Juan An onio Qui ós Cas illo
LOCAL SOCIETIES AND PEASANTRY AGENCIES
IN MEDIEVAL IBERIA
LOCAL SOCIETIES
AND PEASANTRY AGENCIES
IN MEDIEVAL IBERIA
edi ed by
Juan An onio Qui ós Cas illo
Re i Medie ali E-Book
ISSN 2704-6362 (PRINT) │ ISSN 2704-6079 (ONLINE)
50
Re i Medie ali
Edi o -in-Chie
Ma ia Elena Co ese, Uni e si y o Bologna, I aly
Robe o Delle Donne, Uni e si y o Naples Fede ico II, I aly
Thomas F ank, Uni e si y o Pa ia, I aly
Paola Guglielmo i, Uni e si y o Genoa, I aly
Vi o Lo é, Roma T e Uni e si y, I aly
Iñaki Ma ín Viso, Uni e si y o Salamanca, Spain
Ricca do Rao, Uni e si y o Be gamo, I aly
Paolo Rosso, Uni e si y o Tu in, I aly
Gian Ma ia Va anini, Uni e si y o Ve ona, I aly
And ea Zo zi, Uni e si y o Flo ence, I aly
Scien i ic Boa d membe
En ico A i oni, Uni e si y o Tu in, I aly
Ma ía Asenjo González, Complu ense Uni e si y o Mad id, Spain
William J. Connell, Se on Hall Uni e si y, Uni ed S a es
Pie o Co ao, Uni e si y o Pale mo, I aly
Élisabe h C ouze -Pa an, So bonne Pa is IV Uni e si y, F ance
Ch is oph Da mann, Uni e si y o Hambu g, Ge many
S e ano Gaspa i, Uni e si y o Venice Ca’ Fosca i, I aly
Pa ick Gea y, Ins i u e o Ad anced S udy in P ince on, Uni ed S a es
Jean-Philippe Gene , Pan héon-So bonne Pa is 1 Uni e si y, F ance
Knu Gö ich, Uni e si y o Munich Ludwig Maximilian, Ge many
Julius Ki shne , Uni e si y o Chicago, Uni ed S a es
Ma ia C is ina La Rocca, Uni e si y o Padua, I aly
Michel Lauwe s, Cô e d’Azu Uni e si y, F ance
Isabella Lazza ini, Uni e si y o Tu in, I aly
Annliese Ne , Pan héon-So bonne Pa is 1 Uni e si y, F ance
Bea ice Pasciu a, Uni e si y o Pale mo, I aly
Annick Pe e s Cus o , Uni e si y o Nan es, F ance
Giuseppe Pe alia, Uni e si y o Pisa, I aly
Wal e Pohl, Uni e si ä Wien, Aus ia
Flocel Saba é, Uni e si y o Lleida, Spain
Rose Salic u i Lluch, Consejo Supe io de In es igaciones Cien í icas Ba celona, Spain
Alessand o Sil es i, Uni e si y o Sale no, I aly
F ancesco Vincenzo S ella, Uni e si y o Siena, I aly
Giuliano Volpe, Uni e si y o Ba i Aldo Mo o, I aly
Ch is Wickham, All Souls College, Ox o d, Uni ed Kingdom
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Fi enze Uni e si y P ess
2024
Local Socie ies
and Peasan y Agencies
in Medie al Ibe ia
ed. by Juan An onio Qui ós Cas illo
i be i a n l o c a l s o c i e i e s
i n h e e a ly m e d i e a l e u op e a n c o n e x
Se ings, p ac ices and e i o iali ies
(5 h-12 h cen u ies)
2
Local Socie ies and Peasan y Agencies in Medie al Ibe ia / edi ed by Juan An onio Qui ós Cas illo. -
Fi enze : Fi enze Uni e si y P ess, 2024.
(Re i Medie ali E-Book ; 50)
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complexi y in no h-wes e n Ibe ia in he medie al pe iod” (AEI/FEDER UE HAR2016-76094-C4-2R),
and “A chaeology o he local socie ies in Sou he n Eu ope: iden i ies, collec i es, and e i o iali ies (5 h-
11 h cen u ies)” (PID2020-112506GB-C41) unded by he Spanish Minis y o Science and Inno a ion.
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This book is p in ed on acid- ee pape
P in ed in I aly
Ibe ian local socie ies in he ea ly medie al Eu opean con ex :
se ings, p ac ices and e i o iali ies (5 h-12 h cen u ies)
1. Poli ical landscapes in La e An iqui y and Ea ly Middle Ages: he Ibe ian
No hwes in he Con ex o Sou he n Eu ope, ed. by Iñaki Ma ín Viso,
2024
2. Local Socie ies and Peasan y Agencies in Medie al Ibe ia, ed. by Juan
An onio Qui ós Cas illo, o hcoming
3. A chaeology and His o y o he Commons om Middle Ages o Ea ly
Mode n, ed. by Ma ga i a Fe nández Mie , o hcoming
4. Landma ks, Foo p in s, and Di isions o Space: he Making o Ea ly Me-
die al Landscapes, ed. by Julio Escalona, and Ál a o Ca ajal Cas o
VII
Con en s
Local Socie ies and Rela ional Agency in Medie al Ibe ia. Two A e-
nues o he S udy o Subal e n G oups, by Juan An onio Qui ós Cas illo 1
1. In oduc ion 1
2. The con ex : peasan s udies 3
3. The con en o he book 6
3.1. Theo e ical aspec s o s udying he peasan y 6
3.2. Powe s and peasan s. How is i possible o s udy peasan y agency? 7
3.3. Inhabi ed landscapes and peasan y agency capaci y 9
4. Coda 12
Wo ks ci ed 15
Peasan agency, collec i e ac ion, and ins i u ions in ea ly medie al
socie ies: an app oach om NW Ibe ia, by Ál a o Ca ajal Cas o 19
1. In oduc ion: om Punjab o Delhi 19
2. Peasan agency? A collec i e conund um 22
3. P ope y, commons, and gende in ea ly medie al locali ies 29
4. Conclusion 34
Wo ks ci ed 35
Re lec ing Peasan Agency in Medie al Ru al Milieu Resea ch o Eas
Cen al Eu ope, by Ladisla Čapek, Lukáš Hola a 41
1. In oduc ion 41
2. Unde s anding peasan s: A esea ch amewo k in Eas Cen al Eu ope 43
FUP Bes P ac ice in Schola ly Publishing (DOI 10.36253/ up_bes _p ac ice)
Juan An onio Qui ós Cas illo (edi ed by), Local Socie ies and Peasan y Agencies in Medie al Ibe ia, ©
Au ho (s), CC BY 4.0, published by Fi enze Uni e si y P ess, ISBN 979-12-215-0562-7, DOI 10.36253/979-
12-215-0562-7
VIII
3. Assessing selec ed hemes om an agency pe spec i e 49
4. Spa ial eo ganisa ion o se lemen , changes in he layou o he
ploughland, and he o ma ion o he illage 49
5. Fo ma ion o he h ee-compa men esiden ial house and he peasan
household 55
6. P oduc ion, li elihood, and nu i ion o peasan s 60
7. In eg a ion o he u al economy in o he ma ke ( ade ela ions) 62
8. Ma e ial cul u e and li ing s anda ds o peasan s 63
9. Impac s o human agency on he na u al en i onmen (human ecosys em) 64
10. La e medie al se lemen dese ion 66
11. Conclusion and discussion: A e hinking o u al communi ies’
cha ac e iza ion om he peasan agency pe spec i e 68
Wo ks ci ed 71
Village o ma ion and peasan y agency. The case s udy o Go liz
(Bizkaia), by Te esa Campos-Lopez 77
1. In oduc ion 77
2. A case s udy: he ea ly medie al illage o Go liz 81
2.1. The p e en i e p ojec 81
2.2. The sequence o Go liz 83
3. Main opics o analysis and discussion: Go liz’s con ibu ion 87
3.1. The illage o ma ion p ocess 87
3.2. The appea ance o he nec opolis 92
4. Con ibu ions o a (open) deba e 94
Wo ks Ci ed 97
Conside ing peasan agency in he Ea ly Middle Ages. A diach onic
analysis o he a chaeological eco d in Cen al Po ugal, by Ca a ina
Ten e, Sa a P a a 101
1. In oduc ion 102
2. A diach onic analysis o he peasan eco d 104
3. Discussion 108
3.1. Se lemen s and households 109
3.2. G a esi es 111
3.3. Ma e ial cul u e and consump ion pa e ns 114
3.4. Fa ming ac i i ies 116
4. Conclusion 117
Wo ks Ci ed 119
Un eiling a hidden subjec : peasan agency in he Dou o i e basin
(5 h-7 h cen u ies), by Edua do Ca doso Da lon 123
1. Hidden Subjec 124
2. Ibe ian Ea ly Middle Ages: wo e sions o he same eali y 124
3. The eme gence o a new eali y in he 5 h cen u y 127
4. Pano ama o peasan illages and a ms in he 6 h and 7 h cen u ies 131
5
Local Socie ies and Rela ional Agency in Medie al Ibe ia
In he F ench-speaking sphe e, he s udies o he paysanne ie médié ale
a e unde going a ce ain de elopmen , al hough wi h concep ual and me h-
odological pa ame e s e y di e en o hose o he B i ish.17 Among many
o he ini ia i es, he magazine His oi e e Socié és Ru ales,18 published by he
Associa ion d’his oi e des socié és u ales, is he mee ing poin o a b oad
scien i ic communi y.
In I aly, pa icula men ion should be made o he wo ks o Luigi P o e-
o.19 They add o he solid adi ion o u al his o y s udies, despi e he
cen ali y he s udy o owns has had and con inues o ha e in ansalpine
his o iog aphy.
In he case o Spain, he esilience o social his o y ges a ed in he con-
ex o he end o F ancoism has de e mined ha he s udy o he peasan y
has been one o he che ished opics, pa icula ly among ea ly medie alis s.
Also on his occasion, he jou nal His o ia Ag a ia (Ag a ian His o y) has
played, and con inues o play, a no able ole in he e i alisa ion o his ield o
s udy.20 Howe e , one o he mos in e es ing inno a ions has been he g ow-
ing impo ance o a chaeology o he peasan y.21 Fea u es ha cha ac e ise
hese wo ks a e hei c oss-sec ional na u e in ch onological e ms and he
heo e ical and me hodological b oadening o he s udy opics.22
Taking in o accoun his e e ence con ex and he concep ual amewo k
p esen ed in he i s sec ion, he main ques ions add essed in his olume
a e:
a) To wha ex en does he p oposed concep ual and me hodological ame-
wo k allow he his o y o g oups lacking in his o y and dema ca ed by he
g ea na a i es o be ela ed om an inno a i e pe spec i e?
b) How can he capaci y o agency and sociopoli ical ac ion o domina ed
g oups be de ined in concep ual e ms? Wha a e hei limi s and capac-
i y o in luence and pa icipa e in social li e based on he analysis o he
peasan y?
c) How can his capaci y o agency be in es iga ed, ecognised and ana-
lysed, aking in o accoun he nume ous documen a y and/o concep ual
il e s ha ha e been ha e accep ed by he humani ies when de ining, ep-
esen ing and analysing subal e n g oups?
d) To wha ex en is an app oach o his na u e capable o p omo ing ans-
e sal eadings ha go beyond he adi ional academic axonomies ha
17 Die kens, Sch oede , y Wilkin, Pense la paysanne ie médié ale.
18 h ps://www.cai n.in o/ e ue-his oi e-e -socie es- u ales.h m
19 P o e o, Con adini e po e e nel Medioe o; P o e o, Le pa ole dei suddi i.
20 h ps://www.his o iaag a ia.com/en/
21 View he c i ical balances o Po ass, “The a chaeology o peasan p o agonism;” Escalona,
“The ea ly Cas ilian peasan y.”
22 Among o he wo ks, see Be mejo Ti ado y G au Mi a, The A chaeology o Peasan y; Qui ós
Cas illo, A chaeology and His o y 1; Qui ós Cas illo, A chaeology and His o y 2; Vigil-Es-
cale a Gui ado, Los p ime os paisajes al omedie ales; Teje izo Ga cía, A queología de las so-
ciedades campesinas.
6
Juan An onio Qui ós Cas illo
di ide his o ical om a chaeological s udies, he s udy o Islamic and
Ch is ian socie ies, medie al his o y om he mode n age, e c? The mos
ecen s udies ha e shown ha i is p ecisely he mo e ans e sal wo ks
ha p o ide he mos in e es ing esul s when i comes o analysing he
social p ac ices o bo h he dominan and he domina ed g oups.
3. The con en o he book
To add ess hese challenges, he collec ion o pape s included in his book
look in o case s udies om he Ibe ian Peninsula, al hough a s udy de o ed o
Cen al Eu ope has also been included. The pape s co e a wide ange o local
Ch is ian and Muslim socie ies and a e au ho ed by Ame ican and Eu opean
schola s wo king om di e en a chaeological and his o ical adi ions. Mos
o he con ibu ions analyse ea ly medie al socie ies. These a e conside ed an
ideal labo a o y o analysing he agency o subal e n g oups, al hough o he
ch onologies ha e also been explo ed and, u he mo e, a en ion was paid o
long du a ions.
Gi en he na u e and ange o he pape s, i is no easy o di ide hem in o
di e en g oups, al hough i is possible o dis inguish h ee main opics: he
heo e ical aspec s, he me hodological challenges, and he analy ical con-
ex s h ough which i is possible o de ine his agency capaci y.
3.1. Theo e ical aspec s o s udying he peasan y
In a mo e o less he o ical manne , some o he s udies included in his
book ask o wha ex en he peasan y had agency capaci y o was i p ecisely
hei subal e n na u e ha p e en ed his possibili y. Some o he main un-
de lying p oblems, howe e , eside in knowing how collec i e and indi idual
agency was a icula ed, how i was deployed in e ms o ho izon al and e i-
cal ela ionships, wha limi s peasan y agency was subjec ed o, and how en-
sions be ween he s uc u ing amewo ks and agen s’ ac ions we e esol ed.
These heo e ical aspec s a e analysed in wo o he con ibu ions included in
his book.
Ál a o Ca ajal Cas o app oaches hese ques ions in ligh o he ex u-
al documen a ion om he no hwes e n Ibe ian Peninsula, aking as his
s a ing poin he di icul y in de ining and delimi ing collec i e ac ion and
indi idual agency in he case o subal e n g oups. To do his, he p oposes
eso ing o a ela ional app oach o agency by which social ela ionships a e
con inuously p oduced, ep oduced and ans o med h ough di e en p ac-
ices. Using his app oach, i is possible o assess o wha ex en peasan s’ in-
i ia i es we e able o in luence and ans o m he condi ions o subo dina ion
and o e come he basic, classic lo ds-peasan ies con aposi ion. To de elop
his a gumen , he conside s h ee main hemes: he no ion o p ope y in ea ly
7
Local Socie ies and Rela ional Agency in Medie al Ibe ia
medie al imes, he managemen o common esou ces, and gende ela ion-
ships. The esul ing pic u e is highly e oca i e when i is based on a ela ional
app oach, which should no be con used wi h he heo e ical appa a us de el-
oped by he new ma e ialisms.23 This ela ional agency is o ganised a ound
speci ic social p ac ices ha become, om his app oach, he ocus o his o i-
cal and a chaeological analysis. In his way, no ma i e concep s a e dissol ed
in a ou o a dense analysis in social e ms.
Howe e , one o he main isks o excessi ely emphasising he agency
o he peasan y and subal e n g oups is ha o building segmen ed, pa ial
and dis o ed na a i es o social li e. Ca los Teje izo poin s ou in his con-
ibu ion ha some o he isks o his o e op imis ic unde s anding include
misin e p e ing eco ds, o ge ing o unde aluing he impo ance o local
iden i ies and locali ies, and losing he meaning ul con ex o he ma e ial
cul u e. To eassess his challenge, he au ho eso s o he no ion o a eas o
s uggle, unde s ood as a o mula o spa ialising he p ac ices a ound which
social li e is o ganised. He also makes use o he concep o ela ional agency
as an ins umen o eloca e he ension be ween eli es and peasan s in dia-
lec ical and con lic e ms (la al o open). To es his analy ical p oposal, he
uses wo case s udies om he no hwes o he Ibe ian Peninsula based on
he s udy o popula ion pa e ns and an analysis o une a y a eas. He a gues
ha he sys emic collapse o he Wes e n Roman Empi e a ou ed he agency
capaci y o subal e n g oups, he mos angible esul o which was he c ea-
ion o he medie al peasan y. And al hough hey a e no always exp essi e
in monumen al e ms, he ma e ial eco ds show how he local communi ies
o he Due o basin we e subjec ed o sociopoli ical s ess ha de e mined
bo h he de elopmen o impo an in e nal inequali ies and he p og essi e
inse ion o he eli es in o hese local eali ies.
3.2. Powe s and peasan s. How is i possible o s udy peasan y agency?
The medie alis Luigi P o e o has a gued ha he main challenge o s ud-
ying he peasan y is no o admi hei capaci y o sociopoli ical ac ion, bu
a he o iden i y hese ac ions om pa ial and biased sou ces, condi ioned
by nume ous il e s and silences24. And his is he main conce n ha cha ac-
e ises he second o he blocks ha make up his book.
Jesús Be mejo’s s udy in oduces some c i ical concep s and e lec ions
o he s udy o he peasan y be ween he end o he Roman e a and he
beginning o he Middle Ages. This is a pa icula ly impo an wo k gi en
he ecen inc ease in he numbe o known subal e n g oups in he Roman
23 In pa icula , hese s udies emphasise he agency o ac ing and non-ac ing ac o s, decon-
s uc ing an h opocen ic in e p e a ions in on ological e ms, Wi mo e, “A chaeology and he
New Ma e ialisms.”
24 P o e o, Le pa ole dei suddi i.
8
Juan An onio Qui ós Cas illo
pe iod. Beginning wi h he concep o subal e n deb is, desc ibed by James
C. Sco as a ma e ial mani es a ion o e e yday peasan esis ance, he sig-
ni icance o he end o he Roman illae is e iewed. This subjec has been
conside ed as an end poin o classical a chaeologis s and a s a ing poin
o specialis s in he medie al pe iod. As a consequence, he ain e idence o
non-monumen al ma e ial elemen s da ed be ween he 5 h and he 8 h cen u-
ies has o en been conside ed as ma ginal o he esul o anomalous uses by
squa e s and occupie s. Based on a enewed concep ual and me hodological
appa a us, he agency o he peasan communi ies is explo ed by e isi ing
his e idence, which has a ely been e iewed in dep h. The la e an iqui y
occupa ion o Fuen e Álamo (Puen e Genil, Spain), aking in o accoun he
ma e ial cul u e and o he e idence, p o ides he oppo uni y o shed ligh on
a se ies o indi idual peasan households, o e ing a esh pe spec i e on he
analysis o he peasan y.
The wo k o he B azilian esea che Edua do Ca doso Da ln is pa icu-
la ly indica i e, as he goes igh o he hea o he ques ion when he poin s
ou he di icul y in combining he w i en and ma e ial sou ces e e ing o
he ea ly medie al peasan y on he Ibe ian Peninsula, and speci ically he
Due o basin be ween he 5 h and 7 h cen u ies. The ex s mainly deal wi h
la ge landowne s and e i o ially well-es ablished powe s, while he a chae-
ological e idence is much spa se when i comes o showing social hie a -
chies, o ms o domina ion and social asymme ies. The amoun o e idence
is s ill limi ed in bo h cases, bu his con aposi ion has gi en ise o a mo e o
less o malised deba e be ween he di e en specialis s. To un a el his skein,
he au ho unde akes a de ailed geog aphical and ch onological analysis. He
e idences bo h he mic o-s a i ica ions gene a ed wi hin local communi ies
as a esul o in e nal ensions and he mechanisms h ough which eligious
and secula eli es a i med hemsel es in he local sphe e. These we e long
p ocesses sp ead o e 250 yea s a e he peasan y had enjoyed a pe iod o
ela i e au onomy ollowing he all o he Wes e n Empi e. O pa icula in-
e es is he ela ionship es ablished be ween he abandonmen o i s -gen-
e a ion cas les, he a i ma ion o u ban bishop ics, and he c ea ion o a new
social model. In his way, a highly a icula ed p oposal is o mula ed on he
agency capaci y o he ea ly medie al peasan y.
