163
T H E O R I A
eISSN 0495-4548 – eISSN 2171-679X
Theo ia, 2022, 37(2), 163-179
h ps://doi.o g/10.1387/ heo ia.22572
Duchenne smiles a e ac ions no me e happenings:
lessons om he deba e on exp essi e ac ion
(La son isa de Duchenne es una acción no un me o suceso:
lecciones del deba e sob e las acciones exp esi as)
Ma a Cab e a*
Uni e si a de València
ABSTRACT: In his pape , I will a gue ha , con a y o wha is gene ally assumed in he deba e on exp essi e ac ion,
we do no ha e good easons o exclude acial and bodily exp essions o emo ion such as smiling o owning om he ca -
ego y o ac ions. Fo his pu pose, I will compa e acial and bodily exp essions o emo ion wi h simple exp essi e ac ions,
such as jumping o joy o co e ing one’s ace in shame. I will y o show ha simple exp essi e ac ions canno be p e-
sen ed as ac ions while excluding acial and bodily exp essions o emo ion om his condi ion. My con en ion will hen
be ha ei he bo h so s o beha iou a e o be iden i ied as ac ions o nei he is. The la e sounds a he implausible,
hough, as we would ha e o assimila e jumping o joy o co e ing one’s ace in shame o spasms, which con lic s wi h he
way we ela e o such beha iou s. My conclusion will hen be ha bo h simple exp essi e ac ions and acial and bodily ex-
p essions o emo ion should be included wi hin he ca ego y o ac ions, a leas on he basis o he main assump ions in
he cu en deba e on exp essi e ac ion.
KEYWORDS: a ionali y; ins umen ali y; olun a iness; esponsi eness; e alua i e pe spec i e.
RESUMEN: En es e a ículo a gumen a é que, a di e encia de lo que suele asumi se en el deba e sob e las acciones exp esi as,
no enemos buenas azones pa a exclui a las exp esiones aciales y co po ales de las emociones, como son eí o unci el ceño, de
la ca ego ía de acciones. Pa a ello, compa a é las exp esiones aciales y co po ales de las emociones con acciones exp esi as sim-
ples como, po ejemplo, sal a de aleg ía o cub i se a e gonzado la ca a. In en a é mos a que no puede p esen a se a las accio-
nes exp esi as simples como acciones y exclui , al mismo iempo, a las exp esiones aciales y co po ales de las emociones de es a
ca ego ía. Sos end é, po an o, que, o bien ambos ipos de compo amien o son acciones, o bien ninguno lo es. Es o úl imo, no
obs an e, esul a bas an e p oblemá ico, ya que end íamos que asimila el sal a de aleg ía o el cub i se a e gonzado la ca a a
me os espasmos, lo cual en a en con lic o con la mane a en la que nos elacionamos con es e ipo de compo amien os. Mi con-
clusión se á en onces que an o las acciones exp esi as simples como las exp esiones aciales y co po ales de las emociones han de
se incluidas en la ca ego ía de acciones, al menos, dados los p esupues os p incipales del deba e ac ual sob e acciones exp esi as.
PALABRAS CLAVE: acionalidad; ins umen alidad; olun a iedad; capacidad de espues a; pe spec i a e alua i a.
* Co espondence o: Ma a Cab e a. Depa men o Philosophy, Uni e si a de València. A d. Blasco Ibáñez, 30 (46010València-Spain)–
[email p o ec ed] – h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-6702-3707
How o ci e: Cab e a, Ma a (2022). «Duchenne smiles a e ac ions no me e happenings: lessons om he deba e on exp essi e ac ion»;
Theo ia. An In e na ional Jou nal o Theo y, His o y and Founda ions o Science,37(2), 163-179. (h ps://doi.o g/10.1387/ heo ia.22572).
Recei ed: 2021-03-05; Final e sion: 2022-04-25.
ISSN0495-4548 - eISSN2171-679X / © 2022 UPV/EHU
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Ma a Cab e a
164 Theo ia, 2022, 37/2, 163-179
In his pape , I will a gue ha , con a y o wha is gene ally assumed in he deba e on ex-
p essi e ac ion, we do no ha e good easons o exclude acial and bodily exp essions o
emo ion such as smiling, owning, c ying, clenching one’s is s o hanging one’s head om
he ca ego y o ac ions.1 Fo his pu pose, I will compa e acial and bodily exp essions o
emo ion wi h simple exp essi e ac ions, such as jumping o joy, co e ing one’s ace in
shame, sc a ching one’s head in us a ion o punching he ai in deligh . I will y o show
ha simple exp essi e ac ions canno be p esen ed as ac ions while excluding acial and
bodily exp essions o emo ion om his condi ion. My con en ion will hen be ha ei he
bo h so s o beha iou a e o be iden i ied as ac ions o nei he is. The la e sounds a he
implausible, hough, as we would ha e o assimila e jumping o joy o co e ing one’s ace
in shame o spasms, which con lic s wi h he way we ela e o such beha iou s. My conclu-
sion will hen be ha bo h simple exp essi e ac ions and acial and bodily exp essions o
emo ion should be included wi hin he ca ego y o ac ions, a leas on he basis o he main
assump ions in he cu en deba e on exp essi e ac ion.
