Cu en Psychology (2025) 44:1696–1716
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s12144-024-07164-1
a e se ious men al diso de s ha no only comp omise he
physical heal h, bu also he emo ional and social heal h o
hose who su e om hem (Ame ican Psychia ic Associa-
ion [APA], 2013). In quan i a i e e ms, such ea ing diso -
de s a ec mo e han 30 million people and a e a signi ican
cause o mo ali y (Ku z e al., 2020). These wo a iables
ha e been exhaus i ely s udied independen ly (e.g., Ali e
al., 2016; Le e al., 2017), howe e , he in e connec ion
be ween IPV and EDs is inc easingly ecognized (Claydon
e al., 2024), i being impo an o cla i y he associa ion
be ween hem. Since he psychopa hological impac ha
IPV igge s in ic ims is s ongly associa ed wi h dep es-
si e and anxie y-like pa hological symp oma ology ha has
a high deg ee o como bidi y wi h ED (Amo e al., 2002),
i is i al o unde s and he mechanisms unde lying he
ela ionship be ween IPV and he ED symp oma ological
pic u e i sel . In his way, we would ha e a be e unde -
s anding o he p ocesses in ol ed in he appea ance o ED
symp oma ology and which a iables could be igge ing
hem.
In ima e Pa ne Violence (IPV) and Ea ing Diso de s (ED)
ha e a g ea impac on he physical and men al heal h o indi-
iduals (Laskey e al., 2019; O am e al., 2013), hus ep e-
sen ing c ucial public heal h issues wo ldwide. IPV a ec s
millions o people (641.000.000), especially women, in all
egions o he wo ld (Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion; [WHO],
2021). EDs, which mainly include Ano exia Ne osa (AN),
Bulimia Ne osa (BN) and Binge Ea ing Diso de (BED)
Ione B e aña
[email p o ec ed]
1 Depa men o Clinical and Heal h Psychology & Resea ch
Me hods, Facul y o Psychology, Uni e si y o he Basque
Coun y UPV/EHU, A . Tolosa, 70, 20018 San Sebas ian,
Spain
2 Basic Psychological P ocesses and hei De elopmen
Depa men , Facul y o Psychology, Uni e si y o he Basque
Coun y UPV/EHU, San Sebas ian, Spain
3 Social Psychology Depa men , Facul y o Labou Rela ions
and Social Wo k, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y UPV/
EHU, San Sebas ian, Spain
Abs ac
Ea ing diso de s a e one o he consequences su e ed by indi iduals who a e imme sed in in ima e pa ne iolence.
Knowing ha in ima e pa ne iolence is a social p oblem ha a ec s men and women all o e he wo ld, i is impo an
o examine and de ec which ac o s a ec hei physical and emo ional heal h. The aim o he p esen wo k was o sys-
ema ically e iew he associa ion be ween IPV and ED. In Feb ua y 2024, a sys ema ic sea ch o Web o Science, Scopus
and PsycINFO da abases was pe o med. A o al o 689 pape s we e ob ained, o which 155 we e excluded as duplica es,
esul ing in 535 a icles. A e e iewing he i le, abs ac and keywo ds, 485 a icles ha did no mee he inclusion
c i e ia we e elimina ed. Subsequen ly, he emaining 50 pape s we e ead and disc epancies we e esol ed, achie ing
87.3% ag eemen among judges. Finally, 40 pape s me he inclusion c i e ia and we e included in he sys ema ic e iew.
The esul s clea ly show he ela ionship be ween IPV and a ious EDs. Being a ic im o IPV, in i s di e en o ms
(physical, psychological and sexual), has been ela ed o diso de s such as ano exia ne osa, bulimia ne osa and binge
ea ing diso de . In gene al, some s udies ound di e ences be ween men and women in he associa ion o he p esence o
sexual iolence and ED symp oms. In conclusion, EDs may be a o m o con ol ha indi iduals exe o e hei bodies
in esponse o he con ol exe cised by hei abusi e pa ne s. Add essing he in e pe sonal sphe e by ocusing on he
managemen o iolen dynamics wi hin he couple is he key o change in indi idual coping.
Keywo ds In ima e pa ne iolence · Type o iolence · Ano exia ne osa · Bulimia ne osa · Binge ea ing diso de
Accep ed: 17 Decembe 2024 / Published online: 10 Janua y 2025
© The Au ho (s) 2025
In ima e pa ne iolence and ea ing diso de s: a sys ema ic e iew
IoneB e aña1· Ja aMendia2· Vi giniaDíaz-Go i i3· Oie Ro ae xe1
1 3
Cu en Psychology (2025) 44:1696–1716
When examining he di e en dimensions encompassed
by he ED, i is essen ial o unde s and he esponses ha
indi iduals wi h ED may ha e when hey a e ic ims o
iolence. In ac , unde s anding his aspec no only con-
ibu es o he unde s anding o abuse and i s p e en ion,
bu also p o ides aluable ools o he apis s o iden i y he
beha io s exe cised by bo h he ic im and he agg esso ,
so ha hey can wo k on hese p oblems and pa hologies
mo e e ec i ely (Cla ijo Campo e de e al., 2021). Finally,
i should be no ed ha i is also essen ial o del e deepe
in o he ac o s ha media e be ween IPV and ED, in o de
o be e unde s and he complex ela ionship and hus ha e
comple e and de ailed in o ma ion (Lucea e al., 2012).
The e o e, his sys ema ic e iew has a wo old objec-
i e: a) o explo e he ela ionship be ween IPV and EDs,
analysing how IPV may in luence he de elopmen and pe -
pe ua ion o di e en EDs and hei symp oma ology and
b) o iden i y he unde lying ac o s ha con ibu e and/o
mode a e in he ela ionship be ween IPV and EDs wi h
he ul ima e goal o p o iding a solid ounda ion o guide
u u e he apeu ic in e en ions and ul ima ely con ibu e
o imp o ing he quali y o li e o hose a ec ed by hese
issues (Lozano-Muñoz e al., 2022).
Theo e ical amewo k
In ima e pa ne iolence (IPV)
IPV e e s o ac s o agg ession, abuse, subjuga ion and
con ol ha occu in a pa ne ela ionship (cu en o pas ),
which may cause physical, psychological o sexual ha m
(Sa dinha e al., 2022). Se e al s udies conduc ed by o ga-
niza ions such as WHO in 2021 ha e highligh ed he ala m-
ing p e alence o IPV wo ldwide. Speci ically, acco ding o
da a p o ided by WHO (2021) i is es ima ed ha 27% o
women aged 15–49 yea s ha e been subjec ed o physical
and/o sexual iolence by an in ima e pa ne . I was also
ound ha app oxima ely one in ou women and one in en
men ha e expe ienced IPV in hei li e ime (Sa dinha e al.,
2022). IPV can ha e se ious physical, men al, and sexual
consequences o ic ims, inc easing he isk o dep ession,
pos - auma ic s ess diso de (PTSD), alcohol and d ug
abuse, and sexual and ep oduc i e heal h p oblems (WHO,
2021).