Undoub edly, such a s udy is aced wi h p eca iousness and he meag e
numbe o p ese ed sou ces. Ha ing said ha , is i easie o s udy peasan y
agency in mo e ecen cen u ies, when he olume o in o ma ion is much
g ea e ? This is he challenge aced by Josu Na ba e and Ma in Aies a an
in hei s udy o he ans o ma ions o ag icul u al p ac ices in he mode n
pe iod. Mo e speci ically, he au ho s ques ion he ole played by he peas-
an y in he ag a ian e olu ion ha in oduced Ame ican c ops, he new
me hods o o es esou ce managemen , he di e en o ms o communal
land app op ia ion, and he mu a ion o he u al communi ies in he 17 h-18 h
cen u ies. Fo his pu pose, hey ake in o conside a ion a well- ecognisable
p ac ice h ough bo h ex s and ag a ian a chaeology: he use o lime o e -
9
Local Socie ies and Rela ional Agency in Medie al Ibe ia
ilise c op ields and main ain highly in ensi e ag icul u al me hods ha has
been documen ed in he eas e n Can ab ian a ea since a leas he 18 h cen u-
y. Pa icula ly in e es ing esul s we e p o ided by he mul ip oxy esea ch
combining he s udy o w i en sou ces, oponymy, ield su eys, exca a-
ions in cu en ly inhabi ed domes ic spaces and geoa chaeology in Aiza na
(Gipuzkoa) and Amaiu (Na a a). The au ho s conclude ha he ag onomy
imp o emen na a i e ails o adequa ely explain he way in which his p ac-
ice has been used, he implemen a ion o which has a - eaching social con-
sequences ha anscend he dominan economic and unc ionalis logic. The
chaîne opé a oi e o lime p oduc ion, he o ms o use o absence o lime, and
he me hods o c op o a ion con igu ed dense social landscapes shaped by
peasan y agency. Despi e i s ch onological p oximi y, his case s udy shows
ha me e ecou se o w i en memo y does no allow us o adequa ely ocus
hese dynamics.
The las chap e in his block was w i en by Ladisla Čapek and Lukáš
Hola a and deals wi h he eas e n pa o Cen al Eu ope. This densely packed
chap e makes i possible o compa e he Ibe ian expe ience wi h o he un-
de ep esen ed o absen academic ajec o ies in he deba e on he peasan y
o Wes e n Eu ope. The pape has h ee main objec i es: o p esen in his o-
iog aphical e ms he heo e ical and concep ual amewo k wi h which he
peasan y in cen al Eu ope has been s udied; o ca y ou a su ey o some
o he main hemes s udied by he a chaeology o he peasan y in he a ea o
he Czech Republic, Ge many and Hunga y; o p esen a esea ch p og amme
o he u u e, iden i ying some o he mos p omising opics, as well as he
me hodological and concep ual ins umen s o add ess hei s udy. The s a -
ing poin is ha he agency o he medie al peasan y, o e en he peasan y
i sel , has no ye ecei ed he a en ion i dese es om his o ians and a -
chaeologis s in Cen al Eu ope. The p oposal p esen ed is based on di e en
s udy adi ions, and mo e speci ically on hose om he Uni ed Kingdom,
Ge many and he Cen al Eu opean na ions, and is o ganised a ound ele en
main hemes: illage o ma ion and se lemen pa e ns; domes ic eco ds;
ag a ian and c a p oduc ion; ood; ma ke s; en i onmen s and landscapes;
u al eli es; chu ches and pa ishes; li ing s anda ds; social iden i ies and il-
lage dese ion. I is ue ha he esul s p o ided a e s ill p o isional, bu
hey a e o pa icula impo ance o con ex ualise peasan s udies in a b oad
geog aphical a ea. In ac , he con ibu ion in oduces a la ge numbe o case
s udies published in languages ha a e no e y accessible o ou academy.
3.3. Inhabi ed landscapes and peasan y agency capaci y
Howe e , i he e is consensus among specialis s when i comes o ana-
lysing he agency o he peasan y, i is ha inhabi ed spaces and social land-
scapes a e he ideal scena io o he analysis o dependen u al g oups. The
hi d block o con ibu ions conside s his aspec . Te esa Campos examines
10
Juan An onio Qui ós Cas illo
he agency capaci y o he peasan y in one o he main p ocesses analysed
by Eu opean medie al a chaeology: illage o ma ion. This is a subjec ha
has been he objec o s udy by adi ions such as hose o he F ench o he
B i ish, since i has been assumed ha he “c ys allisa ion”, o malisa ion o
c ea ion o medie al illages would ha e been he ma e ial ansla ion o he
es ablishmen o lo dly powe ela ions25. The issue has been widely deba ed
and has o en been esol ed in e ms o opposi ion be ween hose who gi e
cen ali y o secula and eligious powe s, e sus hose who emphasise he
ole o he peasan y. And al hough nowadays mo e nuanced and mul i a -
ia e na a i es ha e been p oposed, i is in e es ing o analyse his p ocess
in ea ly medie al Bizkaia, an a ea cha ac e ised by a ce ain weakness o he
local powe s. An analysis o he occupa ional sequence, he a chaeological
ma e ials and o he indica o s sugges s ha in he case o Go liz he peas-
an y was he p o agonis o he ounding o his locali y, al hough i is an
in e nally di e si ied and hie a chical subjec . Go liz, like o he examples in-
es iga ed in he Basque a ea, sheds ligh on he p ocess o c ea ing ma ked
social di e ences om wi hin he neighbou ing communi ies hemsel es. In
addi ion, and in con as o mo e adi ional app oaches, his example shows
he p o ound unc ional, mo phological and social ans o ma ions o which
medie al u al spaces we e subjec ed.
The analysis o se lemen and ag icul u al p oduc ion is also he a gu-
men a i e axis o he wo k p esen ed by Ca a ina Ten e and Sa a P a a ded-
ica ed o wo Po uguese e i o ies, Al o Alen ejo and Bei a Al a. They a e,
wi hou doub , wo o he bes esea ched ea ly medie al zones in Po ugal
in ecen yea s and allow a compa a i e analysis o wo mul i-yea p ojec s.
The ends obse ed in se lemen pa e ns o bu ial a eas e eal no able
di e ences, as well as in he economic pa e ns ha cha ac e ise he wide
alleys o Alen ejo wi h espec o he Bei a moun ains. Howe e , he e a e
also some ai s he analyses ha e in common. Fi s ly, he analysis o ag icul-
u al p oduc ion and e e yday a i ac s e eals how hese peasan socie ies
pa icipa ed in ac i e sociopoli ical sys ems on a ious scales, as well as he
exis ence o egional eli es ha did no always eso o o ms o monumen al-
isa ion and laun ing o hei posi ions. Secondly, he exis ence o mic os a -
i ica ions wi hin he local communi ies de ined by he neighbou hood and
he cons uc ion o sha ed social memo ies is in ui ed. Howe e , pe haps he
mos impo an con ibu ion o his s udy esides in he ac ha he au ho s
sugges ha he eading o he a chaeological eco ds o peasan socie ies can
be con adic o y i a solid heo e ical appa a us is no used. In o he wo ds,
he con as be ween lo ds and peasan s, o e en he mo e elabo a e con as
25 The e is an abundan bibliog aphy. Among o he s udies see Chapelo y Fossie , Le illage e
la maison au Moyen Âge; Zado a Rio, “Le illage des his o iens;” Rippon, Beyond he medie al
illage; Hame ow, Ru al Se lemen s and Socie y; Klaps e y Nissen Jaube , “Ru al se lemen .”
11
Local Socie ies and Rela ional Agency in Medie al Ibe ia
be ween powe s and local communi ies, is inope a i e and limi ing o con-
cep ualising he dynamics obse ed in local socie ies.
The s udy ca ied ou by Ka en Ál a o and Es he T a e once again con-
side s how o s udy he agency o he peasan y h ough he o ms o se le-
men and ans o ma ions ha ook place du ing he Ea ly Middle Ages. Fo
his, hey conside he example o p esen -day Ca alonia, which is undoub -
edly one o he mos in e es ing and bes esea ched egions in which o s udy
he agency capaci y o he peasan y. In ac , impo an con ibu ions ha e
been made o e he las h ee decades om he pe spec i e o bo h escue
and p e en i e a chaeology, as well as by academic esea ch p ojec s. This
egion also has he mos abundan documen a y eco ds o he en i e Ibe ian
Ea ly Middle Ages. I is cu en ly he e o e one o he bes known egions in
he Wes e n Medi e anean.26 Howe e , as in o he places, he exponen ial
inc ease in a chaeological in e en ions and he complex p ocesses in ol ed
in hei publica ion make i di icul o coun on up- o-da e syn heses and
sui able in e p e a i e heses. In his pape he au ho s a gue ha by ana-
lysing he ans o ma ions o he inhabi ed landscapes i is possible o de ec
he s a egies deployed by he peasan y du ing he Ea ly Middle Ages. To do
his, hey di ide hei su ey in o wo main s ages: La e An iqui y and Ea ly
Middle Ages. The hesis de ended is ha he agency o he peasan y con ib-
u ed o he ans o ma ion o u al se lemen and he eme gence o medie al
socie y. The end o he la e-Roman illae is ela ed o he es ablishmen o a
new kind o se lemen ollowing pa e ns ha accen ua ed he geog aphical
and ch onological di e si y be ween he coas and he in e io . The eigh h
cen u y ep esen ed a u ning poin in he e i o ial o ganisa ion, ma ked
bo h by a ans o ma ion o u al economies and he c ea ion o new inhab-
i ed landscapes. O pa icula impo ance in his con ex is he p ocess in
which he numbe o chu ches in he owns mul iplied, since hey eo ganised
he u al occupa ions based on new logicali ies. In sho , he s udy shows he
impo ance o peasan ini ia i es and how he o ms o domina ion by he
eli es we e changing.
The inal s udy included in his sec ion o he book is ha o Albe o Ga cía
Po as. I s pu pose is o explo e he agency capaci y o he peasan y in socie-
ies cha ac e ised by s ong ax-based s a es, such as he Nas id Kingdom. To
do his, i a gues ha he a mhouse owe s cons i u e he app op ia e se ing
o unde s and how he ela ionship be ween he s a e, he peasan y and he
local powe s was o ganised. P e ious s udies ha e iden i ied his ype o con-
s uc ion as shel e s o local communi ies, as wa ch owe s, o as he esidenc-
es o a is oc acies and/o ep esen a i es o he s a e. One o he bes s udied
26 The bibliog aphy is e y ex ensi e. Among o he wo ks, wo hy o men ion a e hose o Roig
Bux, “P ác icas une a ias de época isigoda;” Roig Bux, “Asen amien os u ales y poblados
a doan iguos;” Folch Iglesias, “Te i o ios y poblamien o en el no es e;” Ma í Cas elló y Neg e
Pé ez, “Assen amen s i espais ag a is;” P a desaba i Sala, El p océs de o i icació i eocupació
del e i o i.
12
Juan An onio Qui ós Cas illo
examples in ecen yea s is he Agicampe owe 27 in Loja. The si e has been he
subjec o an in ensi e s udy ha has included e i o ial su eys, geoa chaeo-
logical s udies o cul i a ed ields (mic omo phology, phy oli hs), he s udy o
he a chi ec u e, and he exca a ion o he cons uc ion. All hese eco ds ha e
made i possible o analyse he long- e m ans o ma ions o he si e, om e-
cen p ehis o y o he p esen . The main conclusion p oposed is ha he owe
was buil by he peasan y in he con ex o he ag a ian in ensi ica ion ha
cha ac e ised he Almohad pe iod. Mo eo e , hese owe s would ha e had a
no able impo ance in he ep oduc ion o peasan communi ies and he main-
enance o he ax-based s a e domina ion. And al hough i is no o malised as
such, in his s udy we see he e-eme gence o he no ion o ela ionship agen-
cies ha a e one o he main ocuses o he s udies included in he olume.
4. Coda
To conclude hese b ie no es, we wish o ocus on h ee o he main con-
ibu ions made by he s udies ha make up his olume.
Fi s ly, bo h he chap e s included in he book and he o he s udies28 ci -
ed e eal ha , al hough he no ion o peasan y has been de ined mainly on
he basis o economic c i e ia (di ec p oduce s, submission o he paymen o
en s and/o axes29), hei capaci y o agency goes a beyond he economic
sphe e. In ac , assuming his pe spec i e, i is possible o ques ion he o -
ganisa ion o he social li e o subal e n g oups om new pe spec i es. The
20 h-cen u y esea ch agendas o peasan s udies had insis ed, abo e all, on
peasan e ol s and esis ance, he p og essi e deg ada ion o he socioec-
onomic condi ions o he peasan y, and he na a i e o a p og essi e and
ine i able a i ma ion o he eli es o e he u al g oups. And wi hou ceasing
o be cen al hemes in he analysis o medie al socie ies, he e is no doub
ha he use o mo e sophis ica ed heo e ical amewo ks based on ela ional
app oaches allows us o signi ican ly widen he analy ical scena io. Jus o
gi e one example, i is o pa icula in e es o poin ou how I. Ma ín p o-
posed app oaching he s udy o se nas, communi y cul i a ion spaces ha
a e equen ly men ioned among he asse s o he mona chy and ea ly medie-
al a is oc acies. This au ho p oposes di e en ia ing a double le el o ac ion
in he se nas. On he one hand, peasan amilies would ha e buil , a med
and used hese cul i a ion spaces on a daily basis, and on he o he , he e was
a highe le el o sa egua ding ha gua an eed he co ec use and de ence
o hose igh s. This second le el de ined he agency o he eli es in he local
27 A mo e analy ical and de ailed p esen a ion o he a chaeological eco d is a ailable a
Ga cía Po as, Pluskowski, y Bane jea, “Ges ión de los ecu sos ag ícolas.”
28 See no es 17-22. In addi ion, Al onso An ón, “Iglesias u ales en el no e de Cas illa.”
29 Wol , Los campesinos; Ploeg, Peasan s and he a o a ming; Shanin, Peasan s and peas-
an socie ies; Red ield, The li le communi y, and Peasan socie y and cul u e.
13
Local Socie ies and Rela ional Agency in Medie al Ibe ia
sphe e and cons i u ed an ins umen o eminen domina ion30. Likewise, he
implemen a ion o pe spec i es such as ha o he “ esis ance o he weak”31
con ibu es decisi ely o a icula ing iche and mo e o ganised na a i es.
Secondly, he elusi e and enuous na u e ha cha ac e ises he es imo-
nies and p ese ed e idence ela ed o subal e n g oups causes e iden di i-
cul ies in e ms o social cha ac e isa ion. The h ee main esou ces used by
he au ho s o hese s udies we e a high le el o heo e ical concep ualisa ion,
he selec ion o eco ds o high ch onological and social esolu ion, and he
use o mic ohis o y app oaches. I is no a me e me hodological deploymen
o a s a egic app oach, as much as he e i ica ion ha he s udies o ien -
ed a ound he “small wo lds” p o ides he oppo uni y o a mo e in ensi e
unde s anding o he ela ional agencies in e wo en in local medie al socie-
ies32. I can be a i med ha he e is an in e se co espondence be ween he
deg ee o heo isa ion o subal e n g oups and he possibili y o unde s and-
ing he capaci y and limi s o agency, no only o he peasan y, bu also o
he eli es. Se e al o he s udies included in his collec ion a e e y eloquen
when i comes o showing how “mic os a i ica ions” a e o med wi hin local
communi ies; he p ocesses o mobili y and social p omo ion ha ake place
in hem; and he mechanisms used by he ecclesias ical and secula eli es o
he s a e when i came o econ igu ing he ela ions o domina ion.
Finally, ano he line ha eme ges s ongly in he wo ks included in his
olume is he impo ance o locali ies, unde s ood no as me e “landscapes”
o “scena ios” o social li e, bu a he as ac i e componen s, as well as social
and cul u al cons uc ions con igu ed by hei p oduc ion, ep oduc ion and
con inuous ans o ma ion. In pa icula , I belie e o be o pa icula in e -
es he concep o p oduc ion o locali ies p oposed by he second gene a ion
o I alian mic ohis o ians, who ha e de eloped hei p oposals h ough he
s udy o local socie ies in he mode n pe iod33. The peasan socie ies o he
ancien égime p o ide a pe ec se ing o ca ying ou his ype o s udy
as, on he one hand, hey o e enough es imonies and e idence o ca y ou
a de ailed case analysis. On he o he hand, hey we e “ adi ional” socie ies
in which in e pe sonal ela ionships we e nego ia ed in spa ialised e ms,
building ela ionships, meanings, pe cep ions and p ac ices ha con igu ed
locali ies. Al hough hese pe spec i es a e mo e complex o use in olde ch o-
nologies, I belie e hey p o ide a ich amewo k o s udying local socie ies.
In sho , his book aims o o e a se ies o analy ical concep s, examples
and si ua ions ha can be applied o o he ch onological and geog aphical
con ex s.
30 Ma ín Viso, Pas os, iglesias y ie as. 53
31 Sco , Weapons o he weak.
32 The e e ence wo k is o cou se Da ies, Small Wo lds. See also Qui ós Cas illo, “An a chaeol-
ogy o ‘small wo lds’;” Po ass, “Re hinking he ‘small wo lds’;” Wes , “Visions in a Nin h-Cen u-
y Village;” Wickham, Communi y and clien ele; Wickham, The moun ains and he ci y.
33 To e, “La p oduzione s o ica dei luoghi.”
14
Juan An onio Qui ós Cas illo
Figu e 1. Map o he main si es and egions ci ed in his olume.
Paola Guglielmo i and Gian Ma ia Va anini ha e been mo e han me e edi o s. Thei ha d wo k and sugges-
ions ha e enhanced he book. The au ho s a e e y g a e ul o hei help.
21
Peasan agency, collec i e ac ion, and ins i u ions in ea ly medie al socie ies
ac ion in ea ly medie al socie ies.5 I will a gue ha his can p o ide a mo e
nuanced unde s anding o bo h collec i e ac ion and indi idual agency a he
local le el, hus complemen ing cu en app oaches o peasan agency in he
ea ly Middle Ages.6 In pa icula , i will ocus on commons and p ope y, ha
is, on he ins i u ions ha egula ed he indi idual and collec i e app op ia-
ion and use o land and o he na u al esou ces.
The a ea s udied is he no h-wes o he Ibe ian Peninsula, which is pa -
icula ly well sui ed o such a pu pose (Map 1). The w i en sou ces a e abun-
dan and p o ide ample e idence o he s udy o local socie ies, which has
gained momen um in ecen yea s.7 Local g oups and ins ances o collec i e
ac ion – mos no ably, bu no only in he o m o local communi ies engaging
in land dispu es– a e ela i ely well documen ed in many di e en o ms and
om an ea ly da e, in compa ison o o he Eu opean egions.8 Fu he mo e,
he exponen ial de elopmen o a chaeological esea ch o e he las wen y
yea s has signi ican ly enhanced ou knowledge o ea ly medie al se lemen s
and has adically al e ed ou unde s anding o local socie ies.9 Commons, col-
lec i e ac ion, and he ins i u ions o collec i e ac ion may no be as isible
in he a chaeological eco d, bu his does no mean ha a chaeology can-
no play a signi ican ole in hei s udy and con ibu e o be e illumina e
he socioeconomic and poli ical o ganisa ion o ea ly medie al locali ies.10
Thus, while he app oach in his con ibu ion is based on he w i en sou ces,
ollowing Ma cia-Anne Dob es and James E. Robb, I depa om he idea
ha “di e en o ms o agency likely ope a ed in he pas , ha hey in ol ed
con ex -speci ic mechanisms o ma e iali y and sociali y, and ha empi ical
e idence o hem occu s a many di e en scales”. I ake his o mean ha a
his o y o agency canno be buil upon one single ype o empi ical eco d and
“can ha e no ‘one size i s all’ me hodology”.11 On hese g ounds, I acknowl-
edge he pa iali y o he iew on peasan agency ha his pape o e s, bu
none heless hope ha i will be use ul as a con ibu ion o in e disciplina y
dialogue, and wi h i , o he de elopmen b oade heo e ical conside a ions
abou peasan agency in ea ly medie al socie ies.