In sec ion 1, I in oduce he ca ego y o acial and bodily exp essions o emo ion, o-
ge he wi h he easons why pa icipan s in he deba e ha e ended o exclude such beha -
iou s om he ca ego y o ac ions. In sec ion 2, I p esen he ca ego y o simple exp essi e
ac ions and b ie ly examine he way such beha iou s ha e been accoun ed o in he li e -
a u e. In sec ion 3, I compa e simple exp essi e ac ions wi h acial and bodily exp essions
o emo ion and a gue ha , on he basis o he main assump ions in his deba e, ei he bo h
kinds o exp essi e beha iou a e o be iden i ied as ac ions o nei he is. Since he la e
sounds a he implausible —gi en he way we app oach beha iou s such as jumping o joy
o co e ing ou aces in shame— I conclude ha bo h simple exp essi e ac ions and acial
and bodily exp essions o emo ion should be included wi hin he ca ego y o ac ions.
1. Facial and bodily exp essions o emo ion
Wi hin he deba e on exp essi e ac ion, he e is a wide consensus wi h espec o he idea
ha acial and bodily exp essions o emo ion such as smiling o owning a e no ac ions o an
agen (Hu s house, 1991; Goldie, 2000; Be zle , 2007; Helm, 2016; Benne , 2016; Mülle
& Wong, o hcoming).2 The in oduc ion o such ca ego y s ems om he need o cla -
i y which kinds o exp essi e beha iou a e ac ions and which a e me e happenings an agen
1 By “deba e on exp essi e ac ion” I e e o he deba e ini ia ed by Hu s house wi h he pape A a ional
ac ions (1991). This deba e has been a iously e e ed o in he li e a u e as he deba e on a a ional
ac ions, emo ional beha iou , ac ions by emo ion, emo ional exp ession o exp essi e ac ion (Goldie,
2000; Dö ing, 2003; Be zle , 2007, 2009; Helm, 2016; Benne , 2016, 2021; Mülle & Wong, o h-
coming). Following Be zle and Benne , I will alk abou he deba e on exp essi e ac ion when I speak
o such deba e.
2 In Hu s house’s e ms, acial and bodily exp essions o emo ion a e no in en ional ac ions. Th ough-
ou his deba e, pa icipan s ha e indis inc i ely alked abou “ac ions” and “in en ional ac ions”, and
ha e dis inguished hem om wha me ely happens o an agen (Goldie, 2000; Be zle , 2007; Mülle &
Wong, o hcoming), me e e incings (Helm, 2001, 2016), e lexes (Benne , 2016) o eac ions (Ben-
ne , 2021). In his pape , a he han he con as be ween in en ional and non-in en ional ac ion, I
will ollow he con as be ween ac ions and happenings ha appea s o unde ly all such p oposals.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1387/ heo ia.22572 165
Duchenne smiles a e ac ions no me e happenings: lessons om he deba e on exp essi e ac ion
unde goes. As i is e iden , whe he o no some piece o beha iou is an exp ession o ou
agency is no a i ial issue: i is one o he mos impo an dis inc ions in philosophy and
e e yday li e, o i is clea ha we ela e e y di e en ly o ac ions han o me e happenings.
The clea es s a emen o he idea ha beha iou s such as smiling o owning canno
be seen as ac ions may be ound in Goldie’s desc ip ion o he ca ego y o acial and bodily
exp essions o emo ion:3
I u n now o hose exp essions o emo ion which a e no in any sense ac ions. I ha e in mind
no only acial exp essions o emo ion ( he smile and he own, he con o ion o he ace in
ea , he opening wide o he eyes in su p ise), bu also laugh e , he low o ea s and he emo
o ea in he oice. They oo, like bodily changes, can be causally explained, bu hey a e no ac-
ions, in spi e o he ac ha we hink o hem as exp essions o emo ion, a he han as pa o
he emo ion i sel . In his ca ego y I am mainly in e es ed in hose in olun a y bodily mo emen s
which a e in ol ed in exp essing some emo ions. I emphasize in olun a y in o de o con as
hem wi h wha we can, and some imes do, di ec ly y o do. We can smile in o de o gi e he
imp ession we a e glad when we a e no ; we can smile when we a e glad in o de o show ha we
a e; and we can smile because smiling gi es us pleasu e. Bu all hese ways o smiling a e o be con-
as ed wi h he genuine o “Duchenne” smile, which in ol es dis inc muscles which we canno
di ec ly y o mo e (…) we need no eel pushed owa ds pos ula ion o a mo i e o his smiling,
o o a means-end belie -desi e explana ion o i . A smile would be an ac ion, explicable like his,