Acco ding o he s udy by Bu gos e al. (2012) he e a e
di e en o ms o iolence. On he one hand, economic
iolence, which in ol es he con ol and managemen o
money, p ope y and, in gene al, all he amily's esou ces.
On he o he hand, he e is psychological iolence, a ype
o iolence ha mani es s i sel h ough shou ing, h ea s,
social isola ion, jealousy, in imida ion, deg ada ion, insul s
and blame (Bu gos e al., 2012). Ano he ype o iolence is
physical iolence, which e e s o ac s such as hi ing, push-
ing and/o slapping, which can lead o si ua ions ha cause
physical inju y and/o e en dea h (Bu gos e al., 2012).
This ype o iolence no only causes immedia e physical
inju y, bu also is associa ed wi h a numbe o long- e m
heal h p oblems, including men al diso de s such as dep es-
sion and PTSD (Dillon e al., 2013). Finally, he e is sexual
iolence, which acco ding o he desc ip ion o Bu gos e al.
(2012) is exe cised h ough physical o psychological p es-
su es ha impose unwan ed sexual ela ions h ough coe -
cion, in imida ion o helplessness.
Resea ch on IPV e eals ha bo h men and women can
be pe pe a o s and ic ims o iolence (A noso e al., 2017;
Chen & Chan, 2021; Rojas-Solís e al., 2017), an aspec
e e ed o as bidi ec ional iolence (Johnson, 2011). Bidi-
ec ional iolence is he mos common o m o iolence in
couples wi h an in ima e ela ionship (Muñoz & Echebu úa,
2016). Psychological iolence is mo e p e alen (80%) com-
pa ed o physical iolence (25%) wi hin ela ionships whe e
bidi ec ional iolence exis s (G aña & Cuenca, 2014). In he
case o unidi ec ional iolence, also called in ima e e o -
ism (Johnson, 2011), one pa ne eso s o iolen agg es-
sion while he o he pa ne is he ic im (Fe e -Pé ez &
Bosch-Fiol, 2019). Likewise, he e a e indings ha e eal
ha women a e mo e pe pe a o s o psychological and
mild physical iolence and men o se e e physical iolence
(Chen & Chan, 2021; Rubio-Ga ay e al., 2017).
Rega ding he di ec ionali y o iolence and i s conse-
quences on he heal h o indi iduals, se e al esea che s a e
beginning o s udy bo h he indi idual and he pa ne in
ela ionships in o de o be e unde s and he ex en o ic-
imiza ion and agg ession in hese si ua ions (He e o e al.,
2020; Taylo e al., 2019; Xu e al., 2022). S udies ocused
on analysing he di e en o ms o iolence and hei con-
sequences on he physical and men al heal h o indi iduals
ha e shown ha he di ec ionali y o iolence is associa ed
wi h bo h he se e i y and he symp oma ology p esen ed
(Cha e ji & Heise, 2021), hus being an essen ial aspec o
conside .
Fac o s in luencing he occu ence o IPV
Wi h ega d o he de elopmen and eme gence o iolen
dynamics, i has been obse ed ha a ious ac o s, bo h
indi idual and social, can acili a e iolen in e ac ions in
couple`s ela ionships. Social ac o s such as social imagi-
na ies ha legi imize iolence, low educa ional le el, job
insecu i y, unemploymen , machismo and LGTBI-phobia
play a de e mining ole. Howe e , o he in aindi idual
ac o s may also be in luencing he occu ence o iolence,
as well as i s consequences. Among he indi idual ac o s
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Cu en Psychology (2025) 44:1696–1716
we would ha e hose ha include psychopa hology ha he
indi idual may be su e ing om such as dep ession, anxi-
e y, PTSD (Muñoz Fe nández e al., 2020), as well as ED
(Muñoz Fe nández e al., 2020).
Ea ing diso de s (ED)
EDs a e complex men al diso de s ha a ec he way people
pe cei e hei body and hei ela ionship wi h ood (U ibe
e al., 2024). AN, BN and BED a e jus some o he mani-
es a ions o hese diso de s, which can ha e se ious conse-
quences o he physical and psychological heal h o hose
who su e om hem (Ca olina & Jane , 2011). Acco ding
o he DSM-5 (APA, 2013), EDs a ec app oxima ely 8.4%
o women and 2.2% o men (Galmiche e al., 2019) a some
poin in hei li es, hese p e alences being e y di e en
depending on he ype o ED.
Be ween 1990 and 2020, dea hs caused by EDs ha e
doubled globally. Acco ding o he Na ional Ea ing Diso -
de Associa ion, an es ima ed 70 million people ha e been
diagnosed wi h ED, and a signi ican inc ease in ED- ela ed
dea hs has been obse ed (Wu e al., 2020). The magni ude
o his p oblem is ala ming, and i is c ucial o e ec i ely
add ess he p e en ion, de ec ion, and ea men o EDs o
a oid de as a ing consequences on he heal h and well-
being o a ec ed indi iduals.
Acco ding o he APA (2013), EDs a e complex psycho-
logical condi ions ha a ec a pe son's ela ionship wi h
ood, hei weigh and hei body. On he one hand, AN
is cha ac e ized by ex eme es ic ion in ood in ake and
excessi e o ms o exe cise and/o diu e ics, accompanied
by an in ense ea o gaining weigh and a dis o ion in he
pe cep ion o one's own body. I can mani es in wo o ms:
es ic i e, whe e weigh loss is achie ed by die a y es ic-
ion; and binge/pu ge, which in ol es ecu en episodes
o excessi e ood in ake o pu ging. On he o he hand,
BN in ol es ecu en episodes o binge ea ing, ollowed
by inapp op ia e compensa o y beha io o a oid weigh
gain, such as sel -induced omi ing. The pe son's sel -e al-
ua ion is nega i ely in luenced by his o he body weigh
and shape. Finally, BED also in ol es ecu en episodes
o binge ea ing, bu wi hou compensa o y beha io . These
episodes a e associa ed wi h signi ican dis ess and do no
occu exclusi ely du ing episodes o AN o BN.