5 Fo he c i ical-ins i u ional app oach, see Clea e and de Koning, “Fu he ing c i ical ins i-
u ionalism;” Clea e , De elopmen h ough b icolage.
6 Qui ós Cas illo and Teje izo-Ga cía, “Filling he gap.”
7 Ma ín Viso, “Unequal small wo lds.” In s udies abou NW Ibe ia he concep o “local soci-
e y” now p e ails o e he a en ion once paid o peasan s and local communi ies, in une wi h
his o iog aphical de elopmen s elsewhe e in Eu ope bu con a y o o he his o iog aphical ap-
p oaches elsewhe e in he Ibe ian Peninsula. See Ki chne , “La a queología del campesinado.”
See also Ga cía-Po as in his olume.
8 Ca ajal Cas o, “Collec i e Ac ion.” Fo he obse a ion ha he phenomenon becomes ap-
pa en ea lie han in o he Eu opean a eas, see Wickham, “Space and socie y;” Wickham, “La
c is alización.”
9 Escalona, “The ea ly Cas ilian peasan y.”
10 Fe nández Mie and Qui ós Cas illo, “El ap o echamien o;” Oos huizen, “Beyond hie a chy;”
Qui ós Cas illo, “An a chaeology o ‘small wo lds’.” See also he ema ks by Te esa Campos in
he con ibu ion o his olume.
11 Dob es and Robb, “‘Doing’ Agency,” 162.
22
Ál a o Ca ajal Cas o
Figu e 1. Places in NW Ibe ia men ioned in he ex .
2. Peasan agency? A collec i e conund um
O e he las o y yea s, analyses o he w i en sou ces spa ked by sem-
inal wo ks by au ho s like Wendy Da ies and Ch is Wickham, combined wi h
ex ensi e a chaeological esea ch on ea ly medie al se lemen s h oughou
Eu ope, ha e con ibu ed o illumina ing he a ie y o social posi ions and
ajec o ies, ela ionships and p ac ice, ha cha ac e ised ea ly medie al lo-
cali ies.12 This has b ough wo signi ican heo e ical ad ancemen s. Fi s ,
i has made i possible o conside he capaci y ha indi iduals ac ing a he
local scale had o de elop hei own, sel -mo i a ed s a egies. This has been
mainly ealised o local eli es, whose pa imonial s a egies and ma e iali y
a e mo e isible in he eco ds,13 bu i has also been de eloped o he lowe
social s a a, based on he ealisa ion – ad anced heo e ically long ago –,
ha lo dly domina ion did no absolu ely de e mine peasan ini ia i es.14
Ra he , peasan s had some au onomy o o ganise ce ain aspec s o hei so-
12 Two classic s udies a e Da ies, Small wo lds; Wickham, The moun ains. Fo esul s de i ed
om a chaeological esea ch see Hame ow, Ea ly medie al se lemen s; The a chaeology, ed-
i ed by Qui ós Cas illo; Yan e and Bul o -Ve leysen, Au ou du “ illage”. Fo a comp ehensi e
analysis o local socie ies in ea ly medie al Eu ope, see Zelle e al., Neighbou s and s ange s.
13 On local eli es and social p omo ion, see, among o he s, Bullimo e, “Folcwin;” Felle e al., La
o une. On ma e iali y and “li e-s yles”, see Lo eluck, No hwes Eu ope.
14 Wickham, “Le o me.”
23
Peasan agency, collec i e ac ion, and ins i u ions in ea ly medie al socie ies
cial li e, bo h indi idually and collec i ely.15 Second, i has done away wi h he
idea ha he local communi y was he sole ho izon s uc u ing collec i e o -
ganisa ion a he local le el, which has domina ed much o he his o iog aphy
on he issue, and has allowed o he ecogni ion and analysis o o he ypes
o g oups and o ms o collec i e ac ion, as has al eady been explo ed o la e
pe iods.16
I could be a gued ha his does no ep esen such a adical depa u e
om p e ious his o iog aphical models. Nine een h-cen u y ideals o com-
muni y may ha e con eyed a homogenizing pic u e o ea ly medie al local
socie ies, and dominan accoun s o ea ly medie al socie ies in he 1960s and
1970s may ha e been s uc u ed a ound he dicho omy lo ds s. peasan s.17
Howe e , since he 1980s his o ians ha e been ca e ul o s ess ha local so-
cie ies and he peasan y we e a om uni o m, and consequen ly ha local
communi ies we e no homogeneous.18 Also, and mo e impo an ly om an
epis emological pe spec i e, many cu en app oaches con inue o po ay
g oups – whe he local communi ies o o he – as he esul o he agg ega-
ion o indi iduals and indi idual households, as p e ious his o iog aphical
models did, and hus con inue o depa om a me hodological indi idualis-
ic posi ion.19
The la e is in acco dance wi h he an h opological cha ac e isa ion
o he household as he basic social uni o p oduc ion and ep oduc ion o
he peasan y, as discussed in some ecen wo k on ea ly medie al socie-
ies.20 This no ion is me hodologically sound and is based on solid empi ical
g ounds. I we ake he case o NW Ibe ia, he w i en sou ces p edominan ly
eco d social p ac ice a he le el o he indi idual household – namely ans-
ac ions made by indi iduals o membe s o a nuclea amily, and mo e a e-
ly o ex ended kin g oups. Mo eo e , he sou ces show ha igh s o sha ed
na u al esou ces such as g azing a eas, woods, and wa e s we e a ached o
households indi idually.21 I is clea om his ha households had a signi -
ican weigh in he app op ia ion o land, he dis ibu ion o o he na u al
esou ces, and he o ganisa ion o p oduc ion, and also ha household mem-
be s buil on his o de elop key aspec s o social p ac ice such as land ans-
15 Kohl, “La agencia campesina;” Po ass, “Peasan s;” Sch oede , “Inicia i a campesina.”
16 Ca ajal Cas o e al., “Collec i e ac ion;” P o e o, Con adini e po e e.
17 Fo he 19 h cen u y, see, o example: Joyce, Social his o y; Maine, Village communi ies;
Ma x and Engels, P e-capi alis economic o ma ions; on Mau e , Geschich e; Vinog ado ,
Villainage. Fo he dicho omy o lo ds and peasan s, see, pa adigma ically, Duby, Gue ie s e
paysans.
18 See he wo ks collec ed in Les communau és, edi ed by Higoune . See also Genico , Ru al
communi ies; Hil on, “Reasons o inequali y.”
19 Sánchez León, “El pode .”
20 Fo he an h opological app oaches, see Chayano , The heo y o peasan economy; Shanin,
Na u aleza y lógica; Van de Ploeg, Peasan s and he a o a ming; Wol , Peasan s. Fo ecen
discussions in he his o iog aphy, see Wickham, F aming, 536-7; Qui ós Cas illo and Teje i-
zo-Ga cía, “Filling he gap.” See also he con ibu ion by Ca los Teje izo-Ga cía in his olume.
21 La ea, “De la in isibilidad,” 186-8.
24
Ál a o Ca ajal Cas o
ac ions. On op o ha , a chaeologically, houses a e among he mos isible
s uc u es in he ex an ma e ial eco d, and analyses a he le el o indi id-
ual households, as well as in a and in e -si e compa ison ha e a signi ican
po en ial o he assessmen o p oduc ion and social ep oduc ion, o social
inequali ies, and, mo e b oadly, o social ela ionships and p ac ice in ea ly
medie al locali ies.22
Howe e , his me hodological app oach elega es he collec i e dimen-
sion o social li e o he posi ion o a seconda y phenomenon, bo h in heo-
e ical and his o ical e ms. Theo e ically, in a Lockean manne , i p esen s
collec i e ac ion and ins i u ions as he esul o in e ac ions and nego ia ions
be ween indi iduals o indi idual households. In pu e heo e ical e ms,
hough, we should also con empla e he idea ha sha ed expec a ions, al-
ues, and no ms may ha e de eloped and ha e been buil –whe he hey we e
nego ia ed, ag eed on, imposed upon, o con es ed – om he e y i s en-
gagemen s and ha e a bea ing on how con inued in e ac ions and long- e m
ela ionships we e es ablished, hus moulding he p ocess o g oup o ma ion
a he han being me ely a consequence o i .23 On he o he hand, his o ical-
ly, i cha ac e ises collec i e ac ion and ins i u ions as he ou come o long
p ocesses o social agg ega ion – whe he a ound he yea 1000, o be o e,
o a e .24 Indeed, ecen a chaeological esea ch has shown ha du ing spe-
ci ic pe iods o ime – he i h and he six h cen u ies in some a eas o NW
Ibe ia, o example – indi idual households had a e y signi ican weigh as
amewo ks o p oduc i e and ideological ela ionships.25 Howe e , his does
no necessa ily exclude he possibili y ha ce ain o ms o collec i e ac ion
and ins i u ions had al eady de eloped o would soon do so. The ac ha we
do no see hem ecu en ly in he ea ly medie al sou ces does no mean ha
hey did no exis , as hey may ha e been ep oduced o ans o med h ough
daily p ac ice wi hou being con inuously open o nego ia ion o con es ed –
hough nei he should we ake hei exis ence o g an ed.26 Ul ima ely, while
we should no ep oduce he assump ions o p imi i e communalism, nei he
should we wai o see ully ledged, o malised local communi ies as hey
appea la e in he Middle Ages o accep ha such collec i e a angemen s
could exis .27
Wha I wan o a gue he e, hough, is no only ha he ocus on indi idual
ac o s and on he in e ac ions be ween hem hinde s he assessmen o g oups
and collec i e ac ion in ea ly medie al socie ies, bu also ha i p ecludes an
adequa e cha ac e isa ion o indi idual agency. Much ecen w i ing on peas-
22 Qui ós Cas illo and Teje izo-Ga cía, “Filling he gap,” 10. See also Qui ós Cas illo, “La com-
pleja in e p e ación;” Social inequali y, edi ed by Qui ós Cas illo; Lewis, “Eli ismo y es a us.”
23 Axel od, The e olu ion o coope a ion; Os om, Unde s anding ins i u ional di e si y.
24 C . Chapelo and Fossie , Le illage; Sch eg, “El campesino e e no;” Wickham, “La c is al-
ización.”
25 Teje izo-Ga cía, A queología; Teje izo Ga cía. “The a chaeology.”
26 See Escalona, “Vínculos comuni a ios.”
27 Reynolds, Kingdoms and communi ies, 1; Wickham, Comuni à e clien ele, 15-6.
25
Peasan agency, collec i e ac ion, and ins i u ions in ea ly medie al socie ies
an agency in he ea ly Middle Ages has Giddensian o e ones in ha agency
is concei ed o as he indi idual capaci y o do hings and ac s a egically on
he basis o gi en esou ces and in acco dance o a e lexi e assessmen o
ongoing social si ua ions.28 Such a cha ac e isa ion o agency o e s a limi ed
pe spec i e o powe ela ions. I acknowledges ha subo dina e ac o s can
in luence he ac i i ies o hei supe io s, bu isks ailing o ques ion he e y
na u e o domina ion and he ac o s’ po en ial no jus o mu ually in luence
each o he , bu also o ans o m he e y ela ionship ha bounds hem o-
ge he .29 Also, i assumes ho izon al coope a ion be ween peasan s wi hou
conside ing how coope a ion i sel – in ac uali y o po en ially – may ha e
shaped indi idual agency.
In his ega d, Juan An onio Qui ós and Ca los Teje izo-Ga cía’s call o
adop a ela ional app oach o agency is much welcomed.30 F om his pe -
spec i e, social ela ionships a e no me ely seen as cons aining o enabling
indi idual ini ia i es, bu a he as being hemsel es cons i u i e o indi id-
ual agency and as being con inuously p oduced, ep oduced and ans o med
h ough p ac ice.31 This can p o ide us wi h a clea e unde s anding o how
peasan ’ ini ia i es could ans o m he socioeconomic condi ions o hei
subo dina ion, and how his in u n could in luence hei agency. Fo exam-
ple, and o men ion bu one ecen con ibu ion o he cu en deba e, Nico-
las Sch oede has shown how peasan ini ia i es in en h- cen u y monas ic
es a es in Lo ha ingia could lead o he ans o ma ion o demesne land in o
enu e – and no e also Isabel Al onso’s ea lie s udies on he weigh o peasan
ini ia i es in he o malisa ion o local bylaws and he con igu a ion o en s
and obliga ions.32
Fu he mo e, his app oach also compels us o mo e beyond indi idu-
al ela ionships and in e ac ions be ween indi idual ac o s, and assess he
changing ne wo ks o ela ionships in which he ac o s we e embedded. Thus,
i can be applied o conside no jus he ela ionships be ween lo ds and
peasan s, bu also he panoply o ela ionships in which peasan s we e en-
meshed a he local le el, including amily ela ionships, as well as hose ying
hem o hei neighbou s. They p o ided he immedia e con ex o collec i e
ac ion and he a icula ion, ep oduc ion, and ans o ma ion o g oups a
he local scale. This does no mean ha we should adop an idealized iew
o local sociabili y and g oup building. Such ela ionships could be based on
coope a ion o speci ic pu poses, hough coope a ion could be imposed om
abo e a he han esul om mu ual acco d, and g oup building could be
based on unequal ela ionships such as pa onage and clien ship. Collec i e
28 Giddens, The cons i u ion o socie y, 2-16.
29 Giddens, 16.
30 Qui ós Cas illo and Teje izo-Ga cía, “Filling he gap.”
31 Bu ki , “Rela ional agency;” Long. De elopmen sociology.
32 Sch oede , “Inicia i a campesina,” 86-9. C . Al onso, “Campesinado y de echo;” Al onso, “La
con es a ion paysanne.”
26
Ál a o Ca ajal Cas o
ins i u ions could be aligned wi h indi idual in e es s and be bene icial o
all bu es ains o indi idual ini ia i es h ough social sanc ioning mus also
be con empla ed. Tha is, a e all, wha s o ies abou he demons ac i e in
Kemp en and in he illages isi ed by Theodo e o Sykeōn ell us abou .33
Impo an ly, in e pe sonal in e ac ions would ha e been s uc u ed no
only by pe sonal ela ionships bu also by ins i u ions. The de ini ion o his
la e e m is p oblema ic. App oaches a y, mos signi ican ly o ou pu -
pose he e – he e a e o he de ini ions bu hei applicabili y o he analysis o
ea ly medie al socie ies is mo e limi ed – be ween hose who ega d hem as
ules and p esc ip ions, and hose who see hem as egula i ies in social be-
ha iou , wi h he e o s o econcile hem mee ing li le success.34 I will he e
eso o F ances Clea e ’s c i ical app oach o ins i u ions as “a angemen s
be ween people which a e ep oduced and egula ized ac oss ime and space
and which a e subjec o cons an p ocesses o e olu ion and change”.35 I ind
his app oach use ul o h ee main easons – o he s could be adduced bu go
beyond he pu pose o his pape .
Fi s , a c i ical ins i u ional app oach allows us o con empla e no only
he o mal ules ha may ha e egula ed social beha iou in ea ly medie-
al locali ies in NW Ibe ia in he abs ac – such as he p esc ip ions o he
Visigo hic law ha a e some imes men ioned in he cha e s and in oked in
dispu e p ocesses36 – bu also any in o mal a angemen s and he social em-
beddedness o ins i u ions in e ms o hei cons i u ion, ep oduc ion, and
ans o ma ion o e ime, conside ing he impac o social inequali y and
powe ela ions on how hey we e shaped and, a he same ime, he ole o in-
s i u ions in he ep oduc ion o social inequali y and powe ela ions. In his,
i is compa ible wi h a ela ional app oach o ins i u ions, unde s ood as a
condensa ion o speci ic social ela ions ha a e ep oduced and ans o med
h ough p ac ice; as well as wi h a s a egic app oach, ha is, one con em-
pla ing ha ins i u ions may o e di e en oppo uni ies o di e en ac o s
and a ec hem di e en ly.37 I also seems be e sui ed o add ess he social
complexi y o ea ly medie al locali ies, as well as wha p ocessual app oaches
o jus ice ha e shown abou he ope a ionalisa ion o ules in con lic s and
dispu e se lemen in ea ly medie al socie ies.38
33 Cos ambeys, Innes, and MacLean, The Ca olingian wo ld, 231-2; Wickham, F aming, 408-
10.
34 Fo ins i u ions as no ms and p esc ip ions, see No h, Ins i u ions; Os om, Unde s and-
ing ins i u ional di e si y; as egula i ies in social beha iou , see G ei , Ins i u ions; Aoki,
“Endogenizing ins i u ions;” and o he e o o econcile hem, see Hind iks and Guala, “In-
s i u ions.”
35 Clea e , De elopmen , 8.
36 Collins, “Sicu lex Go ho um con ine ;” Collins, “Visigo hic law;” Isla F ez, “La pe i encia.”
37 Jessop, “Ins i u ional e( u ns);” Jessop, S a e powe , 21-53.
38 See he wo ks collec ed in The se lemen o dispu es, edi ed by Da ies and Fou ac e; Con-
lic , edi ed by B own and Gó ecki.
27
Peasan agency, collec i e ac ion, and ins i u ions in ea ly medie al socie ies
Second, i explici ly aims o link he social o he ma e ial. Mo e speci i-
cally, i is conce ned wi h he ways in which ins i u ions shape access o na -
u al esou ces. F om his, i is easy o build a dialogue on economic e ms
wi h cu en de ini ions o he peasan y, some o which could be econciled
wi h such a c i ical ins i u ional app oach. Fo example, Jan Douwe Van de
Ploeg’s eapp aisal o Chayano ’s heo y o balances con empla es he ole o
ins i u ions in su plus exac ion.39 The same could be said wi h ega ds o he
balances be ween people and li ing na u e and be ween p oduc ion and e-
p oduc ion.40 As he no es in ela ion o he esou ces o he peasan a m,
“ he a ailable social and ma e ial esou ces ep esen an o ganic uni y… The
ules go e ning he in e ela ions be ween he ac o s and de ining hei ela-
ions wi h he esou ces a e ypically de i ed om, and embedded in, local
cul u al epe oi es, including gende ela ions”.41 Van de Ploeg alks abou
ules in he abs ac , bu i does no ake such a leap o assume ha in some,
his o ically si ua ed con ex s, such ules may ha e been pa and pa cel o
commons, unde s ood as “ins i u ions o he collec i e use and managemen
o land and o he na u al esou ces”;42 and also o conside he social – and
no only he cul u al – embeddedness o such ins i u ions, in as much as hey
we e g ounded on speci ic assemblages o social p ac ice and ela ionships
ha could de ine clea bounda ies wi h ega ds o membe ship – his being
a key ac o in he ep oduc ion o he commons o e ime.43 Ul ima ely, hen,
access o ce ain social and ma e ial esou ces ha we e in eg al o he indi-
idual households’ p oduc i e and ep oduc i e p ocesses could be media -
ed by ins i u ions, and hus condi ioned by he households’ belonging o he
g oups so de ined – whe he local communi ies o o he .