only i i we e o he so discussed a he end o he p eceding pa ag aph [when we smile in o -
de o gi e he imp ession we a e glad when we a e no ]. (Goldie, 2000, p. 34-5, emphasis added)
The idea he e is ha acial and bodily exp essions o emo ion a e no always pe o med in
iew o some pa icula end – hey o en simply exp ess o e eal he emo ion ha someone
is eeling, in which case, and o he easons emphasised abo e, hey canno be ega ded as
ac ions o an agen . When speaking o his kind o beha iou hen, we ha e in mind genu-
ine acial and bodily exp essions, and no c ocodile ea s o he smiles ha we pe o m “in
o de o gi e he imp ession we a e glad when we a e no ” (Goldie, 2000, p. 34)
Goldie adds ha we should dis inguish such kind o exp essi e beha iou om wha
he calls “bodily changes”, ha is, hose al e a ions ha ake place when we expe ience emo-
ions and ha can ne e be ega ded as ac ions: “au onomic ne ous sys em esponses and
ho monal changes such as swea ing, change o hea - a e, sec e ion o ad enalin and so
o h, and muscula eac ions such as embling, linching, (...) These changes jus happen
o us; hey a e no hings which we do o can di ec ly y o do” (2000, p. 26). Acco ding
o him, hen, bo h bodily changes and acial and bodily exp essions o emo ion a e in olun-
a y eac ions (and no esponses) ha ha e o be causally explained. The only di e ence be-
ween hese wo ca ego ies seems o be ha acial and bodily exp essions o emo ion a e ex-
p essions o he emo ion while bodily changes a e pa o he emo ion i sel . Goldie does no
explain, howe e , how we a e o unde s and such a con as .4
3 Al hough Goldie does no gi e a name o his ca ego y, “ acial and bodily exp essions o emo ion”
seems o be a con enien label gi en he kind o beha iou included in such ca ego y.
4 The dis inc ion be ween acial and bodily o exp essions o emo ion, on he one hand, and bod-
ily changes, on he o he , oge he wi h he idea ha none o hese kinds o beha iou a e ac ions is
ai ly widesp ead wi hin he deba e on exp essi e ac ion. Mülle and Wong, o ins ance, dis inguish
be ween “basic bodily exp essions” —smiling, owning o d opping one’s oice— and “ e lex-like
Ma a Cab e a
166 Theo ia, 2022, 37/2, 163-179
Since ou ocus in his pape is on acial and bodily exp essions o emo ion, we will
lea e bodily changes ou o ou discussion. We may summa ise he easons o he exclu-
sion o acial and bodily exp essions o emo ion om he ca ego y o ac ions by e e ence o
Goldie’s i s quo e (2000, p. 34-5):
C1. They canno be explained by a means-end belie -desi e explana ion o , in o he
wo ds, hey a e no ins umen al.
C2. They a e causally explained, ha is, hey a e alien o a ionali y.
C3. They a e in olun a y.
In ligh o hese c i e ia, we may conclude ha , om his iew, smiling, owning, c ying, laugh-
ing, opening one’s eyes, hanging one’s head, clenching o pounding one’s is s, e c. a e analogous,
in a ele an sense, o spasms and e lexes: hey a e me e happenings o symp oms disconnec ed
om ou agency.5 Tha is, hey a e no hings we do, bu a he hings ha happen o us.
This iew, howe e , seems o aise an impo an dilemma wi hin he deba e on exp es-
si e ac ion. As I will y o show, he claim ha acial and bodily exp essions o emo ion a e
no ac ions — ollowing C1-C3— con lic s wi h he claim ha simple exp essi e ac ions,
such as jumping o joy o co e ing one’s ace in shame, a e ac ions.6 As I will a gue, C1-
emo ional eac ions” — ecoiling in shock o disgus edly spi ing ou an insec — and claim ha none
o hese kinds o beha iou a e ac ions because hey a e no ins umen al no a ional no olun a y
( o hcoming). Simila ly, and ollowing Hu s house, Benne dis inguishes be ween “phenomena like
blushing, swea ing” and “ o ms o beha iou like smiling”. He claims ha none o hese kinds o be-
ha iou a e ac ions and ha he di e ence be ween hem is ha he la e “o en occu in olun a -
ily bu (…) i is possible o s op o o supp ess [ hem]” (2016, p. 75), unlike in he case o blushing o
swea ing. This is p ecisely Hu s house’s idea: she says ha we o en clench ou is s, smile o own
wi hou being awa e o such mo emen s —in which case hey a e no ac ions o ou s— while, on
some o he occasions, we become awa e o hem while we a e al eady pe o ming hem (1991, p. 65).