Al hough he exac e iology o ED is no ully unde -
s ood, i has been shown ha ac o s such as cul u al p es-
su e o achie e ce ain s anda ds o beau y may in luence
he e y de elopmen o he diso de (Campos del Po illo
e al., 2024) and he e ha e e en been s udies epo ing he
e ec s o some social ne wo ks on hese diso de s (Muñiz-
Ri as e al., 2020). Simila ly, exposu e o auma ic expe-
iences and unde lying psychological diso de s ha e been
ele an and key media ing a iables in he de elopmen o
his psychopa hology (López Fe nández Cao, 2017), as is
dep ession and anxie y (Lacey & Mouzon, 2016). Rega d-
ing ela ional a iables, i is obse ed, ha he de elopmen
o EDs can also come no only om he in ape sonal a i-
ables hemsel es, bu also om he o m o ela ionship
o indi iduals, such as he ype o a achmen (Valledo e
al., 2024). The e o e, we can conclude ha i is no only
hose a iables o igina ing om he indi idual, bu also
some ela ional and in e pe sonal aspec s can in luence he
appea ance o he symp oma ology associa ed wi h ED.
Howe e , a p esen we ha e li le e idence on he impac
o all hese measu es on well-being and he de elopmen o
new e idence (G aell e al., 2020).
Rela ionship be ween IPV and ED
IPV and ED a e complex and mul idimensional p oblems,
in luenced by a ious indi idual, ela ional, con ex ual, and
sociocul u al ac o s. S udies ha e e ealed ha women
who expe ience IPV a e a inc eased isk o de eloping ED,
wi h PTSD and dep ession as signi ican media o s in his
ela ionship (C eech e al., 2021). In addi ion, bo h IPV and
ED sha e common isk ac o s, such as exposu e o child-
hood auma and cul u al p essu e o mee ce ain beau y
s anda ds (Chen e al., 2024). These ac o s in e ac in com-
plex ways, exace ba ing he nega i e e ec s on he heal h
and well-being o a ec ed indi iduals.
In he ela ionship dynamics be ween he pe pe a o and
he IPV ic im, as well as be ween he indi idual and his o
he ED, simila i ies a e obse ed in pa e ns o con ol and
abuse ha nega i ely impac he li es o a ec ed indi idu-
als. These indings highligh he complexi y and se e i y o
he e ec s o IPV and ED on men al and physical heal h
(WHO, 2021), unde sco ing he impo ance o add essing
hese p oblems in a comp ehensi e manne and om in e -
disciplina y app oaches (Wues e al., 2003). The e o e, a
sys ema ic e iew would allow us o be e unde s and his
associa ion, as well as o iden i y media o s and isk ac o s,
and o unde s and how hey a ec he heal h and well-being
o a ec ed indi iduals. This would p o ide a solid basis
o he de elopmen o u u e he apeu ic in e en ions and
e ec i e p e en ion policies o imp o e he quali y o li e
o indi iduals in abusi e ela ionships wi h hei pa ne s.
Me hod
Da a collec ion
This sys ema ic e iew was conduc ed aking in o accoun
he ecommenda ions o he P e e ed Repo ing I ems o
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Cu en Psychology (2025) 44:1696–1716
On he o he hand, he ollowing exclusion c i e ia we e
applied: (1) s udies in which he ype o iolence was no
speci ied; (2) heo e ical a icles; (3) sys ema ic e iews o
me a-analyses; (4) single-case s udies; and (5) documen s
ha we e no accessible.
Selec ion o s udies
The selec ion o s udies was pe o med independen ly by
h ee au ho s o his pape . The ini ial sea ch yielded 689
pape s, o which 155 we e excluded because hey we e
duplica es. A e eading he i le, abs ac and keywo ds
o he emaining 536 pape s, 485 pape s ha did no mee
he inclusion c i e ia we e elimina ed. The 50 pape s we e
hen ead in ull and disc epancies be ween he wo au ho s
we e esol ed. The deg ee o ag eemen be ween he wo
judges was high; speci ically, hey ag eed in 87.3% o he
cases. Finally, 40 pape s me he inclusion c i e ia and we e
included in he sys ema ic e iew (see Fig. 1).
Sys ema ic e iews and Me a-Analyses (PRISMA) s a e-
men (Page e al., 2021). A sys ema ic sea ch was conduc ed
in Feb ua y 2024, using he ollowing da abases: Web o
Science, Scopus and APA PsycINFO. Speci ically, a sea ch
equa ion combining he ollowing e ms was used: "in ima e
pa ne iolence", "mu ual iolence", "pe pe a ion", " ic-
imiza ion", "domes ic iolence", "pa ne abuse", "pa ne
iolence", "spouse abuse", "ba e ed women" and "ea ing
diso de ", "ea ing pa hology", "binge ea ing", "bulimia",
"ano exia" and "diso de ed ea ing" (see p e- egis a ion o
mo e in o ma ion: h p s : / / o s . i o / j u d / ? i e w _ o n l y = c 4 1 4 9 d
0 8 9 9 6 4 4 4 9 3 8 4 9 7 3 1 9 5 2 c 8 b 7 6 1 1 ) .
Eligibili y c i e ia
We conside ed s udies ha me he ollowing c i e ia: (1)
analysed he ela ionship be ween IPV and ED symp om-
a ology; (2) pape s in a icle o ma ha had unde gone a
pee e iew p ocess; and (3) published in English o Spanish.
Fig.1 PRISMA 2020 low diag am o new
sys ema ic e iews which included sea ches o
da abases and egis e s only
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Cu en Psychology (2025) 44:1696–1716
only one s udy each (n = 2). In addi ion, he Abuse Assess-
men Sc een (ASS), Con lic in Adolescen Da ing Rela-
ionship In en o y (CARDI), and Ex ended/Hu /Insul /
Th ea en/Sc eam/Modi ied Ve sion (EHITS-MV) ins u-
men s we e also used in a single s udy each (n = 3). The
Con lic Tac ic Scale-2 (CTS-2) ques ionnai e was used in
ou s udies (n = 4), and he Woman Abuse Sc eening Tool
(WAST) ins umen in one s udy (n = 1).