Thi d, Clea e ’s app oach con empla es he mul i unc ional, mul i-scala
na u e o ins i u ions. This is in acco dance o wha we know abou he o ms
o collec i e o ganisa ion in ea ly medie al locali ies, which could se e as
o a in which land ansac ions we e o malised, con lic s se led, and jus ice
exe cised; as well as a enas o sociabili y o es i e and ce emonial pu poses,
among o he s.44 A he same ime, i o ces us o conside he di e en ins i-
u ional a angemen s in which people may be enmeshed a di e en scales,
bo h wi hin and ac oss he di e en g oups o which hey belong. F om his
pe spec i e, agency should be assessed a he scale o he indi idual house-
hold as a collec i e ac o – as in cu en de ini ions o he peasan y –, as
well as a he le el o hei membe s, whose agency could be de ined bo h by
ela ionships in e nal o he household and on he basis o hei belonging o
39 Van de Ploeg, Peasan s and he a o a ming, 60-2.
40 Van de Ploeg, 48-54.
41 Van de Ploeg, Peasan s and he a o a ming, 72.
42 De Moo , The dilemma. 24; see also Os om, Go e ning he commons. 30-3.
43 Lana Be asain and I ia e Goñi, “The social embeddedness;” De Keyze , Inclusi e commons.
44 See Ba nwell, “The ea ly F ankish mallus;” Assembly places, edi ed by Pan os and Semple;
and mo e speci ically o NW Ibe ia, Ca ajal Cas o, “Local mee ings;” Escalona, “Communi y
Mee ings.”
28
Ál a o Ca ajal Cas o
di e en se s o social ela ionships and g oups beyond he household – and
ul ima ely e en, o di e en ins i u ional ealms. This is mos e iden wi h
ega ds o gende ela ions. Households, like communi ies, we e no ungen-
de ed uni s, nei he we e he a icula ion and ep oduc ion (o ans o ma-
ion) o gende ela ionships solely es ic ed o he a ena o indi idual house-
holds o communi ies.45 The household was indeed one o he social a enas
in which hey we e a icula ed, bu hey we e also shaped by no ms ha cu
ac oss households and a ec ed la ge g oups, as in he case o inhe i ance
ules.46 Gende ela ions could also a ec o he aspec s o local li e such as he
cons uc ion and ep oduc ion o local e i o iali ies, in as much as his was
buil on memo y, and memo y i sel could be gende ed.47
In o de o g ound his on he analysis ea ly medie al socie ies and o
engage wi h he de ini ion o he household as he basic uni o p oduc ion
and ep oduc ion in bo h i s ma e ial and social dimension, he emaining
pa o his pape will ocus on he app op ia ion and use o na u al esou ces
in ea ly medie al NW Ibe ia, conside ing bo h i s indi idual and collec i e
dimension. I will combine a wo old app oach, depa ing i s om some e-
ma ks on he labou p ocesses associa ed o a ming p ac ice and commons;
and hen discussing “p ope y” as an ins i u ion om he poin o iew o
social p ac ice and he social ela ionships ha made he app op ia ion and
use o na u al esou ces e ec i e in each his o ically si ua ed con ex .48 The
no ion o p ope y adop ed he e de i es om he ‘bundle-o - igh s’ app oach,
as classically de ined by Hen i Sumne Maine, while also a ending o he
di e en capaci ies ha indi iduals can ha e wi h ega ds o a pa icula
esou ce.49 Fo example, some people may be allowed o collec wood in a
o es , bu may no be pe mi ed o clea land. The di e en ia ion be ween
p op ie as, as owne ship, and possessio, as he capaci y o make e ec i e use
o he land, which has been equen ly con empla ed in he his o iog aphy
on he ea ly Middle Ages, would also all wi hin his concep ual amewo k
– as in he case o peasan s who we e allowed o cul i a e a plo o land bu
could no sell i o dona e i eely, his being a p e oga i e o he lo d.50 F om
his pe spec i e, Elino Os om and Edella Schlage dis inguished be ween
i e ypes o igh s – access, wi hd awal, managemen , exclusion, and aliena-
ion –, which hey cha ac e ised as igh s o which di e en ac o s can be di -
e en ially en i led.51 Fo example, an ac o could ha e access and wi hd awal
igh s bu no managemen igh s, as in he example o he o es . I will he e
adop such a i e- ie bundle bu cha ac e ise i s cons i uen elemen s as “ca-
45 Aga wal, “En i onmen al ac ion.”
46 Casa i and Lisciand a, “Gende disc imina ion.”
47 McDonagh, “Feminis his o ical geog aphies;” Why e, “Cus odians o Memo y.”
48 Congos , “P ope y Righ s.”
49 Maine, Ancien Law, 178-9.
50 E.g.: Sánchez-Albo noz, “Repoblación,” 635-9.
51 Schlage and Os om, “P ope y- igh s egimes.”
29
Peasan agency, collec i e ac ion, and ins i u ions in ea ly medie al socie ies
paci ies” a he han “ igh s”, in o de con empla e no jus hei no ma i e
dimension bu also he web o esou ces and social ela ionships ha enabled
any gi en ac o o make any such claim o e a esou ce e ec i e.52 The aim
is o b idge he concep s o “p ope y” and “agency”, con empla ing how indi-
idual and collec i e capaci ies o app op ia e and make use o land and o he
na u al esou ces may ha e been shaped by ela ionships be ween ac o s wi h
a sha ed in e es in a gi en esou ce, and be ween hese and o he ac o s.
3. P ope y, commons, and gende in ea ly medie al locali ies
Ag a ian p oduc ion in he ea ly Middle Ages in NW Ibe ia la gely de-
pended on mixed a ming, hough a ce ain deg ee o p oduc i e speciali-
sa ion can be obse ed e en a ela i ely low scales o social complexi y – as
ecen ly a gued o ne wo ks o se lemen s in he mode n day dis ic s o
Ála a (Spain) and Gua da (Po ugal).53 Fa ming p ac ice included indi idu-
al app op ia ion and use o a able plo s and meadows; and could ha e also
included semi-collec i e a angemen s in ields in which cul i a ion was ca -
ied ou indi idually in s ipes o land held in se e al y and ca le was g azed
collec i ely a e he c ops had been ha es ed.54 Access o na u al esou ces
ha we e also cen al o household economies, such as g azing a eas, woods,
and wa e s was sha ed. As no ed abo e, i is clea om he sou ces ha i was
con e ed upon indi idual households.
Tha esou ces we e sha ed does no en ail ha wo k was unde aken col-
lec i ely, hough i canno be disca ded ha his was so on speci ic occasions
o o speci ic asks.55 Fo example, he inhabi an s o Villamb osa (Cas ile),
a he ins ance o Bishop Diego, clea ed a se na (see below) on behal o he
local chu ch.56 Mo eo e , e en i sha ed esou ces we e used indi idually, we
should p obably expec ha hei use was egula ed by ins i u ions ha we e
collec i ely upheld – i.e. by commons. Commons could egula e aspec s such
as exclusion o inclusion o membe s, he imes in which esou ces could be
exploi ed, he in ensi y o exploi a ion, and e en he ans o ma ion o he
esou ces, as wi h ega ds o he condi ions unde which new land could be
b ough unde cul i a ion. This means ha g oup membe ship – being a
membe o a common, and analogously o a communi y, in as much as his
was a condi ion o be g an ed access o na u al esou ces wi hin he e i o y
o a gi en locali y – could shape he capaci ies o indi idual households wi h
52 Galik and Jagge , “Bundles, du ies, and igh s;” Ribo and Peluso, “A heo y o access.”
53 Qui ós Cas illo, “A chaeology o ea ly medie al peasan y;” Ten e, “Social complexi y.” See
also C. Ten e and S. P a a’s con ibu ion o his olume.
54 Fe nández Mie , “Campos de cul i o,” 44.
55 Bonales Co és, “Indi idualismo ag ícola.”
56 See La ea, “Cons ui iglesias,” 333; see also Co be a Millán and Ingelmo Casado, “Apo -
ación a la his o ia.”
30
Ál a o Ca ajal Cas o
ega ds o he exploi a ion o esou ces ha we e in eg al o hei p oduc ion
and ep oduc ion p ocesses.
While he emphasis has usually been on he app op ia ion on indi idual
holdings as he oad o he imposi ion o seigneu ial domina ion, ela ions be-
ween lo ds and peasan s, o a he be ween lo ds and g oups o peasan s,57
could also be a icula ed h ough commons, bo h a he le el o whole com-
muni ies and o indi idual households.58 Commons acili a ed ho izon al o ms
o collec i e ac ion bu could also sus ain lo dly exac ions, while claiming he
p e oga i e o g an membe ship and access, o o impose ules and moni o
compliance, we e some o he blocks wi h which lo ds could build hei au-
ho i y.59 So much is appa en in he case o se nas. F om wha we can ga he
om he sou ces, hese we e ields ha we e ega ded as a single uni , bu we e
p esumably di ided in o plo s ha we e exploi ed indi idually. The use o he
e m a ies g ea ly ac oss NW Ibe ia, bu in ce ain egions, mos no ably in
León and in some ins ances in Cas ile, i seemingly iden i ies ields con olled
by kings and lo ds, who would p obably de i e some bene i s om his, and
who could also ely on hem o imb ica e hei au ho i y wi hin he locali ies.60
Fu he mo e, judicial eco ds show ha dispu es o e commons did no only
e ol e a ound he owne ship o he esou ces – as shown in landma k s udies
on peasan esis ance.61 Some conce n use, as in he case o con lic s ela ing o
access and wi hd awal es ic ions. O he s conce n managemen , as in he case
o dispu es o e he capaci y o clea land, o o e how sha ed in as uc u es,
such as wa e mills and canals, we e o be main ained and by whom.62
How labou p ocesses we e o ganised a he le el o he household is a e-
ly e iden in he sou ces bu he in o ma ion conce ning p ope y is ela i ely
abundan , mo e so wi h ega ds o he di e en ial capaci y ha indi iduals
had o aliena e land – a e all, ha is essen ially wha he majo i y o he
ex an w i en sou ces alk abou . To begin wi h, i is pe ec ly clea ha land
could be owned indi idually bu also ha kinship could condi ion indi idual
capaci ies in a leas wo di e en manne s. Fi s , he no ion ha kin could
con es an indi idual’s capaci y o aliena e land is omnip esen in he eco d
and a ec s all kinds o ansac ions. The sanc ion clauses included in he
cha e s equen ly con empla e he possibili y ha close ela i es and kin
con es he ansac ion, es ablishing sanc ions o p e en i .63 Some e en e-
so o Visigo hic law o ea i m he dono s’ capaci y o dispose o he land
eely, ei he because hey expec ouble o in esponse o i . Tha is he case
57 Escalona, “De seño es y campesinos;” Pas o , “Sob e la a iculación.”
58 C . Jus o Sánchez and Ma ín Viso, “Te i o ies and kingdom;” Es epa Díez, “P opiedad
ag a ia.”
59 Bhadu i, “Economic powe ;” Siko and Lund, “Access and p ope y.”
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mas;” Escalona, “De seño es y campesinos;” Ma ín Viso, “Commons.”
61 Mos no ably, Pas o , Resis encias.
62 Ca ajal Cas o e al., “Collec i e ac ion.”
63 Ca ajal Cas o, “Secula sanc ions;” Ma oso, “Sanc io.”
37
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Ál a o Ca ajal Cas o
Uni e sidad de Salamanca (Spain)
ca [email protected]
o cid: 0000-0003-3216-503X
41
Re lec ing Peasan Agency in Medie al Ru al Milieu
Resea ch o Eas Cen al Eu ope*
by Ladisla Čapek, Lukáš Hola a
Despi e an excep ionally long adi ion o esea ch on medie al u al milieu, peasan agency
ep esen s a new heo e ical app oach ha has no ye been cohe en ly e lec ed in Eas Cen-
al Eu ope. Issues wi hin social a chaeology emain on he inges o he a chaeological in e -
p e a ions. The iew o he peasan y was hea ily in luenced by economic his o y and Ma xis
his o iog aphy, po aying peasan s as a passi e, conse a i e, homogeneous, socially unequal,
and subal e n g oup is-à- is he uppe class/eli es. This ex ep esen s he e y i s e o o
assess he ich e idence ob ained by la ge-scale exca a ions o dese ed medie al illages by
adop ing a peasan agency pe spec i e. To achie e his, we in oduce se en p ospec i e hemes
in which he di e si y and complexi y o u al communi ies ha ha e aken an ac i e ole in
his o ical p ocesses making collec i e and indi idual decisions can be illus a ed. Ou ambi ion
is o o e a new insigh in o la e medie al peasan s in Eas Cen al Eu ope, enhance hei com-
p ehensi e unde s anding, and s imula e u u e esea ch di ec ions.
La e Middle Age, Eas Cen al Eu ope, Dese ed medie al illage, u al a chaeology, his o iog-
aphy, peasan y, agency.
1. In oduc ion
Medie al a chaeology in he eas e n pa o Cen al Eu ope has a ich
and long-s anding adi ion o sys ema ic in es iga ions in o he u al mi-
lieu, wi h a pa icula emphasis on la ge-scale p og amme-o ien ed exca a-
* This esea ch and chap e ha e been suppo ed by he Czech Science Founda ion – he p ojec
No. 22-23889S (Vulne able o Resilien ? Unde s anding he Responses o Medie al Ru al Com-
muni ies o En i onmen al S ess).
Ladisla Čapek, Uni e si y o Wes Bohemia in Pilsen, Czech Republic, capekla@ka .zcu.cz, 0000-0001-
7929-6921
Lukáš Hola a, Uni e si y o Sou h Bohemia in České Budějo ice, Czech Republic, luk.hola [email protected],
0000-0003-1157-1960
Re e ee Lis (DOI 10.36253/ up_ e e ee_lis )
FUP Bes P ac ice in Schola ly Publishing (DOI 10.36253/ up_bes _p ac ice)
Ladisla Čapek, Lukáš Hola a, Re lec ing Peasan Agency in Medie al Ru al Milieu Resea ch o Eas Cen al
Eu ope, © Au ho (s), CC BY 4.0, DOI 10.36253/979-12-215-0562-7.03, in Juan An onio Qui ós Cas illo
(edi ed by), Local Socie ies and Peasan y Agencies in Medie al Ibe ia, pp. 41-76, 2024, published by Fi enze
Uni e si y P ess, ISBN 979-12-215-0562-7, DOI 10.36253/979-12-215-0562-7
42
Ladisla Čapek, Lukáš Hola a
ions o dese ed medie al illages (DMVs), which a e unique in he b oade
pan-Eu opean con ex . These ex ensi e esea ch campaigns ha e led o he
collec ion o comp ehensi e e idence and he making o nume ous conclu-
sions and insigh s on a ange o u al and peasan - ela ed opics o he La e
Middle Ages (in Cen al Eu ope in 1250-1550 AD); pa icula ly, hese opic
include indi idual se lemen s uc u es such as a ms eads, peasan houses,
mano houses, ma e ial cul u e and e e yday li e, ag a ian and non-ag a ian
p oduc ion, en i onmen al con ex and opog aphy, se lemen pa e ns, il-
lage o igin, and abandonmen .1
Ne e heless, he cu en s a e o he a , o mula ed in e p e a ions, as
well as he quali y o published ou comes a e inconsis en . Much o i has been
shaped by his o ical pa adigms and an in e es in economic a he han social
his o y. Al hough many egional and si e-speci ic s udies o u al a chaeology
ha e been unde aken, he e is a lack o b oade analy ical and compa a i e
assessmen s o he u al milieu and peasan y ha add ess new heo e ical
discou se. The con ex ual app oach e lec ing he social p ac ice o peasan s
as social agen s is s ill neglec ed. P e ious esea ch on his subjec has only
e lec ed on di e ences in he social s a i ica ion o peasan s h ough he
s udy o a chi ec u e o ma e ial cul u e.2
The e o e, we aim o b idge his signi ican esea ch gap wi h his pilo
s udy; i ep esen s he i s comp ehensi e e o o assess exis ing ou comes
om he pe spec i e o peasan agency. Ou objec i es a e: 1) o e ise he
exis ing social in e p e a ions in he li e a u e ha implici ly e lec o a e
close o he concep o he agency, 2) o o e a new pe spec i e on subal e n
socie ies in Eas Cen al Eu ope, and con ibu e o a holis ic, nuanced un-
de s anding o hem, 3) o s imula e new esea ch a enues and in e p e i e
amewo ks o se e al pe spec i e opics. A sepa a e objec i e 4) is also o
p esen a di e en en i onmen o he esea ch communi y in Spain ega d-
ing se lemen de elopmen and esea ch adi ion.
The pape does no encompass he ex ensi e Eu opean discou se on he so-
cial his o y and geog aphy o he ea ly mode n peasan y.3 Ins ead, we in end
o d aw a en ion o possible mani es a ions o peasan agency in a chaeological
e idence which is pa icula ly ich o he la e medie al pe iod in Eas Cen al
Eu ope. In con as , he e idence o w i en sou ces o his pe iod is spa se, lim-
i ed o only a ew spa ially de ined egions.4 In any case, we will a oid ela ing
in e p e a ions based on ea ly mode n w i en sou ces back o he Middle Ages.
In he ollowing sec ions: 1) we b ie ly ou line how peasan s ha e been
cha ac e ised, unde s ood, and pe cei ed in Eas Cen al Eu ope, hen in
1 Nekuda, “Das hoch- und spä mi elal e liche;” Klápš ě. The A chaeology o P ague, 15-
40; Čapek, Hola a, “Gene al O e iew;” Scholkmann, Kenzle , Sch eg, A chäologie des Mi -
elal e s, 151-63.
2 Nekuda, “Sociální skladba;” Goßle , “Gedanken zu sozialen;” Kyp a, “Das Lebensmilieu.”
3 S eeni asan, “Beyond he Village.”
4 Klí , Rolnic o na pozdně.
43
Re lec ing Peasan Agency in Medie al Ru al Milieu Resea ch o Eas Cen al Eu ope
he main pa , 2) we o e an o e iew o se en hemes, p o iding: a) a sho
con ex o he esea ch, ollowed by b) peasan agency pe spec i es. Fo his
pu pose, well-published e idence om he la ge-scale exca a ions o DMVs
will be used. Due o he limi ed scope o he pape , we will e e only o he
mos ele an syn hesizing publica ions. In conclusion, 3) a pilo cha ac e i-
za ion o u al communi ies om peasan agency pe spec i e will be a emp -
ed, which we conside as a s imulus o ho ough e-e alua ions o exis ing
esea ch in e p e a ions o newly designed esea ch.
2. Unde s anding peasan s: A esea ch amewo k in Eas Cen al Eu ope
The eas e n pa o Cen al Eu ope is geog aphically de ined by he a e-
as eas o he i e s Elbe and Saale ( he Ge manica Sla ica a ea) and no h
o he Alps. This e i o y includes coun ies such as Eas Ge many ( o me
GDR), Poland, he Czech Republic, Slo akia, Aus ia, and Hunga y. These
coun ies a e gene ally cha ac e ized by a simila se lemen -his o ical de-
elopmen wi h speci ic egional a ia ions and socio-economic and demo-
g aphic di e gences.
The beginnings o sys ema ic in e es in he medie al u al se lemen
a e associa ed wi h his o ical discou se on he La e Medie al C isis and il-
lage dese ion.5 His o ical geog aphy and se lemen a chaeology (Siedlung-
sa chäologie)6 ha e had an excep ional adi ion. These app oaches inspi ed
ex ensi e su ace su eys o DMVs.7 A cha ac e is ic ea u e o medie al a -
chaeology in he second hal o he 20 h cen u y was sys ema ic open-a ea
exca a ions o se lemen s. Howe e , hey ha e been p omp ed p ima ily
by he need o he i age-o ien ed a chaeology a he han academic in e -
es . Resea ch on DMVs has been mo e desc ip i e and empi ical bu lacked
heo e ical dep h. The ou comes o exca a ions we e mo e o ien ed owa ds
con ex ualizing he ma e ial e idence in cul u e and economic (ag a ian)
his o y. Medie al a chaeology has long been unde he umb ella o cul u al
his o y, hea ily in luenced by economic his o y and Ma xis his o iog aphy.8
A signi ican impac , albei on a limi ed g oup o schola s, was also made by
he F ench Annales school o his o y wi h i s concep o ‘ o al his o y’ and
i s in e es in s uc u al p ocesses and changes iewed om longue du ée
pe spec i e.9
A signi ican change in exis ing app oaches occu ed a e he all o he
I on Cu ain, which esul ed in 1) he g adual e mina ion o sys ema ic,
5 Sch eg, “Die K isen des spä en Mi elal e s.”
6 Denecke. “Die his o isch-geog aphische Landesau nahme;” Jankuhn, Ein üh ung.
7 Čapek and Hola a, “Gene al O e iew;” Michl, Wüs ung o chung in Deu schland.