In such case, she says, he hing we do is simply e aining om s opping. F om his iew, hen, genuine
smiles can ne e be ega ded as ac ions – hey a e me e “mani es a ions o emo ion [ ha ] emain im-
mune o a ional explana ion” (Benne , 2016, p. 75). This is why Benne claims ha we should “dis-
inguish he symp oms o some men al s a e, such as c ying o smiling, om hose objec s (and, I claim,
ac ions) ha possess exp essi e powe because hey seem o cap u e o e lec some men al s a e (o he
con en he eo )” (2016, p. 84). By con as , Helm seems o con la e acial and bodily o exp essions
o emo ion and bodily changes in a single ca ego y, which he labels “e incings”. Wi hin such ca ego y,
we ind “bi s o beha iou ha a e simply caused by he emo ion, beha iou s such as changes in espi-
a ion o pulse a e o ce ain acial o o he ges u es, such as a wince o is pounding” (2016, p. 97)
as well as beha iou s such as g i ing one’s ee h o hanging one’s head in shame (Helm, 2001, p. 75).
This kind o beha iou should be con as ed wi h wha Helm calls “exp essions o emo ion”, ha is,
“ac ions ha a e a ionally mo i a ed by he e alua i e con en o he emo ion”, such as jumping o
joy o umpling someone’s hai ou o lo e (2016, p. 97).
5 My claim is no ha pa icipan s in his deba e hold ha acial and bodily exp essions o emo ion a e
iden ical o spasms and e lexes, bu , a he , ha hey g an hem he same s a us as me e happenings.
6 Someone migh wonde whe he C1-C3 a e necessa y o su icien condi ions o a beha iou o
coun as an ac ion, o whe he hey a e sepa a e condi ions a all. I mysel ha e no clea answe o his
ques ion, howe e , whe he C1-C2 a e necessa y o su icien condi ions o agency does no a ec
my a gumen , since my claim is ha bodily and acial exp essions o emo ion and simple exp essi e ac-
ions sa is y he same c i e ia and, he e o e, should be included wi hin he same ca ego y, ega dless o
whe he such c i e ia impose necessa y o su icien condi ions.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1387/ heo ia.22572 167
Duchenne smiles a e ac ions no me e happenings: lessons om he deba e on exp essi e ac ion
C3 canno jus i y ou classi ying hese wo kinds o exp essi e beha iou di e en ly, o i
seems ha :
— Nei he can be ins umen ally explained.
— Bo h can be a ionally explained.
— Bo h can in ol e muscles we canno di ec ly con ol.
I he a gumen s ha I will p esen in a ou o such iew a e sound, i seems ha pa ici-
pan s in he deba e on exp essi e ac ion a e aced wi h an impo an dilemma: ei he bo h
so s o beha iou a e o be iden i ied as ac ions o nei he is.
As I will a gue in coming sec ions, he la e sounds a he p oblema ic, as we would
ha e o assimila e simple exp essi e ac ions, such as jumping o joy o co e ing one’s ace
in shame, o spasms, which con lic s wi h he way we ela e o such beha iou s. I will con-
clude, hen, ha —on he basis o he main assump ions in he cu en deba e— bo h
simple exp essi e ac ions and acial and bodily exp essions o emo ion should be included
wi hin he ca ego y o ac ions. Insis ence on he idea ha acial and bodily exp essions o
emo ion canno be ega ded as ac ions, would seem o equi e ha new easons should be
p o ided o help di e en ia e such pieces o beha iou om simple exp essi e ac ions.
Howe e , be o e we can compa e acial and bodily exp essions o emo ion wi h simple
exp essi e ac ions and a gue o he idea ha hey should bo h be included wi hin he ca e-
go y o ac ions, we mus examine in some de ail wha simple exp essi e ac ions a e and he
way hey ha e been accoun ed o in he deba e on exp essi e ac ion.
2. Simple exp essi e ac ions
A i s sigh , jumping o joy seems like one o he simples hings we can do. Compa ed
o ac ions such as cooking a meal, w i ing a no el o building a b idge, happily jumping up
and down when ecei ing good news seems o be an ac ion ha does no equi e om us a
oo complex analysis. The same goes o some hing appa en ly as simple as co e ing one’s
ace in shame —when emembe ing, o ins ance, a pa icula ly shame ul momen — o
sc a ching one’s head in us a ion.7
Such beha iou s, howe e , as Hu s house (1991) amously no ed, canno be ega ded
as ac ions by he ligh s o he s anda d accoun o agency. Acco ding o such accoun , (1) a
beha iou coun s as an ac ion i i can be a ionalised, and (2) o a ionalise an ac ion is o
p esen i as some hing ins umen ally aluable om he pe spec i e o a aining some end.
Tha is, i A is an ac ion pe o med by subjec S, we should be able o explain A by o e ing
a desi e-belie pai (D-B) such ha sa is ying desi e D is he aim o S and S has he belie B
acco ding o which A allows he o sa is y D.8 Running away om a p eda o in ea , o
ins ance, clea ly admi s o a a ionalisa ion o his kind and, consequen ly, can be consid-
e ed an ac ion: he subjec has he desi e o p o ec he sel and he belie ha unning away
7 We a e conside ing cases in which an agen genuinely jumps o joy, co e s he ace in shame o
sc a ches he head in us a ion. In such cases, he agen does no pe o m such beha iou s in iew o
some end – she does no jump, o ins ance, in o de o communica e he happiness; she jus joy ully
jumps a some good news she has ecei ed, o ins ance.
