook he assessmen o in o ma ion abou s uden s’ pe o mance on he Basque,
Spanish, and English componen s o he assessmen . Hence, we could no iden i y he language
used o es any indi idual s uden , no could we ela e measu es o language a s p o iciency
wi h he ma hema ics sco es.
No e 5
As shown in Table 2, in G ade 4, 4% o L1 Basque s uden s ac oss he h ee SES le els
(n=154 s uden s) we e es ed in Spanish. Simila ly, in G ade 10, only 3% o L1 Basque s uden s
(n=99 s uden s) we e es ed in Spanish. These pe cen ages e lec he ac ha mos L1Basque
a end schools ha each and conduc assessmen s in Basque, o schools ha u ilize a bilingual
model (Cenoz & Go e , 2019).
No e 6
We based he ela i e magni ude o he e ec size associa ed wi h SES on Si in’s (2005)
me a-analysis o he li e a u e abou academic achie emen and SES. Si in concluded ha , o
ixed-e ec s models wi h s uden -le el da a, he a e age e ec size o SES was .28.
MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT AND LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 22
No e 7
The e a e wo ypes o schools in he BAC: public and semi-public. Public schools a e s a e-
unded, while semi-public o “conce ado” schools a e p i a ely- un, bu publicly- unded (Elosua
& Egaña, 2017; Lasagabas e , 2001). The e a e public and p i a e a ie ies o Model A (e.g.
Spanish-medium), Model D (e.g. Basque-medium), and Model B (e.g. bilingual) schools.
S uden s a semi-public schools end o be o highe -SES backg ounds han s uden s a public
schools, ac oss linguis ic models (Flo es, 2019; Go aza , 2018).
MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT AND LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 23
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RUNNING HEAD: MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT AND LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION
Table 3.
Fixed-design SES*Language o Assessmen Be ween-Subjec s ANOVAs
G ade 4
G ade 10
S uden s wi h Home Language o Basque (n=4,025)
S uden s wi h Home Language o Basque (n=3,231)
P edic o
SS
d
MS
F
p
η²
P edic o
SS
d
MS
F
p
η²
SES
59722.625
2
29861.313
15.092
.000
.007
SES
73851.180
2
36925.590
16.081
.000
.010
Language o
Assessmen
5037.980
1
5037.980
2.546
.011
.001
Language o
Assessmen
15112.261
1
15112.261
6.582
.010
.002
SES x Language
o Assessmen
1325.525
2
662.763
.335
.715
.000
SES x Language
o Assessmen
3546.093
2
1773.046
.772
.462
.000
S uden s wi h Home Language o Spanish (n=12,036)
S uden s wi h Home Language o Spanish (n=11,469)
P edic o
SS
d
MS
F
p
η²
P edic o
SS
d
MS
F
p
η²
SES
2266738.573
2
1233369.286
566.498
.000
.086
SES
2578964.255
2
1289482.128
561.675
.000
.089
Language o
Assessmen
50580.011
1
50580.011
25.282
.000
.002
Language o
Assessmen
11930.156
1
11930.156
5.197
.023
.000
SES x Language
o Assessmen
11785.898
2
5892.949
2.946
.053
.000
SES x Language
o Assessmen
11301.045
2
5650.523
2.461
.085
.000
RUNNING HEAD: MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT AND LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION
G ade 4
G ade 10
Figu e 1. G ade 4 and G ade 10 cumula i e sco e quin iles: Pe cen age by SES
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
Quin ile 1 Quin ile 2 Quin ile 3 Quin ile 4 Quin ile 5
Pe cen age o S uden s
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
Quin ile 1 Quin ile 2 Quin ile 3 Quin ile 4 Quin ile 5
Pe cen age o S uden s
MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT AND LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 34
G ade 4
G ade 10
Figu e 2. G ade 4 and G ade 10 cumula i e sco es by SES: Pe cen age by quin ile
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
Quin ile 1 Quin ile 2 Quin ile 3 Quin ile 4 Quin ile 5
Pe cen age o S uden s
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
Quin ile 1 Quin ile 2 Quin ile 3 Quin ile 4 Quin ile 5
Pe cen age o S uden s
MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT AND LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 35
Figu e 3. G ade 4 and G ade 10 cumula i e sco e dis ibu ions o Spanish use s, by SES and
language o assessmen