8 E.g., Klápš ě, A chaeology o P ague, 15, 20.
9 Schö le , “Zu Geschich e;” Klápš ě, “S udies o s uc u al changes;” Klápš ě, “Změna – s ře-
do ěká ans o mace;” Sch eg, “Do genese und his oi e o ale.”
44
Ladisla Čapek, Lukáš Hola a
s a e-subsidized open-a ea exca a ions, 2) an inc ease in escue a chaeology
alongsi e a g adual decline o in e es in u al se lemen s, and 3) he de el-
opmen o landscape a chaeology wi h he in eg a ion o new non-in asi e
me hods and o he disciplines. The esponse o p ocessual a chaeology ound
li le esonance in gene al, o en being conside ed ‘an i-his o ical’.10 Only
ques ions conce ning he adap a ion o u al communi ies o he na u al
en i onmen we e discussed. Ra he han heo y, he app oaches o p oces-
sual a chaeology we e in eg a ed in o he me hods o a chaeological su ey.
Pos -p ocessual a chaeology, wi h i s emphasis on he in e p e a ion o con-
ex and social p ac ice, had i ually no in luence on medie al a chaeology
in Cen al Eu ope.
The s udy o peasan s and peasan y (peasan ology) and hei social s a -
i ica ion di e s be ween Wes e n and Cen al Eu ope.11 Acco ding o econom-
ic his o ians, he Cen al Eu opean peasan y can be gene ally de ined as a
g oup o p ima ily ag icul u al p oduce s li ing in a subsis ence model o
p oduc ion. They u ilized hei own amily labou and cul i a ed he land hey
held in he edi a y enu e based on a con ac wi h he landlo ds; hey aimed
o op imize he use o land, capi al, and labou wi hin local economic and
ecological condi ions, allowing hem o gene a e a ‘su plus’ o iscal income
wi hin he ma ke economy sys em.12 The s a us o peasan s was legally an-
cho ed by he pu chase igh o decla a ion o cus oms (empy heu ical law),
which emained almos unchanged h oughou he La e Middle Ages.13
Peasan s gene ally eme ged in olde li e a u e as a homogeneous, pas-
si e g oup whose li e des inies we e de e mined by his o ical e en s such as
wa s, epidemics, and c op ailu es, as well as by s uc u al and en i onmen al
p ocesses, including clima ic ac o s. The conse a ism, s abili y, and immu-
abili y o he u al communi ies we e highligh ed. Peasan s we e depic ed as
‘locked in ime’, bound o he seasonal cycles o ag icul u e be ween sowing
and ha es ing, wi hou he abili y o in luence hei i e e sible a e in li e.
Due o he sca ci y o w i en sou ces, medie al peasan y was conside ed
as ‘ imeless’ o ‘his o yless’.14 Ma xis his o iog aphy conside s peasan s a
subal e n g oup (low classes, se s) dependen on he eli es. The ela ionship
be ween he peasan s and he eli es ( he socially uppe class) was seen con-
on a ionally ega ding powe , subo dina ion, and he p inciples o ‘class
s uggle’. Peasan s we e s udied hie a chically in e ms o dominance and
subo dina ion om a op-down pe spec i e. The peasan s’ oices we e ‘mu -
led’ o ‘obscu ed’ by he uling classes o socie y, and peasan s had minimal
10 Feh ing, Die A chäologie des Mi elal e s, 194.
11 Se e al syn he ic wo ks ha e been published: G aus, Dějiny enko ského lidu; Abel,
Geschich e de deu schen Landwi scha ; Rösene , Baue n im Mi elal e ; Rösene , The peas-
an y o Eu ope; Čechu a, “Rolnic o Čechách.”
12 Klí , Rolnic o na Chebsku, 36-7; c . Ce man, “Social s uc u e.”
13 Čechu a, “Rolnic o Čechách;” Rösene , G undhe scha im Wandel.
14 C . c i ically Apa isi, “F ac u es in he Communi y;” Van Oyen, “Ru al ime;” Sch eg, “The
E e nal Peasan .”
45
Re lec ing Peasan Agency in Medie al Ru al Milieu Resea ch o Eas Cen al Eu ope
oppo uni ies o esis o de elop al e na i es o he dominan s uc u es.
The e was no ecogni ion ha peasan s, as ac i e social agen s, also had he
po en ial o in luence his o ical p ocesses.15
Howe e , such a iew o e looked se e al essen ial aspec s, as demon-
s a ed in new s udies ha ha e eme ged in ecen decades.16 (1) The in e nal
hie a chy was no e lec ed; in ac . a la ge g oup consis ed o hie a chically
lowe sub-peasan g oups e e ed o as ‘sub- illage s’, which included ‘small-
holde s’ (ga dene s, co age s) and landless people ha we e no exclusi ely
ag icul u al p oduce s.17 (2) No all inhabi an s o illages can be desc ibed
as ‘ a me s’, as some had o he sou ces o income (c a , mining, e c.). (3) Al-
hough peasan s we e pe sonally un ee, hey we e g an ed a ce ain deg ee o
au onomy.18 F om he 14 h cen u y onwa ds, he s a us o peasan s imp o ed,
and hei land igh s we e s eng hened. (4) The li e o he la e medie al peas-
an y is cha ac e ized by signi ican ho izon al and e ical social mobili y,
mani es ed in conside able p ope y lexibili y, which allowed peasan s o ac-
qui e possession o he land as well as o lea e i . The igh o he edi a y en-
an s o buy and sell hei land (i.e., o e ec p ope y ans e s be ween peas-
an s) b ough conside able mobili y in land owne ship.19 (5) Du ing he 15 h
cen u y, peasan s became mo e in ol ed in he ma ke economy. They may
ha e been ac i ely pa icipa ed in he eal es a e and land ma ke in some
egions o Cen al Eu ope, as eco ded in land egis e s.20
Al hough a chaeology has o e ed g ea oppo uni ies o he s udy o me-
die al peasan y om he mid-20 h cen u y onwa ds, he esea ch amewo k
(and in e p e a ions o a chaeological da a) has been p edominan ly in lu-
enced by his o ical discou se and economic his o y; he opics such as ag i-
cul u e, c a p oduc ion, u al a chi ec u e, and ma e ial cul u e ha e been
p io i ized, highligh ing he dispa i ies in li ing s anda ds be ween u al and
noble ‘classes’.21 A chaeology has been p ima ily supposed o p o e his o ical
in e p e a ions, e en hough he e idence ob ained con adic ed adi ional
ideas o con inui y, s abili y, conse a ism, o e en igidi y. These a e demon-
s a ed in he ans o ma ion o se lemen and ield pa e ns, a ious illage
layou s o peasan s’ house a chi ec u e, and s iking di e ences in ma e i-
al cul u e indica ing in e nal social di e en ia ion. Despi e his e idence,
howe e , he ac i e ole o peasan communi ies has no ye been gi en much
conside a ion. The in luence o he Annales in Cen al Eu opean a chaeology
mean ha collec i e agen s and s uc u ed human beha iou we e mo e like-
15 Sch eg, “E e nal Peasan ,” 66-7; Qui ós-Cas illo, Teje izo Ga cía, “Filling he gap.”
16 E.g. Ca occi, “Social Mobili y;” Van Oyen, “Ru al ime;” Klí , Rolnic o na Chebsku.
17 Čechu a, “Rolnic o Čechách;” Mi e aue , “Fo men ländliche ;” Ce man, “Mi elal e li-
ch e U sp ünge;” Ghosh, “Ru al Economies.”
18 Čechu a. “Rolnic o Čechách;” Rösene , G undhe scha im Wandel.
19 Klí , Rolnic o na Chebsku.
20 Ce man, “Social s uc u e,” 57-67.
21 Nekuda, “Zemědělská ý oba období eudalismu;” Nekuda, “Sociální skladba;” Jannsen,
“Gewe bliche P oduk ion.”
46
Ladisla Čapek, Lukáš Hola a
Figu e 1. The loca ion o dese ed illages explo ed by ex ensi e exca a ions in cen al Eu ope,
which a e he subjec o de ailed assessmen .
53
Re lec ing Peasan Agency in Medie al Ru al Milieu Resea ch o Eas Cen al Eu ope
Figu e 5. Gene al ypology o ploughlands’ layou s (acco ding o E. Če ný): ypes men ioned in
he ex : 4: sec ional ploughland; 6 – 10: long s ip plo s / backya d ploughland.
54
Ladisla Čapek, Lukáš Hola a
Figu e 6. Illus a ions in a Saxon Law Book (Sachsenspiege) show peasan s’ di e se
ac ions, igh s, and obliga ions: 1. Landlo ds hands o e he ounda ion cha e
o he loca o o he illage ha is being es ablished, 2.-3 Peasan s p omise he
landlo d o pay he en and o he obliga ions, 2. Peasan s pay he en in sp ing
a e ploughing and 3. In au umn, a e c op ha es ing, 4. The wa e mill, hea y
plough and chu ch a e pa o he illage’s acili ies, 5. Peasan s a e obliged o
build dykes as lood p o ec ion, 6. Peasan s a e obliged o build ences a ound hei
a ms eads, and unning wa e om he oo mus no all on o he neighbou ing
plo , 7. Neighbou ’s ees o e hanging he ence o he a ms ead may be cu down.
55
Re lec ing Peasan Agency in Medie al Ru al Milieu Resea ch o Eas Cen al Eu ope
alues.48 Peasan s sha ed a common idea o he illage and i s su oundings,
which was essen ial o i s unc ioning. Wi hou he cohesion o he u al
communi y, he illage could no ope a e ( he disin eg a ion o neighbou ly
ela ions is ega ded as a ac o in abandonmen ,49 see below).
5. Fo ma ion o he h ee-compa men esiden ial house and he peasan
household
Alongside he ans o ma ions ongoing in illages and he coun yside, a
h ee-compa men house was o med and became he p edominan peasan
dwelling in Eas Cen al Eu ope. This house ype exis ed in a ious egional
o ms, cons uc ions, and layou s (longi udinal o hooked), bu he concep
was analogous h oughou he whole a ea. I ypically consis s o a smoke
o semi-smoke li ing oom wi h a hea ing de ice in he co ne (in Ge man:
Rauchs ube, in Czech: jizba), an en ance hall, and a s o age- oom/g ana y
(in Bohemia, and Mo a ia) o by e (in Ge many).50
T adi ionally i has been assumed (pa icula ly in he wo ks o e hnog-
aphe s and building his o ians) ha he h ee-compa men house was im-
po ed om Wes e n Eu ope.51 Howe e , a chaeological exca a ions o DMVs
in Czech lands (no ably Bys řec, Ms ěnice, and pa ly also P a enschlag),
ha e e ealed i s complex o igin; he o ma ion o h ee-compa men house
was a he a g adual p ocess, esul ing om he me ging o o iginally sepa-
a e esiden ial dwellings and a m ou buildings.52
The appea ance o he a ms eads and he a chi ec u al and unc ional
di e en ia ion o spaces wi hin peasan houses, e en wi hin he same illage,
p o ide insigh in o e e yday li e and social p ac ises. These p ac ices encom-
pass a ious ac i i ies and ou ines ela ed o housing, s o age, housewo k,
and household main enance, e ealing po en ial o peasan agency as well.53
Agency is mani es ed in ideas abou household unc ioning and o e all
appea ance, pa icula ly conce ning he sha ing o space wi h o he house-
hold membe s. Ru al households ep esen social assemblages o med by so-
cial ela ions based on blood kinship as well as a common way o li e and hos-
pi ali y. Unde one oo , no only he nuclea biological amily li ed, bu also
48 Gó ecki, “Medie al Peasan s,” 277.
49 Dye , “Villages in c isis,” 30.
50 Howe e , one- and wo-pa s houses o a chaic building adi ion s ill exis ed in some a eas,
Vařeka, “The Fo ma ion o he Th ee-compa men Ru al House,” 145.
51 F olec, “K in e p e aci.”
52 Sme ánka, “K p oblema ice ojdílného domu;” Nekuda, “Vý oj ojdílného;” Pálóczi-Ho -
á h, “De elopmen o he La e-Medie al house;” Vařeka, A cheologie s ředo ěkého, 256-7;
Vařeka, “Fo ma ion o u al house;” Sch eg, “Fa ms eads in Ea ly Medie al Ge many.”
53 Sch eg, “In e ak ion und Kommunika ion,” 485; Gilch is , Medie al, 114-9.
56
Ladisla Čapek, Lukáš Hola a
o he membe s such as enan s, lodge s, o se an s.54 Es ima es o peasan
amily size in Cen al Eu ope sugges an a e age o 6 o 9 membe s.55 They
had o coexis in some manne ; he compe ence o he household and i s indi-
idual decisions shaped he li ing space.
A chaeological exca a ions (P a enschlag and Ha d) ha e e ealed ha
he basic layou o he house was u he subdi ided in e nally, esul ing in
i e o e en se en dis inc spaces. The p e ailing in e p e a ion, suppo ed by
e hnog aphy, sugges ha hese addi ional spaces se ed as p i a e a eas o
o he household membe s.56 Addi ionally, nume ous disc e e zones o ac i i y
can be iden i ied, including hose ela ed o social and gende dis ibu ion.
Peasan houses could be u ilized, expe ienced, and pe cei ed in a ious
ways and should no be iewed s a ically – hey had a deg ee o social ‘ lex-
ibili y’ and ‘ luidi y’. Space, concep ualized in e ms o social ela ion, was
‘inhe en ly dynamic’, and peasan s as social ac o s, a ibu ed hem di e en
meanings a di e en imes.57 Al hough houses we e p ima ily buil o hab-
i a ion, hei o m, in e nal layou , and u nishings we e subjec o change.
The physical and ma e ial u nishings o he house can be econs uc ed
h ough a chaeology o analysis o w i en sou ces such as household in en-
o ies, p ope y ans e s, and wills.58
A chaeology e eals objec s ypically omi ed om in en o ies, such as
po e y, ag icul u al and c a ools, while u al household in en o ies docu-
men mo e aluable i ems like me al essels, ex iles, lea he s, blanke s, pil-
lows and speci ic ypes o wooden u nishing, such as ables, beds, chai s,
benches, and wooden ches s.59 A ypical space, whose unc ion could socially
change, was wo-s o ey s o age oom/g ana y, which may ha e se ed a i-
ous pu poses beyond he p ima y s o age o ag icul u al p oduc s and hand-
ic a ools.60
As a domes ic, physically amed space, he peasan house was no a sim-
ple bina y en i y gene a ing and a icula ing social di e ences h ough i s
spa ial and social o ganiza ion (inside/ou side; public/p i a e; male/ emale).
In he adi ional iew, he peasan household was conside ed a space o ex-
e cising pa ia chal au ho i y. Howe e , i also p o ided oppo uni ies o
women’s agency.61 The gende ed di ision o labou wi hin space, as pe cei ed
in he pas , wi h men p ima ily engaged in p oduc i e wo k ou side (mainly
54 Lasle , “Family and household,” 528; Rösene , “Die bäue liche Familie des Spä mi elal e s,”
139; Je is, “Examining Tempo ali y.”
55 Klí , Rolnic o na Chebsku, 275-6.
56 Dye , “Li ing in Peasan Houses.”
57 Fla he , “Space, Place, and Gende ,” 345.
58 Goldbe g, “The ashioning o bou geois domes ici y;” Gilch is , Medie al Li e, 115; Je is,
“Examining Tempo ali y;” Pe áňo á, Vařeka, “Vyba ení enko ské.”
59 Dye , “Li ing in peasan houses,” 21-2; B iggs, Fo wa d, Je is, Tomkpins, “People, posses-
sions and domes ic space.”
60 Vařeka, “Fo ma ion o u al house,” 148.
61 Mülle , “Peasan women;” Je is, “Examining Tempo ali y.”
57
Re lec ing Peasan Agency in Medie al Ru al Milieu Resea ch o Eas Cen al Eu ope
Figu e 7. Compa ison o wo exca a ed a ms eads wi h he in e p e a ion o indi idual objec s
/ unc ional uni s: A) a ms ead in DMV o S ídna: J – smoke li ing oom, P – s one o en, S –
en ance hall, K – s o age oom, Sk – g ana y, Ch – b ead o en, D – cou ya d, Ds – cou ya d’s
building o inde e mina e unc ion, HX – assumed a m building, Z – ga den (acco ding o Z.
Sme ánka); B) a ms ead in DMV o Ms ěnice: a – smoke li ing oom wi h s one o en (g ey), a1
– a second li ing space (p obably an ou house – li e enancy, en -cha ge house) wi h s o e and
a i eplace (g ey), b – en ance hall, c – s o age oom, c1 – p obable s o age oom, s – g ana y,
ch – ba n (acco ding o R. Nekuda and V. Nekuda).
58
Ladisla Čapek, Lukáš Hola a
Figu e 8. Genesis o a h ee-pa house acco ding o he e idence ob ained by a chaeological
exca a ion in Ms ěnice (acco ding o V. Nekuda): 1: The oldes phase o he house in a ms ead
II; a – ees anding smoke li ing oom o pos -and-beam cons uc ions (oz – o en), c – e-
es anding s one-buil semi-sunken s o age oom (S1 en ance, en ance om he cou ya d),
l – cella (‘loch’); 2: he la es phase o he house in a ms ead II; a – smoke li ing- oom wi h
o en (oz), b – en ance hall, c – semi-sunken s o age oom wi h en ance om he cou ya d,
l – cella (‘loch’); 3: Fa ms ead III; a – smoke li ing-house o pos -and-beam cons uc ions (oz –
o en), b – a ached en ance hall o combined cons uc ion wi h i eplace (oh), c – ees anding
s one-build semi-sunken s o age oom (acco ding o R. Nekuda and V. Nekuda).
59
Re lec ing Peasan Agency in Medie al Ru al Milieu Resea ch o Eas Cen al Eu ope
Figu e 9. Compa ison o a selec ed h ee-pa house in (A) S ídna (acco ding o Z. Sme ánka)
and (B) P a enschlag (acco ding o V. Nekuda).
60
Ladisla Čapek, Lukáš Hola a
ag icul u e) and women in small-scale p oduc ion wi hin he domes ic space,
is highly simplis ic. Women we e engaged in a wide ange o ac i i ies,62 and
hey could play leading oles in o ganiza ion household managemen o e en
ake con ol o economic ac i i ies in some cases.63
6. P oduc ion, li elihood, and nu i ion o peasan s
The o iginal idea ha Eas Cen al Eu opean peasan communi ies we e
engaged in ag icul u al p oduc ion s ill p e ails. They g ew g ain o sub-
sis ence and gene a ed su plus o subsequen comme cial ma ke exchange.
The accompanying ac i i y was he domes ic animals b eeding.64 The p o-
po ion be ween a able a ming and li es ock b eeding a ied depending on
he ype o landscape – in moun ainous, less ag oclima ic a ou able a eas,
he amoun o a able land was signi ican ly lowe in a ou o pas u es and
mo e li es ock p oduc ion.65 The c ea ion o he egula ed ield sys em and
he ansi ion o he h ee- ield c op a ming sys em du ing he 13 h cen u y
ep esen ed a signi ican s uc u al change in ol ing new land managemen
and economic decision-making.66 I led o a mo e signi ican in ensi ica ion o
ag icul u e, which was ca ied ou on a smalle scale bu wi h high inpu s, e-
sul ing in g ea e di e si ica ion o he c ops g own compa ed o he p e ious
pe iod. A nega i e consequence o ex ensi e a able a ming was he educ ion
o he a ea o pas u es, which we e an in eg al pa o he illage ecosys em.