8 See Da idson (1963).
Ma a Cab e a
168 Theo ia, 2022, 37/2, 163-179
is he bes means o sa is ying such desi e. I we ake his iew, he e o e, we canno ega d
jumping o joy o co e ing ou aces in shame as ac ions: when we jump o joy, we a e no
ying o ins umen ally sa is y an end h ough ou jumping. Likewise, when we co e ou
aces in shame, we a e no ying o ins umen ally sa is y an end h ough ou co e ing ou
aces. Acco ding o his, and agains ou ini ial in ui ion, hen, i does no look like he e is
some hing we do in such cases – such beha iou s a e me e happenings we unde go.
The s anda d accoun o agency, hough, was pu in o ques ion by Hu s house, who
de ended he idea ha he e is a class o ac ions —a a ional ac ions— which a e clea ly
ac ions despi e no being ins umen ally a ionalisable.9 This would be he case o jump-
ing o joy, co e ing one’s ace in shame, umpling he hai o a lo ed one ou o a ec ion,
olling in g ie in he clo hes o a lo ed one who has died, des oying hings in a i o age,
gouging ou he eyes o a i al in a pic u e ou o ha ed, e c. In all hese cases, we a e una-
ble o explain wha he agen does by e e ence o a belie -desi e pai ha shows he ac ion
as some hing ins umen ally aluable. Acco ding o Hu s house, hese ac ions can only be
explained by saying ha “in he g ip o he emo ion, he agen jus el like doing hem”
(1991, p. 61). F om his iew hen, we can admi ha some o he hings we do a e discon-
nec ed om ins umen al a ionali y —and a e, hence, a a ional— bu a e s ill ac ions o
ou s. I his is co ec , i seems ha he s anda d accoun o agency is in ouble and ha
ou in ui ion ha jumping o joy and co e ing one’s ace in shame a e ac ions can be p e-
se ed.
Many ha e ied, none heless, o show ha he s anda d accoun is immune o Hu s -
house’s a ack because he class o ac ions ha she p esen s —o , a leas , mos o he ac-
ions she p esen s— can be a ionalised a e all (Smi h, 1998; Goldie, 2000; Helm, 2001,
2016; Be zle , 2007, 2009; Dö ing, 2003; Sca an ino& Nielsen, 2015; Benne , 2016,
2021; Mülle & Wong, o hcoming). The sha ed hough he e seems o be ha , i some
piece o beha iou can be ega ded as an ac ion, hen such beha iou mus be connec ed o
a ionali y in some sense. F om his poin o iew, hen, he idea ha he e is some hing
like a a ional ac ions canno be co ec .
Be o e examining he way in which some such iews ha e accoun ed o he beha -
iou s we a e in e es ed in —jumping o joy, co e ing ou aces in shame, e c.— we should
b ie ly ske ch wo c ucial ea u es o how he deba e has e ol ed since Hu s house’s sem-
inal pape . Fi s ly, he cu en deba e has p oduced a numbe o dis inc ions wi hin he
class o so-called a a ional ac ions. Al hough no e e yone explici ly ag ees in his espec ,
he common assump ion is ha no all cases in Hu s house’s lis belong o he same kind
(Goldie, 2000; Be zle , 2007, 2009; Sca an ino& Nielsen, 2015; Pineda, 2019; Mülle &
Wong, o hcoming) and should be di ided in o h ee ypes: symbolically displaced ac-
ions, adically displaced ac ions and simple exp essi e ac ions.10 The cases we a e in e -
9 In Hu s house e ms, such ac ions a e clea ly in en ional ac ions.
10 Symbolically and adically displaced ac ions a e ac ions in which he objec o an emo ion is displaced
o a di e en objec ha eme ges as he explici objec o he ac ion. In he case o symbolically dis-
placed ac ions, “ he e is some ela ion be ween objec o emo ion and objec o exp essi e ac ion on o
which he agen ’s mind migh la ch” (Goldie, 2000, p. 31). This is wha happens when one olls in
g ie in he clo hes o a lo ed one who has died o when gouging ou he eyes o a i al in a pic u e ou
o ha ed. Since he objec o he agen ’s emo ion is no a ailable o he o ac on i —in he i s case,
because he lo ed one has passed away and, in he second, because he e a e social con en ions discou -
h ps://doi.o g/10.1387/ heo ia.22572 169
Duchenne smiles a e ac ions no me e happenings: lessons om he deba e on exp essi e ac ion
es ed in —jumping o joy, co e ing one’s ace in shame, punching he ai in deligh o
sc a ching one’s head in us a ion— belong o he la e ype. Secondly, a emp s o e-
bu Hu s house’s case agains he s anda d accoun ha e mainly ocused on symbolically
displaced ac ions.11 As a esul o his, simple exp essi e ac ions and adically displaced ac-
ions ha e gone unde -explo ed. In ac , simple exp essi e ac ions end o be p esen ed as
esidual, p oblema ic o e en bo de line cases (Goldie, 2000; Be zle , 2007, 2009; Benne ,
2016). The usual s a egy has been o show ha symbolically displaced ac ions do ha e a
pu pose and, he e o e, ha we can easily a ionalise hem in ins umen al e ms.12 Hence,
such kind o beha iou s a e no a a ional ac ions – hey a e ac ions pe ec ly explained
by he s anda d accoun . Fu he mo e, some o he pa icipan s in he deba e seem o be
con inced ha his line o easoning no only applies o symbolically displaced ac ions, bu
o all ac ions included in Hu s house’s lis and, he e o e, ha he case agains he s anda d
accoun o agency ails.