Rega ding he ins umen s ound in he e iew o mea-
su e EDs, 44.18% o he s udies used ques ionnai es o
su eys designed o assess EDs. Rega ding he ins umen s
o measu e EDs, 55.82% o he s udies used s anda dized
ques ionnai es. On he one hand, Ea ing Diso de Diagnos-
ic Scale (EDDS) was used in h ee s udies (n = 3), while
Ea ing Diso de In en o y-2 (EDI-2) and he Ea ing Dis-
o de Examina ion Ques ionnai e (EDE-Q) we e applied
in wo and h ee s udies espec i ely (n = 5). On he o he
hand, Ea ing A i udes Tes (EAT) was used in wo s udies
(n = 2), and Sick-Con ol-Fa -Food (SCOFF) was he mos
used (n = 4). In addi ion, Diagnos ic and S a is ical Manual
o Men al Diso de s (DSM) was employed in h ee s udies
(n = 3), and Wo ld Men al Heal h Composi e In e na ional
Diagnos ic In e iew (WHO-CIDI) in wo s udies (n = 2).
Ins umen s such as Ea ing Diso de Sc een o P ima y
Ca e (EDSPC) and he Ques ionnai e on Ea ing and Weigh
Pa e ns-Re ised (QEWP-5) we e used in one s udy each
(n = 2). Finally, You h Risk Beha iou Su eillance Sys em
(YRBSS) and he D i e o Muscula i y Scale (DMS) we e
also used in one s udy each (n = 2).
Rela ionship be ween IPV and ED
O e all, Hus on e al. (2019) epo ed ha app oxima ely
14.11% me c i e ia o ED (7.83% BN and 6.28% BED),
and 49.42% epo ed li e ime his o ies o IPV. The ela-
ionship be ween IPV and EDs has been ex ensi ely
in es iga ed, e ealing a complex and mul idimensional
connec ion be ween hese a iables. Speci ically, Hus on e
al. (2019) ound ha IPV his o y is signi ican ly associa ed
wi h ED symp oms (β = 6.21, p = 0.03). Likewise, indings
such as hose o McGee and Thompson (2013) e ealed ha
adolescen males who epo ed expe iences o o ced sexual
in e cou se we e mo e likely o epo diso de ed ea ing
beha io , wi h an odds a io (OR) o 2.50, 95% CI:1.69–
3.70 indica ing ha ic ims o sexual ic imiza ion ha e a
signi ican ly inc eased isk o de eloping unheal hy ea ing
beha io . To conclude, in he s udy by Hus on e al. (2019)
i was seen how app oxima ely 14.11% o pa icipan s
me c i e ia o some ED, wi h 7.83% o BN diso de and
6.28% o BED and ha ED symp oms we e signi ican ly
associa ed wi h IPV (β = 6.21, p = 0.03). In u n, Jonas e
al. (2014) iden i ied ha women who had expe ienced IPV
Coding s udies
Taking in o accoun he guidelines o Lipsey and Wilson
(2001), wo au ho s c ea ed a coding scheme in which he
ollowing in o ma ion was eco ded: au ho s, i le o he
documen , yea o publica ion, s udy design, sample size,
in o ma ion ega ding he age o he pa icipan s (mean,
s anda d de ia ion, ange), pe cen age o women, place o
esidence, ype o sample (clinical s. non-clinical), mea-
su emen ins umen s used, sexual o ien a ion o he pa -
ne s, ype o iolence (physical, psychological, sexual…),
di ec ion o pa ne iolence (male o emale, emale o
emale…), objec i e and main esul s.
Resul s
Sample and ins umen s used
O he o al numbe o s udies analysed, 38 o hese s udies
we e quan i a i e and he emaining wo we e quali a i e.
Likewise, wi h ega d o he ype o esea ch design, 35
s udies o hose s udies we e c oss-sec ional and i e lon-
gi udinal ones.
The s udies iden i ied in his e iew w i en in Spanish
and English we e published be ween 1989 and 2024: 1989
(n = 1), 2002 (n = 1), 2003 (n = 1), 2006 (n = 1), 2009 (n = 1),
2012 (n = 2, 2013 (n = 4), 2014 (n = 2), 2015 (n = 7), 2016
(n = 4), 2018 (n = 2), 2020 (n = 2), 2021 (n = 4), 2022 (n = 5)
2023 (n = 3) and 2024 (n = 2). The s udies we e conduc ed
wi h samples om se e al coun ies such as Po ugal, Spain,
UK, Tu key, Japan, Iceland, I aly, Canada, Lebanon, Aus a-
lia and he U.S. Thus, he samples came om he ollowing
con inen s: Ame ica (n = 26), Eu ope (n = 10), Asia (n = 2),
A ica (n = 0) and Oceania (n = 1) (see Table 1).
I was obse ed ha in almos hal o he s udies (n = 20),
100% o he sample was composed o women. In 15 s udies,
women accoun ed o mo e han hal o he sample, while
in only ou s udies we e men in he majo i y. Only in wo
s udies was he sample composed exclusi ely o men.
Rega ding he ins umen s used o measu e IPV, a ious
alida ed ques ionnai es we e ound in 54.77% o he s ud-
ies, while he emaining 45.23% used speci ic i ems o assess
he ype o iolence. Among he ins umen s highligh ed,
he Humilia e-A aid-Rape-Kick (HARK) ques ionnai e
was used in h ee s udies (n = 3), he Hu -Insul -Th ea en-
Sc eam (HITS) in wo s udies (n = 2), and he A on Lon-
gi udinal S udy o Pa en s and Child en (ALSPAC) in
h ee s udies (n = 3). O he ins umen s such as Violence
Recei ed, Exe cised and Pe cei ed in You h and Adoles-
cen Da ing Rela ionship Scale (VREPS) and Composi e
Abuse Scale Re ised-Sho Fo m (CASR-SF) we e used in
1 3
1700
Cu en Psychology (2025) 44:1696–1716
Au ho s
(yea )
Coun y n, ype o
sample
and % o
women
Type o ins umen
used o in ima e
pa ne iolence
( ype o iolence)
Type o ins umen
used o ED ( ypes
o ED/symp oms)
Main esul s
1. Acka d
and
Neuma k-
Sz aine
(2002)
USA 81,247
s uden s
(50%)
A single wo í ems
adhoc wi h yes/no
answe .
(Violence and Rape)
A single i ems
adhoc wi h yes/no
answe s.
(Binge ea ing)
Signi ican associa ions we e ound be ween diso de ed
ea ing beha io s and da e- ela ed expe iences. Fo gi ls
and boys, esul s indica e ha expe iencing da e iolence
o ape is associa ed wi h signi ican ly highe a es o
binge-ea ing, as ing o skipping meals, aking die pills,
omi ing, and aking laxa i es o e he pas yea han o
hei pee s who ha e expe ienced nei he da e iolence no
ape.
2. Acka d
e al.