Animal housing in by es (cowsheds), which has been well-documen ed in ex-
ca a ed DMVs, posi i ely a ec ed he p oduc ion o manu e used o e ilize
he ields. This is indica ed by sca e ed po e y sha ds o geochemical anal-
ysis o soils.67 Inno a ions in a ming ools we e also eme ged du ing his pe-
iod (especially a hea y mouldboa d plough allowing deep illage and be e
cul i a ion o ields).68
In less a ou able condi ions, such as moun ainous and oo hills a eas
wi h limi ed a ailabili y o a able land he medie al illage economy elied
mo e on non-ag icul u al p oduc ion. Village communi ies engaged in c a
and p o o-indus ial p oduc ion o di e si y hei economics. Be ween he
‘lowlands’ o ien ed on comme cial g ain p oduc ion and ‘moun ainous’ a eas,
he e we e ex ensi e mixed zones – ag icul u e had a subsis ence cha ac e
accompanied by o he sou ces depending on he local condi ions. These di -
62 Fla he , “Space, Place, and Gende ;” Dye , “Li ing in peasan houses,” 23.
63 Rösene , “Die bäue liche Familie,” 139; Čechu a, “Rolnic o Čechách,” 479.
64 Rösene , Peasan y o Eu ope, 122-43; Ce man, “Social s uc u e.”
65 Sch eg, “Feeding he illage;” Sch eg, “Ecological App oaches,” 96-7.
66 Sch eg, “Ecological App oaches,” 102.
67 Klápš ě, P oměna Českých zemí, 284; Ho ák, Klí , “Pedogenesis, Pedochemis y and he
Func ional S uc u e;” Jano ský, Ho ák, “La ge Scale Geochemical Signa u es.”
68 Klápš ě, “Změna – s ředo ěká ans o mace,” 22-4; G ingmu h-Dallme . “De Wandel de
A g a wi scha .”
61
Re lec ing Peasan Agency in Medie al Ru al Milieu Resea ch o Eas Cen al Eu ope
e ences in p oduc ion egions a e e lec ed, o example, in he size and a -
angemen o a ms eads. La ge cou ya d- ype a ms eads si ua ed in com-
pac illage we e mainly in lowland a eas, while small, dispe sed a ms eads
p edomina ed in moun ainous a eas.69
The peasan s had o manage wo k o ganisa ion in di e en local condi-
ions, wi h conside able au onomy in decision-making. Wi hin indi idual
households, hey had a g ea deal o la i ude o decide which ac i i ies o un-
de ake, choose he c ops o be sown o animals o b eed, o de e mine he
amoun o expendi u e o be alloca ed o he a ms ead equipmen .70 The ich
a chaeological, a chaeobo anical and a chaeozoological e idence demon-
s a es conside able a ia ion and di e si y no only be ween egions and il-
lages bu also be ween a ms eads wi hin a single illage.71 This is mani es ed
pa icula ly by he di e en spec um and p opo ions o ce eals and li e-
s ock, as well as by he p esence o ho icul u e, ga dening, winemaking and
hun ing72 on some a ms eads.
Knowledge o he consump ion, nu i ion, and die o u al communi ies
is s ill e y limi ed. Howe e , he e a e indica ions o di e en die a y p e e -
ences in he selec ion and consump ion o plan and animal ood, which also
a y among illage communi ies.73
A chaeology has con ibu ed signi ican ly o he e idence o non-ag a -
ian p oduc ion, especially in moun ain and oo hill a eas, associa ed wi h
su ace exploi a ion o i on o es and hei p ima y me allu gical p ocessing
(so ing, oas ing), as well as o es c a s such as cha coal bu ning and a
p oduc ion.74 The e is an absence o e e ences in w i en sou ces o such ac-
i i ies as hey ook place ou side o he empy heu ical ela ionship be ween
he se s and he landlo ds.75 C a indus ies commonly associa ed wi h he
u ban sphe e we e abundan in illages, such as blacksmi hing (Bys řec, Sa -
aly, Ha d, Pag am) and po e y wo kshops (Ms ěnice). Almos all exca a ed
illages p o ided e idence o wood and lea he p ocessing and ex ile p o-
duc ion. The ques ion a ises whe he his e idence o small-scale p oduc ion
ep esen s domes ic consump ion o could gene a e al e na i e economic
income.76
O e all, he adi ional de e minis ic ideas o a one-sided o ien a ion o
u al communi ies owa ds ag icul u e and hei insis ence on g owing g ain
69 Klí , “Die ländliche Besiedlung Böhmens;” Klí , “Zaniklé s ředo ěké,” 24-5.
70 Čechu a, “Rolnic o Čechách,” 482; S one, Decision-Making.
71 Klápš ě, A chaeology o P ague, 34-5.
72 This con adic s o en- epo ed hun ing p ohibi ions, which was he p e oga i e o he nobil-
i y: Goßle , “Gedanken zu sozialen Schich ung,” 149.
73 Klápš ě, A chaeology o P ague, 35.
74 Denecke. “Siedlungsen wicklung und wi scha liche;” Kenzle , “The Medie al Se lemen ;”
Če ná, Klí , “Osídlení K ušných;” Klí , “Die ländliche Besiedlung,” 147-60; Klí , “Zaniklé s ře-
do ěké si,” 24-5.
75 No áček, “Ne os né su o iny,” 294.
76 S ensson. “Be o e a wo ld-sys em?.”
62
Ladisla Čapek, Lukáš Hola a
e e ywhe e can hus be challenged.77 On he con a y, we encoun e di e -
en s a egies (and adap abili y; c . esilience heo y below), which may ha e
a ied lexibly acco ding o ex e nal ci cums ances and local condi ions. Eco-
nomic decision-making – wha is o is no p o i able o g ow and whe he i
makes sense o ocus ac i i ies on complemen a y p oduc ion – is pa o he
essen ial ‘cogni i e equipmen ’ o peasan communi ies and hei capaci y o
agency.
7. In eg a ion o he u al economy in o he ma ke ( ade ela ions)
Peasan a ms eads we e he ‘mic o-economy’ uni s wi h hei own a m-
ing p ac ice aimed a secu ing he subsis ence o all membe s (see abo e).78
Addi ionally, hey we e obliga ed o pay a se ’s en o local au ho i ies (land-
lo ds, chu ch). A i h o a qua e o he ha es had o be se aside o he
nex sowing season. Any e en ual su plus was hen used o ma ke exchange
o acqui e goods and se ices hey lacked o we e una ailable in he illage,
and o ob ain cash. I is es ima ed ha a ound 30% o o al p oduc ion was
alloca ed o ma ke sale in he 15 h cen u y. Al e na i e sou ces o income
included he sale o li es ock, poul y, o o he domes ic p oduc s (cheese,
honey, e c.).79
The local ma ke played an inc easingly impo an ole in he li e o peas-
an communi ies. In he La e Middle Ages, he demand o ma ke exchange
g ew alongside he p e e ence o cash as a se ’s en .80 The sha e o com-
me cial g ain ade signi ican ly inc eased du ing his pe iod. Many peasan s
became in ol ed in he ma ke economy and ade ela ions wi h owns and
he coun yside, which g adually ensu ed hei ela i e economic p ospe i y.81
In hese ci cums ances, peasan migh in es in pu chasing o en ing
addi ional land o expanding hei he ds o li es ock.82 Comme cial ade e-
qui ed he s o age o ag icul u al p oduc s and ood, which was also o gan-
ised a he le el o indi idual a ms eads, becoming an essen ial pa o he
socio-economic sys em.83 In he La e Middle Ages, s o age capaci y o accu-
mula ing o la ge s ocks excep ionally inc eased, as e idenced by a chaeologi-
cal exca a ions. Abo e-g ound mul i-s o ey g ana ies (in Ms ěnice and Ha d)
we e in eg a ed in o he house o si ua ed sepa a ely wi hin he a ms ead.
Addi ionally, a ious walled cella s we e p obably used o s o age pu poses
(as unco e ed in P a enschlag and Sa aly).
77 Hou ko á, Ho ák, Poko ná, Beš a, P a co á, No ák, Klí , “The dynamics o a non- o es ed.”
78 Čechu a, “Rolnic o Čechách,” 477.
79 Guzowski, “A Changing Economy,” 14; Míka, Poddaný lid, 31-2.
80 Ce man, “Social s uc u e.”
81 Čechu a, “Rolnic o Čechách,” 468-9; Ce man, Mau , “P oměny esnických;” Klí , “Die
ländliche Besiedlung,” 152; Scho ield, Peasan and communi y, 6.
82 C . Guzowski, “Changing economy,” 18; Klí , Rolnic o na Chebsku.
83 Sch eg, “Feeding he illage,” 305.
69
Re lec ing Peasan Agency in Medie al Ru al Milieu Resea ch o Eas Cen al Eu ope
Howe e , social s a us was no ixed, as he e we e many g ada ions in land
possession, wel a e, and equen e ical and ho izon al mobili y om one
social ca ego y o ano he . The medie al (no only Cen al Eu opean) peas-
an y was no homogeneous bu e y di e se and ac u ed, and no sha ply
s a i ied in o dis inc i e social classes, as has been p oclaimed in he pas .120
Ru al communi ies de eloped as dis inc social g oups main aining complex
social ela ions among hei membe s. In he La e Middle Ages, illage mu-
nicipali ies we e es ablished wi h hei compe encies and ins i u ions o en-
su e adhe ence o he no ms o coexis ence.121 The peasan s pa icipa ed no
only in ag icul u al p oduc ion bu also suppo ed each o he when needed.
These collec i e p ac ices s eng hened neighbou ly ela ions.
The u al communi y ep esen ed an essen ial domain o social, econom-
ic, and demog aphic in e ac ion. Communi y membe s can be seen as ‘neigh-
bou s’, bo n and aised in o he same ex e nal condi ions, gaining simila li e
expe iences, and engaging wi h each o he in a wide ange o ac i i ies. In
such a communi y, he e was no place o anonymi y and a s ong awa eness
o in e dependence p e ailed.122 They appea e y cohesi e and o en uni ed in
hei esis ance o he local au ho i ies, mani es ed o en in Cen al Eu ope.123
Peasan communi ies should be seen as dis inc i e social g oups wi h
in e nal s a i ica ion and social iden i y mani es ed by a ia ions in li ing
s anda ds, di e se in e nal and ex e nal ies and in e ac ions, and he abili-
y o wi hs and s ess ul si ua ions and e ec i ely shape hei li e des inies.
The e is inc easing e idence om a ious places in Eu ope ha peasan s
we e s a egic and knowledgeable agen s.124
A chaeology has an ex ao dina y po en ial o econside he s e eo ypi-
cal ideas abou medie al peasan y imposed by he dic ion o w i en sou ces.
Howe e , indi idual o collec i e peasan agency is complica ed o in e p e
om a chaeological eco ds, which a e o en agmen a y, ambiguous, and
in luenced by o ma i e and pos -deposi ional p ocesses. While a chaeology
can documen s uc u ed deposi s, speci ic con ex s, o o ms o ‘ma e ialised
eco d’,125 i is e y di icul o in e p e whe he his ma e iali y e lec s social
p ac ice, beha iou , o e idence o delibe a e peasan agency. In e p e ing
hese s uc u es agains he backd op o his o ical p ocesses h ough he lens
o peasan agency ep esen s a non- i ial ask.
One di ec ion o u u e esea ch may be a de ailed con ex ual analysis
o ma e ial eco ds. This app oach may poin o some e idence o mo i a-
ions o social ac ion, decision-making p ocesses, o e en peasan agency,
120 C . Scho ield, Peasan and Communi y; Apa isi and Royo, “F ac u es in he Communi y;”
Klí , Rolnic o na Chebsku.
121 E.g., Rösene , “Leben au dem Lande,” 71-2.
122 Scho ield, Peasan and Communi y, 5-6; Klí , Rolnic o na Chebsku, 38.
123 E.g., Blickle, “Peasan Re ol s;” F eedman, “Peasan Resis ance.”
124 E.g., Dye , “Villages in c isis;” S ensson, Pe e sson, Nilsson, Boss, Johansson, “Resilience
and Medie al C ises.”
125 C . S e enson, “Towa d an unde s anding.”
70
Ladisla Čapek, Lukáš Hola a
mani es ing in he abo emen ioned a ia ions. Some mo i a ions ha led
o changes o ‘exis ing o de s’ we e undoub edly indi idual. Ye a chaeology
mo e o en encoun e s objec s and con ex s ha a e mo e likely o be e i-
dence o communi y agency.
71
Re lec ing Peasan Agency in Medie al Ru al Milieu Resea ch o Eas Cen al Eu ope
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Ladisla Čapek
Uni e si y o Wes Bohemia in Pilsen (Czech Republic)
capekla@ka .zcu.cz
o cid: 0000-0001-7929-6921
Lukáš Hola a
Uni e si y o Sou h Bohemia in České Budějo ice (Czech Republic)
luk.hola [email protected]
o cid: 0000-0003-1157-1960
77
Village o ma ion and peasan y agency.
The case s udy o Go liz (Bizkaia)*
by Te esa Campos-Lopez
The s udy o medie al illage o ma ion has gene a ed an in ense deba e h oughou Eu ope e-
ga ding he cons uc ion o ag icul u al landscapes, he ini ia i e o he eli es, he weigh o he
lo dships o he impo ance o he peasan y. To e alua e his ask, we will become he analysis
o he Ea ly Medie al a chaeological con ex s documen ed in he own o Go liz (Biscay, Spain),
whe e ea ly medie al illages appea as ue elemen s ges a ed om he peasan y in dialogue
wi h di e en cen al and local powe s. Also we ocus on he need o ca y ou a chaeological
and his o ical analysis wi h a mul i ocal pe spec i e, so we can o e come he limi a ions o
unila e al app oaches, due o a global and holis ic s a egy.
Ea ly Middle Ages, 7 h-10 h cen u ies, Go liz, Communi y, Peasan Agency, Habi a .
1. In oduc ion
The aim o his pape is o ca y ou an app oach o he eme gence o il-
lages du ing High Middle Ages in pa ame e s o o ganiza ion o space, o ms
o socializa ion, as well as he o ganiza ion o ag icul u al landscapes. In his
sense, he o ma ion o illages du ing he high medie al pe iod is one o he
mos wo ked on opics in Wes e n Eu ope in he las 40 yea s.1 Ac ually, he
* This esea ch was suppo ed by he p ojec “A chaeology o he local socie ies in Sou he n
Eu ope: iden i ies, collec i es and e i o iali ies (5 h-11 h cen u ies) (PID2020-112506GB-C41)
unded by he Spanish Minis y o Science and Inno a ion, and he Resea ch G oup in He i age
and Cul u al Landscapes (Go e nmen o he Basque Coun y, IT1442-22).
1 Qui ós, “Village o ma ion, Social Memo ies and A chaeology,” 301.
Te esa Campos-Lopez, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y, Spain, e [email protected], 0000-0003-
3137-6492
Re e ee Lis (DOI 10.36253/ up_ e e ee_lis )
FUP Bes P ac ice in Schola ly Publishing (DOI 10.36253/ up_bes _p ac ice)
Te esa Campos-Lopez, Village o ma ion and peasan y agency.The case s udy o Go liz (Bizkaia), ©
Au ho (s), CC BY 4.0, DOI 10.36253/979-12-215-0562-7.04, in Juan An onio Qui ós Cas illo (edi ed by), Local
Socie ies and Peasan y Agencies in Medie al Ibe ia, pp. 77-99, 2024, published by Fi enze Uni e si y P ess,
ISBN 979-12-215-0562-7, DOI 10.36253/979-12-215-0562-7
78
Te esa Campos-Lopez
dense his o iog aphical base c ea ed, allows us o app oach his issue om
a chaeological and his o ical pe spec i es.
In he pos -wa pe iod, a he same ime as he mechaniza ion o ag icul-
u al asks and he use o plows capable o ca ying ou deepe wo k is s and-
a dized, non- isible deposi s un il ha da e began o eme ge. The inc ease in
he numbe o in e en ions in his ype o a chaeological se lemen s since
he 70s, no only helped o ca y ou he i s syn heses and gene al s udies,
bu also se ed o lay down gene al bases o he ques ion, and o add ess an
his o ical model app oach wi h a heo e ical pe spec i e o a chaeological
documen s. The e o e, on he one hand, he s udy o uninhabi ed a eas and
ag icul u al spaces, and, on he o he , he necessa y new ocus o he s udies
associa ed wi h his ype o si es om new pe spec i es such as he naissance
du illage and he incas ellamen o2 ha e allowed analysing he a chaeology
o he peasan y and he o ma ion o eudalism om new app oaches.3
A basic e e ence wo k is he olume by Robe Fossie and Jean Chapelo
(1980),4 in which ex ual and ma e ial sou ces come in eg a ed o add ess he
phenomenon o he bi h o he illage h ough he no ion o encellulemen .
This concep assesses how he implemen a ion o eudal socie y would ha e
de e mined a spa ial, social and poli ical amewo k o peasan y unde he
lo d domina ion. Wo king on examples and epo s om di e en si es in
F ance, bu also including o he s om Scandina ia, he Uni ed Kingdom and
Cen al Eu ope, hese au ho s es ablished ha he eme gence o he illage
as a uni o habi a , as an elemen o he socioeconomic amewo k and as an
a chi ec u al ac , in he Eu opean geog aphical a ea, occu s a ound he 10 h
and 11 h cen u ies wi hin he con ex o he consolida ion o eudalism.
Du ing he las decade o he 20 h cen u y, hanks o he ising o de elop-
men -led A chaeology and he de elopmen o he a chaeology o he illages
due o he inc ease o he numbe o documen ed si es, a e o mula ion and
ein e p e a ion o his model ook place unde new his o iog aphical adi-
ions.5 In his con ex , con adic ions be ween he a chaeological eco ds, ha
we e being gene a ed and he hypo heses and models de i ed om he s udy
o w i en sou ces, appea ed. This disag eemen led Elisabe h Zado a-Rio,6
o example, o speak o “his o ians’ illages” e sus “a chaeologis s’ illages”.
La e on, he i s syn heses based on a chaeological da a appea ed, p o-
cessing he esul s o he nume ous p ojec s ca ied ou in p e ious yea s.
Among he main wo ks, hose w i en by Ricca do F anco ich and Richa d
Hodges, in 2003,7 o he syn hesis ca ied ou by Edi h Pey emann8 (2003)
2 Toube , Les s uc u es du La ium medie al; Augen i and Gale i, L’incas ellamen o.
3 Qui ós, A queología del campesinado medie al.
4 Fossie and Chapelo , La illage e la maison au Moyen Âge.
5 Qui ós, “Village o ma ion, Social Memo ies and A chaeology,” 301; Campos-Lopez, Las Al-
deas Al omedie ales en Bizkaia.
6 Zado a-Rio, “Ea ly medie al illages and es a e cen e s in F ance.”
7 Villa o illage. The ans o ma ion o he Roman Coun yside in I aly, c. 400-1000.
8 A chéologie de l’habi a u al dans le no d de la F ance du IVe au XIIe siècle.
85
Village o ma ion and peasan y agency. The case s udy o Go liz (Bizkaia)
Figu e 2. Plan o he s uc u es documen ed in 2nd pe iod (8 h and 9 h cen u ies).
Along wi h hese wo domes ic uni s, he e is a hi d one wi h he same
eas -wes o ien a ion, bu wi h a e y di e en loo plan, since i is a ec an-
gula one. The cons uc i e elemen s documen ed a e mos ly holes o pos -
holes, al hough, a a ce ain momen , a small issu e is made in he ock o
ma k an in e io compa men aliza ion. S uc u es o his ype ha e also been
documen ed in some se lemen s in Ala a, e.g. Ais a, Zaballa and Zo noz e-
gi,27 and he e is ano he s uc u e o his ype documen ed in he in es iga-
ion ca ied ou in he Ca hed al o Vi o ia-Gas eiz.28 In Bizcay, in A giñe a’s
in e en ions, he emains o an in e nally compa men alized ec angula
s uc u e also appea ed.29 Associa ed wi h his second phase o he domes ic
space; we mus ocus on he euse o a pos hole as a pe ina al bu ial. Ac-
ually, his is he only bu ial egis e ed associa ed wi h he ea ly medie al
habi a o he si e.30 In his ega d, he exis ence o in an bu ials linked wi h
dwelling s uc u es is an a chaeologically widesp ead ac , bo h empo ally
and geog aphically, being, appa en ly, an Indo-Eu opean adi ion ex ended
h oughou he en i e Medi e anean basin.31 In ela ion o he a angemen
27 Qui ós, “La a queología de las aldeas en el no oes e peninsula ,” 225-56.
28 Azka a e and Solaun, A queología e His o ia de una ciudad.
29 Aniba o and Ga cía Camino, “A giñe a,” 173-7; Aniba o and Ga cía Camino, “A giñe a,”
210-5; Ga cía Camino, “A giñe a: Un luga donde,” 140-9.