This las s a egy, howe e , seems o ha e de as a ing consequences o simple exp es-
si e ac ions, since ins umen al explana ions o beha iou s such as jumping o joy o co -
e ing one’s ace in shame clea ly o e -in ellec ualise hem. Benne a gues, o ins ance, ha
so-called a a ional ac ions do ha e “a pu pose — ha o doing jus ice, o gi ing adequa e ex-
e nal o m o one’s sense o he si ua ion” (2016, p. 74, emphasis added)— which means
ha hey can be ins umen ally a ionalised – and ha e en he “spon aneous case [jump-
ing o joy] is suscep ible o a ‘ eading’ ha migh show why i would be app op ia e o se-
lec [such exp essi e beha iou ] as a i ing ehicle o ha emo ion i (…) one is in he
business o delibe a i ely selec ing a ehicle o one’s emo ion” (2016, p. 91-2). The p ob-
lem is ha i does no look like we delibe a i ely selec a ehicle o ou joy when we jump
o joy.
Smi h (1998), on he o he hand, does no men ion examples o simple exp essi e ac-
ions bu assumes ha his p oposal can explain away all cases p esen ed by Hu s house.
aging us om gouging people’s eyes ou — he ac ion akes a di e en objec ha bea s some symbolic
ela ion wi h he objec o he emo ion. The e is also a displacemen o he objec o one’s emo ion in
adically displaced ac ions bu such displacemen in ol es no symbolic iden i ica ion. The connec ion
be ween he objec o one’s emo ion and he objec o he exp essi e ac ion is a bi a y, as when one
des oys an objec in a i o age o kicks a chai ou o ange . In such cases, i seems ha any o he ob-
jec a hand —a able, a bag, e c.— could ha e jus as well been he objec o one’s ac ion. Finally, sim-
ple exp essi e ac ions a e hose ac ions whe e nei he he objec o one’s emo ion is displaced no a sym-
bolic iden i ica ion is a issue. These a e cases such as jumping o joy o hiding one’s ace ou o ea o
in shame. I ha e bo owed he e minology “symbolically displaced ac ion” and “ adically displaced ac-
ion” om Sca an ino and Nielsen (2015) and “simple exp essi e ac ion” om Pineda (2019).
11 Gouging ou he eyes o a i al in a pic u e ou o ha ed (Hu s house, 1991; Goldie, 2000; Dö ing,
2003), olling in g ie in he clo hes o a lo ed one who has died (Smi h, 1998) and ca ying one’s
g and a he ’s co in du ing his une al ou o lo e (Benne , 2016), o ins ance. An excep ion o he
gene al endency can be ound in Helm (2001, 2016) and Mülle and Wong ( o hcoming).
12 No e e yone ag ees ha he men al s a es ha a ionalise he agen ’s beha iou a e belie s and de-
si es. Dö ing (2003) and Sca an ino and Nielsen (2015), o ins ance, a gue ha he end o he agen ’s
ac ion is p o ided by he emo ion she expe iences and no by a desi e ha she may ha e. I will be
enough o ou discussion, hough, ha all o hem de end ha symbolically displaced ac ions ha e a
means-end s uc u e in i ue o which such ac ions can be a ionalised and adequa ely accoun ed o as
ac ions by he s anda d accoun . See Benne (2021) o an excep ion o his endency.