(2003)
USA 3,533
s uden s
(48.9%)
A single wo i em
adhoc wi h yes/no
answe .
(Physical and sexual
iolence).
A single wo i em
adhoc wi h yes/no
answe .
(Die ing and being-
pu ge beha io s)
Violence was signi ican ly associa ed wi h die ing and
being-pu ge beha io s. Gi ls and boys who epo bo h
physical and sexual da ing iolence whe e signi ican ly
mo e likely han hei non-abused pee s o epo die ing
and being-pu ge beha io s
3. Bailey
y Gibbons
(1989)
USA 542 s uden s
(54.2%)
A single i em adhoc
wi h yes/no answe .
(Physical iolence)
They a e based on
DSM-III c i e ia o
assess bo h bulimia
symp oms and sub-
clinical symp oms.
(Bulimia ne iosa)
The ela ionship be ween he o he o ms o ic imiza ion
( ape, sexual moles a ion, and pa ne abuse) a e smalle
bu all in he p edic ed di ec ion.
4. Ba le
e al.
(2018)
USA 837 wa
e e ans
(23.7%)
HARK (Humilia-
ion, A aid, Rape,
Kick sc eening;
Sohal e al., 2007)
(Physical, sexual
and psychological
iolence)
EDDS (The Ea ing
Diso de Diagnos-
ic Scale; S ice e
al., 2000)
(Ano exia ne osa,
bulimia ne osa,
and binge ea ing
diso de )
In he case o men, each ype o pas -yea IPV we e
signi ican ly associa ed wi h Diso de ed Ea ing symp oms.
In women, he esul s showed ha pas -yea physical
IPV (β = 13.74, SE = 3.96, p <.01), sexual IPV (β = 15.37,
SE = 3.75, p <.001), se e e psychological IPV (β = 14.68,
SE = 3.63, p <.001), and a composi e “any IPV” a iable
(β = 10.54, SE = 3.27, p <.001) we e all signi ican ly asso-
cia ed wi h EDDS sco es.
5. Bonomi
e al.
(2013)
USA 585 s uden s
(76%)
A single í em adhoc
wi h yes/no answe s.
(Physical and psy-
chological iolence)
Th ee ques ions
om he You h
Risk Beha io Su -
eillance Sys em
(Dines, 2010)
(Fas ed, omi ed,
o ook die aids o
lose weigh )
Fo emales, any da ing iolence ic imiza ion was associ-
a ed wi h diso de ed ea ing ( aking die aids, as ing, om-
i ing). Fo males, any da ing iolence ic imiza ion was
associa ed wi h aking die aids. Compa ed o non-exposed
emales, emales wi h non-physical da ing iolence
only we e a inc eased isk o ea ing diso de s ( as ing,
PR = 3.37; omi ing, PR = 2.66),
6. B ewe
and
Thomas
(2019)1
USA 84,734
s uden s
(67,2%)
A single 2 i em
adhoc wi h yes/no
answe .
(Physical, psycho-
logical and sexual
iolence)
A simple i em
adhoc
Unde g adua e pas -yea su i o s o IPV we e mo e likely
han hei non-abused pee s o epo diso de ed ea ing
(β = 0.36, p <.001),
7. Cace es
e al.
(2021)
USA 615 women
wi h hea
disease
(100%)
A single wo i ems
adhoc wi h yes/no
answe .
(Physical and sexual
iolence)
A single wo i ems
adhoc wi h yes/no
answe .
(Binge ea ing)
Sexual and physical ic imiza ion was associa ed wi h
binge ea ing. Physical e ic imiza ion was associa ed wi h
highe odds o obesi y (OR = 2.38, 95% CI: 1.38–4.10).
Women who expe ienced physical abuse e ic imiza ion
(OR = 3.11, 95% CI: 1.42–6.80), sexual abuse e ic im-
iza ion (OR = 2.79, 95% CI: 1.24–6.27), o any ype o
e ic imiza ion (OR = 2.78, 95% CI: 1.25–6.15) we e mo e
likely o epo binge ea ing han hose who epo ed no
abuse in hei li e ime.
Table1 Gene al esul s o s udies selec ed o sys ema ic e iew
1 3
1701
Cu en Psychology (2025) 44:1696–1716
Au ho s
(yea )
Coun y n, ype o
sample
and % o
women
Type o ins umen
used o in ima e
pa ne iolence
( ype o iolence)
Type o ins umen
used o ED ( ypes
o ED/symp oms)
Main esul s
8. Cha e
al. (2016)
USA 9,677
s uden s
(51.2%)
A single wo í ems
adhoc whe e answe
we e ca ego ized
in o he ollowing
mu ually exclusi e
g oups:
1) physical Da ing
Violence (DV) only
2) sexual DV only,
3) bo h physical and
Sexual DV
4) no DV
A single h ee
i ems adhoc abou
unheal hy weigh
con ol beha -
io s wi h yes/no
answe s.
(Ano exia ne osa
and bulimia
ne osa)
Male and emale adolescen s who epo ed VPI had
inc eased odds o ea ing diso de compa ed o hose
wi h no VPI. No able gende di e ences we e obse ed
such ha he ela ionship be ween VPI and diso de ed
ea ing was s onge o males han o emales ega d-
less o DV ype. Males who epo ed physical VPI only
(OR = 1.83, 95% CI: 1.15–2.91), bo h physical and sexual
DV (OR = 2.54, 95% CI: 1.55–4.16), and any o m o DV
(OR = 2.43, 95% CI: 1.81–3.25) we e signi ican ly mo e
likely o epo ea ing diso de han male adolescen s wi h
no DV. No signi ican di e ences we e obse ed o males
wi h sexual DV compa ed o hose wi h no DV expe ience.
Female adolescen s who epo ed bo h physical and sexual
iolence we e mo e han wice as likely o epo ea ing
diso de compa ed o hose wi h no DV (OR = 2.54, 95%
CI = 1.75–3.69).
9. Clay-
don e al.
(2022)
USA 1,580
uni e si y
s uden s
(61.4%)
Adap ed om Con-
lic Tac ic Scale-2
(CTS-2, S aus e
al., 1996)
(Ve bal and physical
iolence)
SCOFF (Sick,
Con ol, One, Fa ,
Food; Mo gan e
al., 1999)
Du ing COVID-19 qua an ine, he home becomes a
dange ous place o ic ims o domes ic iolence. The
a icle highligh s he need o domes ic iolence p e en ion
p og ams and accu a e assessmen o mul iple domains o
abuse du ing he COVID-19 eme gency.
10. Clay-
don e al.