30 Mendizabal, Las sociedades medie ales del País Vasco.
31 Fe nández-C espo, “Los en e amien os in an iles,” 199-217.
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Te esa Campos-Lopez
o he bodies, hey a e usually bu ied indi idually, lexed pos u es p edom-
ina e – as is ou case – and g a e goods a e e y a e. O he documen ed
examples would be some such as he indi idual om he depopula ed ea ly
medie al o Ais a,32 o Zo noz egi, whe e he pa ial emains o a e us o
young child associa ed wi h a pos hole we e documen ed,33 al hough wi h a
ch onology be ween he 4 h and 5 h cen u ies.
This ype o bu ials in domes ic con ex s is associa ed wi h child en who
died na u ally and we e deposi ed wi h in en ion and ca e nea he domes ic
spaces, esponding o ce ain spi i ual belie s.34 Also, could be linked o he
belie ing o p ese ing he bond be ween child en and adul s, be ween he
communi y o he li ing and ha o hei ances o s’.35
The e o e, in his second pe iod, a mo e clus e ed spa ial pa e n is docu-
men ed: hus, a domes ic mo phology based on a unicellula model and s uc-
u es wi h a mo e complex plan . Also, a g ea densi ica ion and compac ion
can be obse ed, as well as a space o ganiza ion.
Las ly, in he hi d o he documen ed pe iods, i s hal o 10 h cen u y,
once again we eco ded impo an changes bo h in he a angemen o he
s uc u es, in hei mo phology and ypology. In he i s place, jus one single
s uc u e has been documen ed in he exca a ed a ea, wi h a sou heas -no h-
wes o ien a ion; ha is, ma king a di e ence wi h he p e ious s uc u es. I
would be a ec angula o longi udinal space – pa ially exca a ed – made a
g ound le el and aised wi h la ge wooden pos s and a cen al suppo ing ele-
men . A ached o his s uc u e, he e a e wo o he elemen s wi h a smalle
size, wo spaces wi h a squa e plan, which a e accommoda ed by g ains in he
ock. These elemen s would no be dedica ed o be used as domes ic space,
bu could be linked o di e en ac i i ies – possibly ag icul u al ones – ha
we e ca ied ou in he illage, o e en o s o age, such as high ba ns. In his
space, homes and canals made in he ock ha e been also documen ed.
Conce ning he su i als o elemen s ha we can s ill documen ed and
e alua e om he p e ious pe iod, i is clea ly seen ha he cen al open
space is main ained, since he egis e ed s uc u es a e a anged a ound i .
Howe e , i will be in his pe iod when he e is a clea use o his elemen as a
ci cula ion space, since a condi ioning o he cen al pa is ca ied ou , plac-
ing a kind o pa ing. The cen ali y and symbolism o his space will be high-
ligh ed du ing his pe iod, bu , e en mo e, when, om he cen al yea s o he
10 h cen u y, and placed di ec ly on i , a nec opolis, a se ies o bu ials linked
o his communi y appea . This momen coincides wi h he abandonmen o
he inhabi ed s uc u es, such as we will analyse below.
32 Fe nández-C espo, 199-217.
33 Qui ós, “La a queología de las aldeas en el no oes e peninsula ,” 225-56; Qui ós, .A que-
ología de una comunidad campesina medie al.
34 Fe nández-C espo, “Los en e amien os in an iles,” 199-217.
35 So ield, “Li ing wi h he Dead,” 351-88.
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Village o ma ion and peasan y agency. The case s udy o Go liz (Bizkaia)
Figu e 3. Plan o he s uc u es documen ed in he 3 d pe iod (10 h cen u y).
3. Main opics o analysis and discussion: Go liz’s con ibu ion
Once he documen ed sequence has been examined, we will ca y ou he
e alua ion o a se ies o opics o analyse i we can elucida e he ole played by
he peasan communi y in he p ocess o illage o ma ion, as well as in he
space managemen , always based on he con ibu ions and da a o e ed by
his se lemen .
3.1. The illage o ma ion p ocess
Taking all his da a in o accoun , we can es ablish ha he le els o ea ly
medie al habi a , acco ding o he eco ds kep in he Basque Coun y, can be
loca ed on a eas in whe e p e ious low impe ial occupa ion is documen ed,
al hough wi h a di e en unc ionali y and social o ganiza ion om he one
documen ed a he ime – examples o such a e o San a Ma ía de Za au z36
o o he se lemen s in Ala a like Lagua dia o Ais a –.37 Likewise, he e a e
36 Ibañez-Ex eba ia and Sa asola, “El yacimien o a queológico de San a Ma ía de Za au z,”
12-85.
37 Qui ós, The a chaeology o Ea ly Medie al Villages.
88
Te esa Campos-Lopez
also examples in which he e is no e idence o ha p e ious occupa ion, such
as he case o Vi o ia-Gas eiz o Go liz i sel .38 Tha is, hese occupa ion si es,
a om being he consequence o a single implan a ion pa e n, a e o igina -
ed om he e ogeneous s a ing con ex s.39
Thus, in he a ea o he Basque Coun y, du ing he 6 h and 7 h cen u ies,
he occupa ion o he e i o y esponds o a eali y o small g oups o houses
(single- amily a ms) ha may be in use o one o wo gene a ions and, in
which, he e is no clea e idence o ac i e eli es a local scale. The e o e, we
can see a no able di e ence wi h some o he con ex s documen ed in o he
a eas, such as he Ibe ian Pla eau.40 All his shows di e ences bo h in social
geog aphy and in he di e en powe s uc u es ha a e a icula ed in each
e i o y,41 as we can see in La E illa (La Puebla de A ganzón, Bu gos), he
i s le els documen ed in Zaballa (I uña de Oca, Ala a) o in he Zo noz egi
si e (Sal a ie a, Ala a), whe e an occupa ion o li le en i y o med by a single
house wi h some annexed cons uc ion ha has las ed du ing his pe iod.
Fo ha eason, we could de ine he i s occupa ion pe iods as a a m o
maybe a g oup o hem, whose s uc u es p esen a simila i y in hei ypol-
ogies and wi h he beginning o a cen al space in an emb yonic s age. As i
happens in he illage o Gas eiz when a he end o he 7 h cen u y hey decide
o occupy he hill whe e he illage will be loca ed – occupa ion ha con inues
un il he p esen ime –,42 in Go liz, he uppe a ea is condi ioned c ea ing an
a i icial pla eau in which he di e en egis e ed domes ic s uc u es will be
loca ed.
In o he se lemen s such as A giñe a (Elo io, Biscay) du ing he 8 h cen-
u y,43 o Lendoño de A iba (O duña, Biscay),44 p epa a ion p io o he se -
lemen is also eco ded. In ac , in he speci ic case o A giñe a, c ea ed a la
su ace o ins all h ee wooden cons uc ions, o which hei pos holes e-
main, and sligh ly sepa a ed om each o he . In addi ion, o he 8 h and 10 h
cen u ies, ano he se ies o s uc u es wi h pos s se di ec ly on he g ound
and one o hem wi h a s one plin h a e iden i ied in he no he n a ea. I is
in e es ing o no e ha he speci ici y o one o hem: one p o ec ed a silo45
and ano he one, an o en.46 Associa ed wi h one o hese enclosu es, he e-
sea che s de ine an open space, pe haps a pa io (due o ewe pos holes). The
exis ence o wo ag icul u al exploi a ion uni s o med by di e en s uc u es
38 Azka a e and Solaun, A queología e His o ia de una ciudad.
39 Qui ós, “Village o ma ion, Social Memo ies and he A chaeology,” 11-32; Qui ós and San os
Salaza . “Te i o ios sin ciudades,” 139-74.
40 Qui ós, “La a qui ec u a domés ica en los yacimien os u ales,” 65-84.
41 Qui ós, “La a queología de las aldeas en el no oes e peninsula ,” 225-56; Cas illo and San os
Salaza , “Te i o ios sin ciudades,” 139-74; Qui ós and Vigil-Escale a, “Ne wo ks o peasan
illages,” 79-128.
42 Azka a e and Solaun, A queología e His o ia de una ciudad.
43 Aniba o and Ga cía Camino, “A giñe a” A keoikuska 14, 204-9.
44 Solaun Bus inza, “Zedelika y Lendoño de A iba,”187-210.
45 Aniba o and Ga cía Camino, “A giñe a” A keoikuska 12, 173-7.
46 Aniba o and Ga cía Camino, “A giñe a” A keoikuska 13, 210-5.
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Village o ma ion and peasan y agency. The case s udy o Go liz (Bizkaia)
– which unde wen epai s o e ime –, and sepa a ed by a palisade, is hy-
po hesized.47 In he absence o a mo e de ini i e s udy, i canno be ensu ed
ha he ceme e y is con empo a y wi h hese s uc u es, some pos holes
seem o indica e ha also he e he g a es we e opened on an a ea p e iously
occupied as a place o habi a ion.48
Howe e , h oughou he 8 h cen u y he e is a momen o ans o ma-
ion, wi h a di e en na u e and meaning depending on he e i o y o which
we app oach. These changes appea in di e en a chaeological eco ds such
as he s uc u es o powe cen es o he ans o ma ion o p oduc ion and
exchange sys ems, some hing ha will ha e o be ela ed o deep changes o
social na u e.49
Thus, he mos p o ound ans o ma ions a e egis e ed in he geog aph-
ical a ea ha we a e s udying: being a e i o y cha ac e ized by he absence
and weakness o local powe s, he 8 h cen u y supposes he e i ica ion o a
new balance ha will de ine his a ea as a s uc u ed e i o y wi h a poli ical
a icula ion, whe e he ole o u al communi ies is mo e han no o ious and
decisi e.
In his sense, aking in o accoun he speci ic case o Go liz, we e e o
wha Agus ín Azka a e and José Luis Solaun s a ed when e e ing o he p o-
duc ions o “coa se wea s” documen ed in Go liz. They high le els o special-
iza ion achie ed by hese p oduc ions ha e called in o ques ion he cu en
pa adigms among o he aspec s because “ hey denounce ha hese p oduc-
ions we e also pa o dis ibu ion ci cui s a he egional le el”.50
Also, a his momen , a es uc u ing o he si e is de ined: he ype o doc-
umen ed s uc u es, hei o ien a ion and mo phology a e comple ely di e -
en om hose o he p e ious pe iod. This aspec is no only cha ac e is ic o
his se lemen , in o he examples such as Zo noz egi, Zaballa,51 San And és
(Salinas de Añana) o San Ma ín de Dulan zi, all o hem in Ala a; his ac
is linked o a p ocess o popula ion densi ica ion.52
All hese ans o ma ions canno and should no be unde s ood on an ex-
clusi ely u ban o ypological aspec , no e en on a local scale, since all hese
changes eco ded in di e en a chaeological eco ds mus be pu in ela ion
o deep social changes. In o he wo ds, he e is a di ec ela ionship be ween
he ans o ma ions o his u al landscape – which began a ound he yea
700 A.C. – and he ma u a ion o an ac i e eli e a local scale and also wi h a
cen aliza ion p ocess in which Go liz is aking pa .
47 Aniba o and Ga cía Camino, “A giñe a” A keoikuska 14, 204-9.
48 Aniba o and Ga cía Camino, “A giñe a” A keoikuska 14, 208.
49 Qui ós, “La a queología de las aldeas en el no oes e peninsula ,” 225-56.
50 Azka a e and Solaun, “La ce ámica de la Al a Edad Media en el cuad an e no oes e,” 193-228.
51 Al a o, “La a qui ec u a de Zaballa,” 496-527.
52 Qui ós, Loza and Niso, “Iden idades y ajua es de las nec ópolis al omedie ales,” 215-32.
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Te esa Campos-Lopez
In he las pe iod documen ed, pe iod 3, da ed o he i s hal o he 10 h
cen u y, once again we eco d impo an changes, bo h in he a angemen o
he s uc u es and in hei mo phology and ypology, as we ha e al eady seen.
Howe e , despi e hese documen ed discon inui ies in his se lemen ,
he e a e elemen s ha will emain, al hough wi h a ia ions h oughou he
en i e sequence. The mos impo an inding, wi hou a doub , has been he
cen al space. This elemen is documen ed in an emb yonic s age in he ini ial
pe iod o he occupa ion (7 h cen u y) and whose e olu ion has been docu-
men ed h oughou he di e en subsequen pe iods. The ans o ma ion o
he meaning and unc ion o his space in he middle o he 10 h cen u y, a e
being occupied by a nec opolis, he e o e, will lead o he abandonmen o he
habi a si e documen ed in his in e en ion un il ha momen .53
This a ea inhe i ed om he i s documen ed pe iod, is in he second
much mo e de ined, since we ind i amed by a se ies o s uc u es ha ha e
i as a e e ence, appea also pe ec ly aligned, which shows us an incipien
planning o he se lemen a ea, in addi ion o g ea e compac ion and densi y.
Figu e 4. E olu ion o he cen al open space documen ed in he di e en pe iods.
53 Azka a e and Solaun, “La ce ámica de la Al a Edad Media,” 193-228; Campos-Lopez, “Las
Aldeas Al omedie ales en Bizkaia.”
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Village o ma ion and peasan y agency. The case s udy o Go liz (Bizkaia)
This pa e n is epea ed in con empo a y Eu opean se lemen s;54 as well
as in Visigo hic illages55 and o he s close geog aphically such as Zaballa
(I uña de Oca, Ala a)56 o in he Ca hed al o San a Ma ía de Gas eiz (Vi o ia,
Ala a) whe e he s uc u es a e o ganized a ound wo open a eas.57
Likewise, he ossiliza ion o his ‘cen al space’ is no exclusi ely docu-
men ed in Go liz. In he case o Gózquez (Mad id), i has been ound ha ,
du ing he 225 yea s o occupa ion o he si e, he housing uni s and a ached
s uc u es change and a e eloca ed, gi ing ise o h ee di e en phases o
occupa ion. Howe e , he bounda ies be ween hese cons uc ions emained
s able, as well as hese emp y spaces be ween hem, iden i ied as cul i a ion
spaces.58
Du ing he las momen o occupa ion, in he 10 h cen u y, in addi ion o
documen ing an impo an es uc u a ion o he u ban plan, in his cen al
space he su ace is condi ioning by placing a pa emen in di e en poin s.
Howe e , when de ining i s uses, we see ha i is undoub edly an ele-
men ha is di icul o cha ac e ize. E en so, he change in i s unc ionali-
y is clea ly obse ed in he di e en documen ed pe iods: while du ing he
pe iods 1 and 2 we could speak o a possible use o cul i a ion o ci cula ion;
bu , in pe iod 3, he use as a ci cula ion space o wi h an ex e nal use o a
cons uc ion is de ini ely clea . This would indica e ha , on he one hand,
he e is a clea in en ion in he de ini ion o his space, and, on he o he hand,
o he exis ence o an o ganiza ion in he a angemen o he communi y’s
habi a s uc u es in a clea way. Domes ic uni s and some o he mino ones
will be placed ha ing his space as he axis o cen al elemen . In ou opinion,
i is, consequen ly, a ci cula ion space in which a communi y use would ha e
o be aken in o accoun , since he o iginal nucleus o he nec opolis will be
ins alled in his space in he cen al yea s o he 10 h cen u y.
54 Hame ow, Ea ly Medie al Se lemen s.
55 Vigil-Escale a, “P ime os pasos hacia el análisis,” 367-76; Vigil-Escale a, Los p ime os
paisajes al omedie ales.
56 Qui ós, A queología del campesinado medie al.
57 Azka a e and Solaun, A queología e His o ia de una ciudad.
58 Vigil-Escale a, “P ime os pasos hacia el análisis,” 367-76.
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Te esa Campos-Lopez
Figu e 5. Geog aphical loca ion o he di e en a chaeological si es.
3.2. The appea ance o he nec opolis
In he case o he se lemen o Go liz, one o he mos in e es ing docu-
men ed momen s akes place, as we ha e commen ed p e iously, in he mid
yea s o he 10 h cen u y when, di ec ly abo e ha cen al open space, a se ies
o bu ials associa ed wi h his communi y appea . The appea ance o he ne-
c opolis implies he abandonmen o o he documen ed s uc u es, so ha is,
loca ed occupying an a ea o communi y use, as we ha e e e ed.
This change o use in a gi en space is e i ied: om a habi a a ea o a
nec opolis a ea. Ne e heless, his new unc ion mus be unde s ood as he
o iginal nucleus o di e en nec opolises and la e ceme e ies, which will
con inue un il he 18 h cen u y.
This i s documen ed nec opolis is no associa ed wi h any eligious
s uc u e, being one o he ew places o his cha ac e is ic documen ed in he
Basque Coun y ill he da e. Howe e , a small he mi age associa ed wi h a
93
Village o ma ion and peasan y agency. The case s udy o Go liz (Bizkaia)
second pe iod o bu ials wi h an 11 h cen u y ch onology has been documen -
ed. The adi ion o building di e en emples one on op o he o he has al-
eady been abundan ly collec ed in he bibliog aphy (San Sal ado de Ge a ia,
San Miguel de I u a, San Ped o de I omendi all o hem in Gipuzkoa, o San
Jo ge in San u zi and San a Lucia de Ge ika in Bizkaia ...),59 so we would be
inclined o hink ha , i he e was an olde emple, he emains o i should
ha e been documen ed (as well as i happens wi h he he mi age om he
11 h cen u y and o he s om la e cul s uc u es). The e o e, all his would
indica e us a “managemen and ca e o he memo y o he ombs” and ha i
always “demons a es he espec o a minimum dis ance be ween he mos
pe iphe al g a es o he communi y nec opolis and he nea es s uc u es o
use”.60
In addi ion o his, he documen ed g a es – o a ied ypology, o ganized
in ows and wi hou euse – aligned and no in e sec ions among each o he ,
will sugges ha he li ing communi y kep he physical memo y o he place
o deposi ion o ha pe haps hey we e ma ked, such as i happens in he
nec opolis o San Ma in de Dulan zi in Ala a. In ac , in his case, al hough
o ch onologies o he 8 h cen u y, he new loca ion o he nec opolis loca ed
ou side he basilica building causes he amo iza ion o some o he habi a
s uc u es, ha is, hey a e mo ed o some o he place, which is indica i e o
a s ong unc ional di ision be ween he une al a ea o sec o and he esi-
den ial sec o .61
F om his momen , 10 h and 11 h cen u ies, a much mo e complex and a -
icula ed con ex is going o ake place. Du ing his pe iod, he exis ence o a
illage ne wo k is e i ied, since hese di e en ia ion p ocesses will de elop
in o he appea ance o clea ly di e en ia ed eli es g oups.