Ma a Cab e a
170 Theo ia, 2022, 37/2, 163-179
Acco ding o him, when a man olls in g ie in he clo hes o his dead wi e “ he man is do-
ing wha he is doing because he desi es o oll a ound in his dead wi e’s clo hes and belie es
ha he can do so by doing jus wha he is doing: ha is, by olling a ound in hose pa -
icula clo hes ha he is olling a ound in” (1998, p. 22). Smi h adds ha in o de o un-
de s and he desi e o he agen , we mus make e e ence o his emo ion, bu ha he be-
lie -desi e pai su ices o a ionalise his ac ion. I we u n o he case o jumping o joy,
howe e , i does no seem ha one jumps o joy when ecei ing good news because one
desi es o jump and belie es ha one can do so by jus doing wha one is doing, ha is,
jumping. Such an explana ion does no look like a good desc ip ion o wha goes on in his
case.13
Gi en hese di icul ies, Goldie (2000) and Be zle (2007, 2009) ha e specula ed ha ,
con a y o ou in ui ions, simple exp essi e ac ions migh no be ac ions a all. Goldie
says ha “jumping o joy, sc a ching you head in us a ion, and punching he ai in de-
ligh (…) [a e] hings which one does [ ha ] a e unlike he genuine smile in ha he la e
in ol es a mo emen o ce ain muscles which one canno di ec ly y o mo e. Bu s ill,
su ely a genuine spon aneous jump o joy […] no mo e in ol es a belie han does he gen-
uine spon aneous smile” (2000, p. 36). In a simila line, and a e concluding he al e na-
i e accoun o so-called a a ional ac ions, Be zle wonde s whe he he ideas could be ex-
ended o simple kinds o beha iou :
In con as , hiding one’s ace om ea , blushing in shame, jumping o joy, o pos u ing in
on o ad e sa ies a e cases ha migh be hough o be in elligible wi hou assuming any pa icu-
la poin o iew o he espec i e agen . Some o hese exp essi e ac ions may be in he icini y o
me e bodily mo emen s. O he s can be explained simply by e e ing o he ins inc o su i al ha
all agen s sha e as membe s o a species. A concession in such cases, howe e , is compa ible wi h he
a ionaliza ion applying in many o he cases. (Be zle , 2009, p. 284-5, emphasis added)
These ideas, as I no ed, a e me ely specula i e and s em om he iew ha wha we ha e
been calling simple exp essi e ac ions a e esidual and p oblema ic cases. Assimila ing
such beha iou s o me e happenings, hough, seems o ha e some a he implausible con-
sequences ha should be p ope ly add essed by anyone who wan s o de end his iew. In
pa icula , i jumping o joy o co e ing one’s ace in shame we e no hing mo e han me e
happenings —o , in Be zle ’s e ms, me e bodily mo emen s— we would need an explana-
ion o he way in which we usually app oach such beha iou s. When we see ha someone
who has jus ecei ed some news s a s jumping up and down, we immedia ely unde s and
ha he news she has ecei ed is good – o , a leas , ha i is good om he agen ’s poin o
iew. This means ha we app oach he beha iou as a esponse o some hing ha she e al-
ua es as wo h celeb a ing. He esponse, mo eo e , can be assessed as app op ia e o inap-
p op ia e, o as p opo ional o disp opo ional. In ac , i jumping we e, o wha e e ea-
sons, inapp op ia e in he gi en ci cums ances, he subjec could be blamed o no ha ing
wai ed o a mo e con enien ime o exp ess he happiness. As we can see, hough, his is
no he way we ela e o me e happenings —which a e disconnec ed om ou agency—
13 Smi h’s p oposal has, in ac , been widely ejec ed as a solu ion o Hu s house’s p oblem since i does
no seem o p o ide a good a ionalisa ion o any o he cases p esen ed in he lis (Goldie, 2000;
Dö ing, 2003; Be zle , 2007; Benne , 2016; Pineda, 2019; Mülle & Wong, o hcoming).
h ps://doi.o g/10.1387/ heo ia.22572 171
Duchenne smiles a e ac ions no me e happenings: lessons om he deba e on exp essi e ac ion
and he e o e Goldie’s and Be zle ’s sugges ions do no seem o p o ide, in p inciple, a
good explana ion o hese cases.
To ecapi ula e, we s a ed by saying ha —compa ed o ac ions such as cooking a
meal, w i ing a no el o building a b idge— jumping o joy, co e ing one’s ace in shame,
punching he ai in deligh o sc a ching one’s head in us a ion seem o be among he
simples ac ions we can pe o m. This in ui ion, howe e , seems o be ques ioned by he
s anda d accoun o agency, acco ding o which, beha iou ha canno be ins umen ally
a ionalised canno be ega ded as he ac ions o an agen . Hu s house’s c i ique o he
s anda d accoun , howe e , allows us o ega d such cases as ac ions, in pa icula as ac ions
ha a e disconnec ed om a ionali y and ha can only be explained by saying ha “in he
g ip o he emo ion, he agen jus el like doing hem” (1991, p. 61).
This las idea is none heless ejec ed by many pa icipan s in he deba e who y o
show ha he cases p esen ed by Hu s house can be a ionalised and hus be conside ed
ac ions by he ligh s o he s anda d accoun . As we ha e seen, howe e , ins umen al ex-
plana ions o simple exp essi e ac ions end o o e -in ellec ualise hem, he e o e explana-
ions o his kind do no succeed in showing ha jumping o joy o co e ing one’s ace in
shame a e no a a ional ac ions. Al e na i ely, a de endan o ins umen al a ionali y can
ques ion whe he such beha iou s a e ac ions a all —since hey do no in ol e any means-
end belie -desi e pai — bu his leads us o a e y di icul posi ion: jumping o joy o co -
e ing one’s ace in shame a e assimila ed o spasms and e lexes, which con lic s wi h he
way we deal wi h such beha iou s.