(2024)
USA 1,580
uni e si y
s uden s
(61.4%)
Con lic -Tac ics
Scale (CTS; S aus,
1979)
( e bal and physical
iolence)
SCOFF Ques ion-
nai e (Mo gan e
al., 1999)
(AN and BN)
Pe pe ua ion o in ima e pa ne iolence was signi ican ly
associa ed wi h alcohol use (β = 0.13, p <.01) and alcohol
ele ance in college li e (β = 0.11, p <.01), bu no wi h ED
symp oms.
11. Con-
e ino e
al. (2021)
USA 217
mino i y
(0%)
HITS sc eening
ool (Hu -Insul -
Th ea en- Sc eam;
She in e al., 1998),
(Physical and psy-
chological iolence)
DMS (D i e o
Muscula i y Scale;
McC ea y, 2007,
Spanish alida-
ion Esco o e al.,
2013).
(Muscula u a)
VPI expe iences we e nega i ely associa ed wi h muscu-
la i y- ela ed dissa is ac ion.
12.
C eech e
al. (2021)
USA 442
p egnan
e e ans
(100%)
EHITS (Ex ended-
Hu /Insul /
Th ea en/Sc eam–
Modi ied Ve sion;
Po noy e al.,
2018).
(n )
Men al heal h his-
o y was assessed
ia sel - epo
measu e and cha
e iew.
(n )
The IPV g oup had signi ican ly highe p opo ions
o women epo ing ea ing diso de s, compa ed o he
IPV − g oup.
13. Gezen
and O al
(2013)
Tu key 81 women
ic ims o
iolence
(100%)
n (n ) SCL-90 (Symp om
Check Lis -90;
De oga is, 1994).
Le els o symp oms ela ed wi h ea ing diso de s we e
ound high in bo h g oups.
14. Gon-
çal es e
al. (2022)
Po ugal 64 ED
ou pa ien s
(95.3%)
CADRI (Con lic in
Adolescen Da ing
Rela ionships In en-
o y; Wol e e al.,
2001)
(Physical, sexual
and psychological
iolence)
EDE-Q (Ea ing
Diso de Examina-
ion Ques ionnai e;
Machado e al.,
2014)
(ED
symp om ology)
Mo e episodes o da ing iolence pe pe a ion we e associ-
a ed wi h a high EDE-Q global sco e ( =.46, p <.001)
and wi h high es ain ( =.49, p <.001), high shape
conce n ( =.41, p =.002), and high weigh conce n ( =.42,
p <.001). No signi ican co ela ions we e ound be ween
DA pe pe a ion and ea ing conce n ( =.25, p =.06).
Mo e episodes o DA ic imiza ion we e associa ed wi h
a high EDE-Q global sco e ( =.40, p =.002) and wi h
high es ain ( =.34, p =.01), high ea ing conce n ( =.26,
p =.04), high shape conce n ( =.45, p <.001), and high
weigh conce n ( =.42, p <.001).
Table 1 (con inued)
1 3
1702
Cu en Psychology (2025) 44:1696–1716
Au ho s
(yea )
Coun y n, ype o
sample
and % o
women
Type o ins umen
used o in ima e
pa ne iolence
( ype o iolence)
Type o ins umen
used o ED ( ypes
o ED/symp oms)
Main esul s
15.
Holmes e
al. (2023)
USA 212 su i-
o s o in i-
ma e pa ne
iolence
(100%)
CASR-SF (The
Composi e Abuse
Scale Re ised-Sho
Fo m; Fo d-Gilboe
e al., 2016).
(Physical, sexual
and psychological
iolence)
EDDS (The Ea ing
Diso de Diagnos-
ic Scale; Bohon &
S ice, 2015).
(Ano exia, bulimia,
binge ea ing, a ypi-
cal ano exia)
The e was a signi ican o al e ec o IPV on diso de ed
ea ing and an indi ec e ec h ough PTSD symp oms. IPV
was signi ican ly associa ed wi h weigh /shape conce ns
and he e was an indi ec e ec h ough PTSD. The e was
a signi ican o al e ec o IPV on binge symp oms. Highe
le els o IPV we e associa ed wi h g ea e PTSD symp om
se e i y which was associa ed wi h bo h weigh /shape
conce ns and binge symp oms.
16. Hus-
on e al.
(2019)
USA 190 emale
e e an
(100%)
HARK sc eening
ool (Humilia e/
A aid/Rape/Kick;
Sohal e al., 2007)
(physical, sexual o
psychological)
Ea ing Diso de
Diagnos ic Scale
(EDDS; S ice e al.,
2000)
(ano exia ne osa,
bulimia ne osa
and binge ea ing
diso de ).
App oxima ely 14.11% o pa icipan s me c i e ia o
any ED (7.83% BN; 6.28% BED), and 49.42% epo ed
li e ime IPV his o ies. Ea ing diso de symp oms we e sig-
ni ican ly associa ed wi h li e ime IPV, PTSD symp oms,
and dep ession a he bi a ia e le el. Resul s om he
media ion model e ealed ha li e ime IPV was indi ec ly
associa ed wi h EDDS sco es, h ough PTSD symp oms
and dep ession symp oms.
17. Jonas
e al.
(2014)
Uni ed
Kingdom
7,407 gen-
e al popula-
ion li ing
in p i a e
households
(59.7%)
B i ish C ime
Su ey ques ions,
wi h posi i e o
nega i e answe o
he ques ions.
(Physical and psy-
chological iolence)
SCOFF (Sick-
Con ol-One,
Fa -Food; Mo gan
e al. 1999).
(Po en ial ea ing
diso de s)
Fo li e ime IPV, he associa ion was signi ican in o ea -
ing diso de OR = 3.2 (2.0–5.0). When he sample is sepa-
a ed by gende , his associa ion emains signi ican o
women OR = 3.6 (2.1–6.1), bu no o men 2.0 (0.7–6.6).
The ORs we e g ea e o physical han o emo ional IPV
o ea ing diso de s.
18. Kondo
e al.
(2023)
Japan 699 uni e -
si y s uden s
(34%)
Na ionally adminis-
e ed ques ionnai e
on expe iences o
in ima e pa ne
iolence.
Na ionally admin-
is e ed ques ion-
nai e on ea ing
diso de symp oms
SCOFF (sc een-
ing ool o ea ing
diso de s) and
DEBQ (diso de ed
ea ing beha io
ques ionnai e).
Women we e mo e likely o expe ience physical and emo-
ional abuse by hei pa ne s and o e ea ing when he e
is a his o y o ea men han women wi hou a his o y o
ea men .
19.
Ko ha i e
al. (2015)
Uni ed
Kingdom
G1: 10,041
p egnan
women a
p ena al
s age
(100%)
A se ies o i e
sel - epo ques ion-
nai es, designed and
ex ensi ely pilo ed
by ALSPAC, we e
sen o mo he s o e
he pe ina al pe iod
and included ques-
ions ega ding hei
expe ience o IPV
(Physical and psy-
chological iolence)
A 12 weeks ges a-
ion, women we e
sen a ques ion-
nai e ha included
a b ie sel - epo
sc eening o his-
o y o psychia ic
illness and Ea ing
Diso de s Exami-
na ion Ques ion-
nai e (EDE-Q;
Peláez-Fe nandez
e al., 2012).
(Ano exia and
Bulimia ne iosas)
P e alence o physical and emo ional IPV was highe
among women wi h li e ime ea ing diso de han hose
wi hou . In compa ison wi h women wi hou ea ing dis-
o de women wi h li e ime ea ing diso de showed highe
odds o epo ing physical IPV du ing he p ena al pe iod
(OR = 2.24, 95% CI: 1.09–4.62) and a 8–33 mon hs a e
deli e y (OR = 2.47, 95% CI: 1.40–4.33), bu no du ing
he pos na al pe iod. In compa ison wi h women wi h-
ou ea ing diso de , women wi h li e ime ea ing diso de
showed highe odds o epo ing emo ional IPV du ing
he p ena al (OR = 2.27, 95% CI: 1.51–3.43, p <.001) and
pos na al pe iods (OR = 2.38 95% CI: 1.56–3.64, p <.001),
and a 8–33 mon hs a e deli e y (OR = 1.57, 95% CI:
1.06–2.33, p <.02).
Table 1 (con inued)
1 3
1703
Cu en Psychology (2025) 44:1696–1716
Au ho s
(yea )
Coun y n, ype o
sample
and % o
women
Type o ins umen
used o in ima e
pa ne iolence
( ype o iolence)
Type o ins umen
used o ED ( ypes
o ED/symp oms)
Main esul s
20.
Ko ha i e
al. (2015)
Uni ed
Kingdom
G2: 10,620
newly deli -
e ed women
(100%)
A se ies o i e
sel - epo ques ion-
nai es, designed and
ex ensi ely pilo ed
by ALSPAC, we e
sen o mo he s o e
he pe ina al pe iod
and included ques-
ions ega ding hei
expe ience o IPV.
(Physical and psy-
chological iolence)
A 12 weeks ges a-
ion, women we e
sen a ques ion-
nai e ha included
a b ie sel - epo
sc eening o his-
o y o psychi-
a ic illness and
Ea ing Diso de s
Examina ion
Ques ionnai e.
The esul s o he s udy indica e ha women wi h ea ing
diso de s (ED) a e mo e likely o expe ience physical and
emo ional in ima e pa ne iolence (IPV) du ing and a e
he pe ina al pe iod compa ed o hose wi hou ED. The
p e alence o IPV was highe among women wi h li e ime
EDs, especially hose wi h ma ked weigh and shape
conce ns and/o pu ging du ing p egnancy. Women wi h
ED and conce ns du ing p egnancy ace an inc eased isk
o IPV, highligh ing he impo ance o add essing hese
condi ions comp ehensi ely du ing pe ina al ca e.
21.
Ko ha i e
al. (2015)
Uni ed
Kingdom
G3: 8,812
newly deli -
e ed women
8–33 weeks
(100%)
A se ies o i e
sel - epo ques ion-
nai es, designed and
ex ensi ely pilo ed
by ALSPAC, (Physi-
cal and psychologi-
cal iolence)
B ie sel - epo
sc eening o his-
o y o psychi-
a ic illness and
Ea ing Diso de s
Examina ion
Ques ionnai e.
Women wi h li e ime ED showed highe p e alence o IPV
du ing and a e he pe ina al pe iod (physical = 9.6%–
14.3% and emo ional = 24.1%–28.1%). Li e ime ED was
associa ed wi h highe odds o physical IPV du ing he
pe ina al pe iod (OR = 2.34, 95% CI: 1.11–4.93, p =.03).
Li e ime ED wi h and wi hou p egnancy shape and weigh
conce ns and/o pu ging was associa ed wi h highe odds
o IPV a e he pe ina al pe iod, and highe odds o epo -
ing emo ional IPV a all ime poin s. Associa ions we e
mode a ed by pa ne 's esponse o p egnancy and ma e nal
expe ience o childhood sexual abuse.
22. Lacey
and
Mouzon
(2016)
USA 949 women
ic ims o
iolence
(100%)
A single i em adhoc
wi h yes/no answe
(Physical iolence)
WMH-CIDI
(Wo ld Men al
Heal h (WMH)
Su eyIni ia i e
Ve sion o he
Wo ld Heal hO -
ganiza ion (WHO)
Composi eIn e na-
ional Diagnos ic
In e iew (CIDI),
Kessle & Üs ün
2004).
Ra es o ea ing diso de s we e gene ally highe o hose
wi h a his o y o IPV han hose wi hou such a his o y.
Mo e han a wo old di e ence was ound be ween he
wo g oups o bulimia (7.9% s. 2.8%, p <.05) and mo e
han a h ee old di e ence in a es o binge ea ing was also
de ec ed (19.5% s. 6.1%, p <.05).
23. Lacey
e al.
(2015a,
2015b)
USA 3,277 Black
women o
A ican and
A ican-
Ame ican
o igin
(100%)
A single i em adhoc
wi h yes/no answe
(Physical iolence).
A modi ied e sion
o he WHO CIDI
(WHO Composi e
In e na ional Diag-
nos ic In e iew).
The con ol a iables (age, amily income and educa ional
le el) did no signi ican ly p edic accep ance o in ima e
pa ne iolence. When adding anxie y, agg essi eness, and
collec i ism, he a iance explained inc eased signi ican ly
Agg essi eness inc eased he accep ance o iolence
(β = 0.62), whe eas collec i ism educed i (β = -0.21).
Anxie y was no signi ican . Accep ance o iolence was
no ela ed o age, bu was nega i ely ela ed o income and
educa ional le el. Agg essi eness showed a s ong posi i e
ela ionship wi h iolence accep ance (β = 0.45), and anxi-
e y a weak posi i e ela ionship (β = 0.15). Collec i ism
was nega i ely associa ed wi h he accep ance o iolence.
24. Lacey
e al.