I appea s, hen, ha simple exp essi e ac ions a e s ill p oblema ic cases o he s and-
a d accoun : we ha e he in ui ion ha hey a e ac ions bu hey seem o be disconnec ed
om a ionali y – o , a leas , om he kind o a ionali y p esupposed in he discussion so a .
As Helm (2001, 2016) and Mülle and Wong ( o hcoming) ha e con incingly a gued,
all p e ious iews assume ha a ional ac ion is necessa ily ins umen ally a ional ac ion.
Howe e , hey claim, an al e na i e concep ion o a ionali y is needed i we a e o explain
he sense in which some exp essi e beha iou s a e no a ma e o me e acciden :14
We should no hink ha all in en ional ac ion is ins umen al, done o he sake o achie ing
some end, o all ha ’s needed o an ac ion o be a ionally explicable is ha i has a poin he expla-
na ion e eals o be wo hwhile (…) he poin o jumping o joy is ha i is a celeb a ion, and in eel-
ing joy one eels i s a ge o be a good wo hy o celeb a ion (…) kissing someone o umpling his
hai o , depending on he ci cums ances, holding him o e en jus si ing quie ly wi h him all ha e
a poin in ha hey a e all ways o being solici ous, and in eeling occu en lo e one eels someone
as wo hy o solici ude. And ea ing one’s hai o clo hes has a poin inso a as hese a e all ways o
mou ning, and o eel g ie is o eel a loss o be wo hy o mou ning. In each o hese cases, he emo-
ional exp essions a e no means unde aken o achie e he end o celeb a ion, solici ude o mou n-
ing; hey a e he celeb a ion, solici ude and mou ning. (Helm, 2016, p. 98, emphasis added)
The ejec ion o ins umen ali y as a c i e ion o agency, hen, allows us o see a way in
which simple exp essi e ac ions migh be connec ed o a ionali y – and a e, he e o e, no
14 See also Benne (2021) o a non-ins umen al explana ion o exp essi e ac ion. In said pape , how-
e e , he exclusi ely ocuses on cases o symbolic ac ion, such as Achilles’ d agging Hec o ’s body
a ound he walls o T oy o he kneeling o he belie e in chu ch.
Ma a Cab e a
178 Theo ia, 2022, 37/2, 163-179
4. Conclusions
I s a ed by in oducing he ca ego y o acial and bodily exp essions o emo ion, as well as
he easons ha se e al philosophe s ha e p o ided in a ou o hei exclusion om he
ca ego y o ac ions. As we ha e seen, in he cu en deba e on exp essi e ac ion, beha iou s
such as smiling, owning o c ying a e ega ded as me e happenings we unde go because
hey a e hough o be nei he ins umen al no a ional no olun a y. I hen p esen ed
he ca ego y o simple exp essi e ac ions and he a ious ways in which hey ha e been ac-
coun ed o in he li e a u e. The main claim I ha e a gued o — h ough A1-A3— is ha
simple exp essi e ac ions canno be p esen ed as ac ions while excluding acial and bodily
exp essions o emo ion om his condi ion: nei he o hese wo kinds o exp essi e beha -
iou can be ins umen ally explained, bo h can be a ionally explained and bo h can in ol e
muscles we canno di ec ly con ol.
As a esul , I ha e concluded ha , on he basis o he main assump ions in he cu en
deba e on exp essi e ac ions, simple exp essi e ac ions and acial and bodily exp essions o
emo ion canno be classi ied di e en ly: ei he bo h so s o beha iou a e o be iden i ied
as ac ions o nei he is. Classi ying beha iou s such as jumping o joy o co e ing one’s
ace in shame as happenings, howe e , con lic s wi h he way we ela e o such beha iou s.
The e o e, I ha e concluded ha bo h simple exp essi e ac ions and acial and bodily ex-
p essions o emo ion should be included wi hin he ca ego y o ac ions.
Acknowledgmen s
I am e y g a e ul o Josep Co bí, Jo di Valo , Ch is ophe Benne , Jona han Mi chell,
Pia Campeggiani, Ca los Moya and wo anonymous e e ees o hei aluable commen s
on ea lie e sions o his pape . I am also indeb ed o he audiences in he Valencia Collo-
quium in Philosophy and he 2nd VLC Philosophy Wo kshop: Sha ing Reasons.
This wo k has been suppo ed by he esea ch p ojec s PID2019-106420GA-I00
and PID2020-119588GB-I00 and by he g an BES-2017-081537 unded by MCIN/
AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and “ESF In es ing in you u u e”.
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Ma a Cab e a is a PhD candida e a he Uni e si a de València. He main a eas o in e es a e philoso-
phy o emo ions, philosophy o mind and ac ion heo y.
add ess: Depa men o Philosophy, Uni e si a de València. A d. Blasco Ibáñez, 30 (46010 Valèn-
cia-Spain). Email: [email p o ec ed]. ORCID: 0000-0001-6702-3707