(2015a,
2015b)
USA 6,082
gene al
popula ion
(100%)
A simple i em adhoc
(Physical iolence)
Wo ld Heal h
O ganiza ion Com-
posi e In e na ional
Diagnos ic In e -
iew (DSM-IV)
(Ano exia ne i-
osa, bulimia ne i-
osa y as o no po
a acón)
Abused women we e ulne able o ea ing diso de s (buli-
mia and binge ea ing).
Table 1 (con inued)
1 3
1704
Cu en Psychology (2025) 44:1696–1716
Limi a ions
The e a e limi a ions in he e iewed s udies. Fi s , publica-
ion bias and eliance on sel - epo ing may in oduce biases
due o unde es ima ion o o e es ima ion o expe iences o
iolence and diso de ed ea ing beha io (Cá denas e al.,
2023). Secondly, he selec ed s udies co e a ai ly wide
ange o yea s; speci ically, om 1989 o 2024. Conside -
ing he diagnos ic c i e ia o men al diso de s such as hose
being analysed in he p esen s udy, i should be no ed ha
du ing hese yea s he e sions o he diagnos ic manuals
o men al diso de s, such as he ICD and DSM, ha e been
modi ied. Likewise, in ima e pa ne iolence is a cons an ly
changing cons uc ha is being shaped and nuanced based
on he passage o ime and new policies agains iolence
agains women and domes ic iolence. The e o e, i should
be bo ne in mind ha he cons uc s s udied and analysed
in he s udies o he cu en sys ema ic e iew may ha e
sligh a ia ions. Thi dly, i is impo an o no e he absence
o explici coding o ansgende people in mos o he s ud-
ies, a ac ha does no imply ha he e a e no ansgende
women and men in hese samples. One aspec o no e is ha
he o mula ion o ques ions does no dis inguish be ween
cisgende and ansgende . This may ha e led o a simpli-
ica ion whe e he complexi ies o gende iden i y ha e no
been ecognized, limi ing he isibili y and ep esen a ion o
ansgende people in hese s udies.
Finally, he he e ogenei y o s udies and lack o longi u-
dinal esea ch a e also signi ican limi a ions. Fu u e s udies
should ocus on inclusi e and longi udinal me hodologies
o be e unde s and he causal ela ionships and empo al
ac o s in his ela ionship.
Conclusion and u u e di ec ions
This wo k con ibu es signi ican ly o he unde s anding o
he complex ela ionship be ween IPV and EDs, highligh -
ing he need o mo e inclusi e and pe sonalized app oaches
o esea ch and ea men . Recognizing and add essing hese
di e ences is c ucial o de eloping e ec i e s a egies o
p omo e men al heal h ac oss he popula ion. Likewise,
he impo ance o ad oca ing o he p ope collec ion o
gende - ela ed in o ma ion is now c ucial o bo h esea ch
and he de elopmen o p e en ion and ea men p og ams.
Indeed, ansgende people, especially non-bina y people,
ace inc eased isks o men al heal h p oblems, disc imina-
ion, and iolence, including ele a ed a es o EDs, anxie y,
and suicide (Le e o e al., 2019). The indings highligh
he impo ance o pe sonalizing in e en ions and unde -
sco e he u gency o men al heal h polies and p og ams
ha add ess bo h IPV and EDs in a comp ehensi e manne ,
epea edly o p olonged (Lebed e al., 2023; Lucea e al.,
2012). These da a unde sco e he need o implemen p e-
en i e IPV sc eening me hods o educe ha m ul physical
and men al heal h consequences (Johnson, 2006).
I we conside he ela ionship be ween IPV and EDs,
we no e ha in be ween he e may be o he ac o s o
symp oma ology ha may explain his ela ionship mo e
comp ehensi ely. In addi ion o iolence, ac o s such as
pe ec ionism, childhood auma, and subs ance abuse ac
as media o s in his ela ionship. Muyan e al. (2015) ound
ha se e al dimensions o pe ec ionism we e associa ed
wi h die ing and/o binge ea ing. Weigh - ela ed easing by
a pa ne can lead o inc eased body dissa is ac ion and ig-
ge es ic i e ED symp oms. Coping wi h abandonmen o
loss o a signi ican ela ionship can esul in binge ea ing
and pu ga i e beha io cha ac e is ic o BN (Canals & Val,
2022). The ela ionship be ween IPV and ED poin s o how
auma and s ess a ec men al heal h and ea ing beha io ,
wi h ea ing ac ing as a coping mechanism o manage s ess
and pe cei ed con ol o e one's li e.
The impo ance o diagnosis and e ec i e
assessmen
In se e al s udies e iewed, alida ed ques ionnai es we e
used o assess o he p esence o ED and IPV. Al hough
use ul and accessible, hese ques ionnai es may limi in-
dep h unde s anding o hese complex condi ions, as hey
do no ully cap u e he indi idual expe ience, especially in
con ex s o auma and abuse (B ie e, 1997). The e is a isk
o sel - epo bias, whe e indi iduals may unde es ima e o
o e es ima e hei expe iences due o shame, s igma, o lack
o sel -awa eness. In addi ion, s anda dized ques ionnai es
may no be sensi i e o cul u al, gende , o con ex ual pa ic-
ula i ies, limi ing diagnos ic accu acy (Noyes e al., 2019).
To imp o e he accu acy and e icacy o diagnosis and in e -
en ion, i is c ucial o inco po a e a a ie y o assessmen
ools and me hods. Fo example, ques ionnai es could be
complemen ed by s uc u ed clinical in e iews ha allow
o a mo e in-dep h and pe sonalized explo a ion o IPV and
ED expe iences (Valdez-San iago e al., 2006). Adop ing a
comp ehensi e, e idence-based app oach o assessmen and
diagnosis will help p o ide a mo e comple e unde s anding
o indi idual needs, allowing o mo e a ge ed and e ec-
i e in e en ions, minimizing misdiagnosis o incomple e
diagnoses, and p o iding mo e accu a e da a o esea ch,
con ibu ing o be e p ac ices in he apeu ic in e en ion.
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Acknowledgemen s This esea ch was suppo ed by a p edoc o al g an
om he Basque Go e nmen o JM (PRE_2021_1_0065), by a Basque
Go e nmen Resea ch G oups g an (‘Cul u e, Cogni ion, and Emo-
ion’ G oup; IT1598-22), and by wo Spanish Minis y o Science and
Inno a ion g an s (PID2020-115738GB-I00 and PID2020-116658GB-
I00), unded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033/.
Funding Open Access unding p o ided hanks o he CRUE-CSIC
ag eemen wi h Sp inge Na u e.
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