O he elemen s ha ha e a ele an in luence in his eo ganiza ion, el-
emen s ha will be conside like ‘mos isible’ ones will be chu ches, seen
as a e ec i e eco d o he Ch is ianiza ion o he e i o y. Fo ins ance, in
he speci ic case o Zaballa (I uña de Oca, Ala a), i is a his momen when
he chu ch o San Julian is buil in he nuclea a ea o he illage, so ha he
houses a e mo ed down o he alley.62 Also in A giñe a (Elo io, Bizkaia, a
he end o he 10 h cen u y, he popula ed a ea was abandoned, i is p obable
ha he inhabi an s mo ed o ano he space, since he ceme e y is s ill ac i e
–un il he 12 h cen u y – and e en expanded, occupying he old habi a a ea.63
These a e no isola ed examples, since in San a Ma ía de Za au z (Guipuzcoa),
an old chu ch and an associa ed nec opolis a e documen ed as ea ly as he 9 h
cen u y, eusing old Roman s uc u es.64
59 Ibañez-Ex eba ia and Sa asola, “El yacimien o a queológico de San a Ma ía de Za au z.”
60 Vigil-Escale a, “Comunidad polí ica aldeana y exclusión,” 12-3.
61 Qui ós, Loza and Niso, “Iden idades y ajua es de las nec ópolis al omedie ales,” 215-32.
62 Qui ós, A queología del campesinado.
63 Aniba o and Ga cía Camino, “A giñe a.” A keoikuska 2014, 208.
64 Ibañez-Ex eba ia and Sa asola, “El yacimien o a queológico de San a Ma ía de Za a uz.”
94
Te esa Campos-Lopez
4. Con ibu ions o a (open) deba e
Once he sequence has been examined, and se e al analysis issues ha e
been de eloped, we p opose di e en poin s on which we would like o build
an open deba e a ound he ole o he peasan agency and he ele ance o i s
s udy and analysis:
1) The s udy o medie al illage o ma ion has gene a ed an in ense deba e
h oughou Eu ope. I is – indeed – a e y complex issue ega ding he
cons uc ion o ag icul u al landscapes, he ini ia i e o he eli es, he
weigh o lo dships o he cen ali y (o no ) o he peasan y. Rega d-
ing o he Basque Coun y, he i s app oach o his p oblem ook place
h ough o he e i o ial ma ke s, such as nec opolises o chu ches. How-
e e , i is a subjec in which, li le by li le, p og ess is being made, bu we
s ill lack a syn hesis o he whole se .65 Fo his eason, cases like he one
ha conce ns us he e, oge he wi h o he ones such as A giñe a, become
undamen al. In hem, one can glimpse he p esence o he peasan agen-
cy, o g oups no de ined as eli es.
2) In he a ea o he Basque Coun y, o ch onologies o he 6 h and 7 h cen-
u ies, he exis ence o a m- ype se lemen s is documen ed. Bu , on he
con a y, he e is no clea e idence o ac i e eli es a a local scale,66 some-
hing ha makes a no able di e ence wi h he con ex s documen ed in
he Ibe ian Pla eau, o example.
Fo ins ance, du ing he i s o he pe iods in es iga ed in ou in e en-
ion, no spa ial o ganiza ion o elemen s documen ed may indica e he
p esence o eli es g oups. Ne e heless, he da a abou illages du ing he
8 h-9 h cen u ies ein o ce his idea o social change and he eme gence
o eli es on a local scale, al hough i will be in he 10 h cen u y when he
exis ence and p esence o hese illage eli es is clea ly ecognized and hi-
e a chies will be de ined in se lemen s. A ci cums ance ha we see again
in Go liz, h ough a new spa ial eo ganiza ion and he u ban plan, and
he use o mo e complex ypes o oom uni s.
In ac , he e is a euse o he space, which is signi ican when i comes o
unde s and domes ic s uc u es as he main uni s o p oduc ion and e-
p oduc ion and hei impo ance in he cons uc ion and ans o ma ion
o hese illages.67
3) Go liz, unde s ood as an ea ly medie al illage, is pa o a ype o u-
al occupa ion whose gene al cha ac e is ic could be o al in isibili y on
he su ace due o he na u e o i s cons uc i e o ms and he ype o i s
s uc u es, ha is, he domes ic a chi ec u e ha cha ac e izes hem.68
These se lemen s, usually, occupy e y wide a eas, in which he exis -
65 Qui ós, “Village o ma ion, Social Memo ies and A chaeology,” 304.
66 Qui ós, “La a queología de las aldeas en el no oes e peninsula ,” 225-56.
67 Qui ós and Teje izo-Ga cía, “Filling he gap,” 1-19.
68 Qui ós Cas illo, “La a queología de las aldeas en el no oes e peninsula ,” 225-56.
101
Conside ing peasan agency in he Ea ly Middle Ages.
A diach onic analysis o he a chaeological eco d
in Cen al Po ugal*
by Ca a ina Ten e, Sa a P a a
This pape analyses a chaeological da a on ea ly medie al u al communi ies h ough he lens
o peasan agency. O e he las 15 yea s sys ema ic esea ch has been ca ied ou in di e en
e i o ies o he Po uguese inland, mainly in he cen e-no h o he coun y. He e we will be
ocusing on he a eas o which we cu en ly ha e mo e de ailed e idence, Al o Alen ejo and
Bei a Al a, and conside a b oad ch onological ame, be ween he 5 h and he 11 h cen u ies.
Howe e , he in o ma ion a ailable o he wo e i o ies is une en, and i is no ye possible
o o e a con inuous ch onological sequence in ei he o hese a eas. Fo his eason, we will
analyse he a ailable da a collec i ely and om a compa a i e pe spec i e. In bo h cases we
will s a by conside ing he new u al se lemen ne wo ks ha eme ged om he 5 h cen u y
onwa ds. E idence o peasan communi ies in Al o Alen ejo is clea e o he 6 h-7 h cen u ies,
and in Bei a Al a o he 10 h-11 h. Bo h a e c i ical momen s in he poli ical sphe e, coinciding
wi h he eme gence and a i ma ion o new adminis a i e s uc u es, bu also necessa y powe
acuums whe e local powe s eme ge. By compa ing he ma e ial eco d o peasan g oups, we
will eassess ag icul u al p oduc ion, managemen o na u al esou ces, a e ac p oduc ion,
ade ne wo ks, and une a y a eas, as a enas o discuss he no ion o peasan agency.
Ea ly Middle Ages, Al o Alen ejo, Bei a Al a, social peasan agency, a chaeology, con lic , u al
communi ies.
* This esea ch was unded by Fundação pa a a Ciência e a Tecnologia h ough he Indi idual
Call o Scien i ic Employmen S imulus 3 d edi ion (2020.01697.CEECIND).
Ca a ina Ten e, No a Uni e si y o Lisbon, Po ugal, [email p o ec ed], 0000-0002-7944-1583
Sa a P a a, No a Uni e si y o Lisbon, Po ugal, sa ap a a@ csh.unl.p , 0000-0002-5205-7522
Re e ee Lis (DOI 10.36253/ up_ e e ee_lis )
FUP Bes P ac ice in Schola ly Publishing (DOI 10.36253/ up_bes _p ac ice)
Ca a ina Ten e, Sa a P a a, Conside ing peasan agency in he Ea ly Middle Ages. A diach onic analysis o
he a chaeological eco d in Cen al Po ugal, © Au ho (s), CC BY 4.0, DOI 10.36253/979-12-215-0562-7.05,
in Juan An onio Qui ós Cas illo (edi ed by), Local Socie ies and Peasan y Agencies in Medie al Ibe ia, pp.
101-121, 2024, published by Fi enze Uni e si y P ess, ISBN 979-12-215-0562-7, DOI 10.36253/979-12-215-
0562-7
102
Ca a ina Ten e, Sa a P a a
1. In oduc ion
In he las 15 yea s a g oup o a chaeologis s om Ins i u o de Es udos
Medie ais (IEM – NOVA FCSH) has been ca ying ou esea ch ocused on
he ea ly medie al pe iod. We ha e mainly wo ked on he inland egions o
cen al-no he n Po ugal, a e i o y ha spans om he no heas o he
T ás-os-Mon es egion o he Al o Alen ejo in he sou h, ca ying ou esea ch
p ojec s, MA and PhD hesis. Th ough a combined app oach which akes in o
conside a ion da a om su ace ield su eys, exca a ions, ma e ial cul u e
analysis, adioca bon da ing and compa a i e app oaches, we ha e docu-
men ed e idence o he p og essi e ans o ma ions ha ook place be ween
he second hal o he 5 h cen u y and he o ma ion o he Po uguese king-
dom (12 h cen u y), in bo h u al and u ban se ings. The ga he ed da a a e di-
e se, and each mic o- e i o y p esen s i s own ch onological sequence and
speci ici ies. Ne e heless, he images de ined o speci ic momen s o hese
in e als expand ou unde s anding o ea ly medie al socie ies, which emain
one o he leas known pe iods in Po uguese esea ch.1
In his pape , we conside he a ailable e idence h ough he lens o peas-
an agency. Agency, unde s ood as he capaci y o agen s o ac wi hin a social
s uc u e,2 is an es ablished subjec in social sciences, wi h signi icance o
a chaeology and pas socie ies.3 Howe e , agency has no ye been ully ex-
plo ed in ega ds o peasan communi ies, pa icula ly in he ea ly medie al
pe iod. The e a e se e al easons o his, op-down app oaches o peasan
socie ies ha e p omo ed hei iew as passi e social agen s,4 and o ea ly
medie al imes his is pe haps a esul o his o ical na a i es exceedingly
ocused on he ole o a is oc acies in social p ocesses, combined wi h las ing
p imi i is ic iews o peasan communi ies.5 I has ecen ly been a gued ha
by ocusing on a chaeological e idence, agency can wo k as a common ield
in which di e en disciplines can analyse he dynamics o peasan socie ies
in g ea e de ail,6 while also p omo ing a speci ic concep ual amewo k o
peasan a chaeology.
We ag ee ha we mus wo k owa ds he unde s anding o peasan g oups
as ac i e oices in he con igu a ion o pas socie ies, bu we also need o ec-
ognize he limi s o he a chaeological eco d in his ega d. W i en sou ces
which conce n ea ly medie al peasan communi ies a e sca ce, and he e is a
whole ange o cha ac e is ics speci ic o he day- o-day o his social ca ego y
ha can only be g asped h ough a chaeology. Bu we need o a oid o e sim-
pli ica ions, and as we will see, in e p e ing he ma e ial e idence o peasan
1 Ten e, “Os úl imos 30 anos da A queologia.”
2 Giddens, The Cons i u ion o Socie y.
3 Dob es and Robb, Agency in a chaeology.
4 Van de Ploeg, The new peasan ies, 6.
5 Qui ós, “Inequali y and social complexi y.”
6 Qui ós and Teje izo, “Filling he gap,” 8.
103
Conside ing peasan agency in he Ea ly Middle Ages
communi ies h ough his lens is no always a linea p ocess. In his pape ,
we will be ocusing on which aspec s o peasan agency migh be seen h ough
he ma e ial eco d, and he p oblems ha can a ise om his analysis.
We will be doing so by p esen ing a chaeological da a om inland Po u-
gal inland h ough a global app oach, analysing u al ans o ma ions om
a diach onic pe spec i e, compa ing se lemen pa e ns, local economic
s a egies, and poli ical amewo ks. Bu ial g ounds, as p i ileged a eas o
building and ep esen ing iden i ies, will also be conside ed. Fo his, we will
ocus on he e i o ies and speci ic ime ames o which he a ailable e -
idence is clea e due o ou ongoing esea ch p ojec s: Al o Alen ejo du ing
he 6 h and he 7 h cen u ies and Bei a Al a du ing he 10 h and 11 h. These
ep esen wo c i ical momen s. In Cen al Po ugal, he i s in e al encom-
passes he ansi ion be ween he Sue ic and he Visigo h kingdoms, and he
g owing impac o he ecclesias ical s uc u e in e ms o e i o ial econ ig-
u a ion. The second ime ame sees Bei a Al a as a on ie land be ween he
no h con olled by As u ians and he sou h by Muslims. These shi s also
mean a imes he exis ence o powe acuums, which migh ha e p omo ed
on he one hand he eme gence o local powe s, and on he o he , some deg ee
o isola ion, and pe haps au onomy, o peasan communi ies.
In he con ex o his pape , we will use he e m “peasan s” o e e o
amilies and communi ies who li ed in u al a eas and o whom a ming was
he main economic ac i i y and a ocal poin in hei social o ganiza ion and
in e ac ion wi h hei en i onmen . Ou analysis co e s di e en geog aphies
and an ex ended ime ame, a sequence o u al landscapes buil by di e en
peasan amilies and communi ies ha mus no be aken as an undi e en i-
a ed whole. Ou goal is o compa e he a ailable e idence while ecognizing
he speci ici ies o each e i o y.
In his con ex , i is impo an o s ess ha Al o Alen ejo and Bei a Al a
a e dis inc geomo phologically. Bei a Al a is loca ed in he highlands o cen-
al-no he n Po ugal, be ween he Dou o and he Mondego Ri e basins.
This esul s in a as pla eau, bo de ed by se e al moun ain anges: he Es e-
la o he eas ( he highes summi a 1,993 me es a.s.l.), and he Mon emu o
and Ca amulo moun ain chains o wes , sepa a ing he egion om he A lan-
ic seaboa d. Due o an h opic de o es a ion (documen ed since he Neoli hic
pe iod), e ile lands a e loca ed mainly in he lowes a eas, in he oo hills
and in he i e alleys.
Al o Alen ejo is sepa a ed om Bei a Baixa o he No h by he Tagus
Ri e and bo de ed by Spanish Ex emadu a o he Eas . I can be conside ed
a ansi ion landscape be ween he sou he n plains and he moun ain anges
o he Bei a egion. He e we ha e wo ked mainly on he no he e i o ies,
a ound São Mamede Moun ain ange which sepa a es he d ainage basin o
he Tagus Ri e o he no h om he basin o he Guadiana o he sou h. In
i s highes poin , São Mamede eaches 1,025 me es a.s.l., bu ag icul u al a -
eas a e mainly si ua ed in he lowe peneplains, c ossed by seasonal s eams.
104
Ca a ina Ten e, Sa a P a a
Na u ally, in bo h e i o ies he geog aphic cha ac e is ics ha e played a
ole in he e olu ion o human se lemen ne wo ks h ough ime, and when
compa ing bo h se s o da a, we mus be awa e o he di e ences be ween
egions (Fig. 1).
Figu e 1. Map o he main places men ioned in he ex .
2. A diach onic analysis o he peasan eco d
To adequa ely ame ea ly medie al u al se lemen s, we mus s a by
ecognizing, e en i b ie ly, he p e-exis ing Roman occupa ion models doc-
umen ed in bo h e i o ies and he ways in which hey we e ans o med
du ing pos -Roman imes.
In Al o Alen ejo he e is e idence o medium and la ge illa es a es, which
seem o ha e been buil a ound he 3 d cen u y.7 Mos o hese illas we e
closely linked o his e i o y’s single u ban cen e: Ammaia (S. Sal ado de
A amenha, Ma ão), a small-size own, p obably unded du ing he Augus an
age, and g an ed ci i as s a us unde Empe o Claudius, becoming a muni-
cipium du ing he 2nd cen u y AD.8 While he e is e idence o pos -Roman
phases in Ammaia, he ab up educ ion in impo ed ine wa es sugges s ha
i became isola ed om long-dis ance ade ea ly on (mid-5 h cen u y).9 The
7 Ca nei o, Luga es, empos e pessoas.
8 Co si e al., “The Roman own o Ammaia (Po ugal).”
9 Qua esma, “The ine wa es.”
105
Conside ing peasan agency in he Ea ly Middle Ages
ac ha he e is no u he men ion o his own in w i en sou ces om
he Sue ic-Visigo hic pe iod also indica es ha i likely los i s posi ion as
an inland u ban encla e, unlike o he ci ies ha de eloped in o ecclesias ic
cen es.10
The illas ha ha e been exca a ed in his a ea also p esen e idence o
ans o ma ions a an ea ly s age. In some illas we see he abandonmen and
euse o o me opulen ecep ion ooms, in o he s, he eme gence o eligious
buildings and associa ed p i ileged bu ial11 a eas,12 sugges ing di e en ypes
o p ocesses ha migh be occu ing simul aneously. We ha e ecen ly s a -
ed o explo e he possibili y ha some o he o me Roman es a es, in places
like Masca o (Cas elo de Vide), migh ha e main ained a local impo ance
du ing he ea ly medie al pe iod.
While hese p o ound changes a e documen ed in he illas, du ing a
s ill imp ecise momen be ween he end o he 5 h and he beginning o he
6 h cen u ies, he e is ample e idence o a new dispe sed se lemen pa e n,
cha ac e ized by a la ge numbe o small a ms eads which we e buil ex
no o, bu spa ially associa ed wi h Roman in as uc u es (p e ious es a es
and oad sys em).13 New peasan se lemen s such as Tapada das Gua i as I
(Cas elo de Vide) con ain simple ec angula houses buil in s one and co -
e ed by oo iles, which p ese e he emains o po e y p oduced locally, a
small numbe o i on ools, spindle who ls o spinning animal o ege able
ib es, and manual s one mills o g ain and/o ce eal g inding.14 E idence
o ca le a ming can be pe cei ed by he p esence o la ge s one pens and
he loca ion o mos se lemen s in shallow, well i iga ed small alleys whe e
pas u e would be pe manen ly a ailable. Se lemen layou indica es ha he
une a y a eas (usually ma ked by one o h ee ock-cu g a es) we e c ea ed
in close connec ion o he a eas o he li ing and would possibly unc ion as
pa o a land claiming discou se wi hin he peasan sphe e, as i has been
sugges ed o o he e i o ies.15 Amid his peasan landscape we ha e p ess
buildings and ock-cu acili ies o oli e oil and wine p oduc ion. La ge buil
complexes such as Junçal and Tapada das Gua i as II (Cas elo de Vide), e-
lec a conside able in es men in hese acili ies and a capaci y o su plus
p oduc ion, and a e pe haps he clea es indica o ha hese ea ly medie al
a ms eads we e in eg a ed in egional ade dynamics and possibly b oade
scales o powe ha anscend hei me e local sphe e.16 Simul aneously, he
known se lemen s show a he ho izon al ma e ial eco ds, wi h an almos
comple e absence o p es ige goods o p ominen buildings. One o he ques-
10 Co de o, “La o ganización de la diócesis.”
11 Ca nei o, “O inal das illae.”
12 Maloney and Hale, “The illa o To e de Palma.” Cues a-Gómez e al., “Una nue a lec u a.”
13 P a a, “Pos -Roman land-use.”
14 P a a, “Objec os a queológicos;” P a a and Cues a-Gómez, “Fa ming and local economy.”
15 Ma ín Viso, “En e amien os, memo ia social.”
16 P a a and Cues a-Gómez, “Oil and wine.”
106
Ca a ina Ten e, Sa a P a a
ions we should conside is whe he hese a ms eads would somehow be able
o unc ion oge he as a sel - ecognized g oup, o i each household would be
managed indi idually.
Fo now, de ailed e idence o hese ypes o peasan se lemen s is mos -
ly ci cumsc ibed o he e i o y o he municipali y o Cas elo de Vide. Bu
a leas some o he e i o ies neighbou ing o Al o Alen ejo, such as he
municipali ies o Nisa and Ma ão, exhibi cohe en su ace inds ( ock-cu
g a es, emains o double-walled s uc u es, p ess acili ies…) sugges ing a
simila pa e n. A c i ical e iew o hese da a is among ou cu en esea ch
p io i ies.
We should also men ion ha he e is cu en ly li le e idence o indica e
ha he exca a ed a ms eads we e in use a e he i s hal o he 8 h cen u-
y. The exca a ed buildings, six so a , show no s uc u al e o ms, o e lap-
ping use sequences o accumula ions o disca ded po e y ha migh sugges
o he wise.
On he con a y, hey exhibi wha can be desc ibed as a single sho -li ed
le el o use, no e idence o des uc i e o iolen episodes and p ocesses o
s uc u al decay ha appea s o ha e been a he slow. Ca e ul conside a ion
is necessa y o adequa ely ame his abandonmen p ocess, bu ou cu en
hypo hesis is ha his se lemen ne wo k s opped unc ioning in Al o Alen e-
jo due o he p og essi e adminis a i e changes b ough abou by he Islamic
conques .
Likewise, we s ill lack a sa is ac o y explana ion o whe e he o me in-
habi an s o hese a ms eads migh ha e eloca ed. The nex well documen -
ed phase is ep esen ed by he High Medie al cas les and illages; a cen al-
ized se lemen p ocess ha in he e i o ies sou h o he Tagus Ri e is da ed
om he 12 h cen u y onwa ds and closely ela ed o he di ec ac ions o he
Po uguese mona chs and he mili a y o de s. While a widesp ead mig a ion
o dis an egions seems unlikely, o he momen he e is s ill no conclusi e
e idence o he Islamic pe iod in his e i o y.
To unde s and wha migh ha e been happening in Po uguese inland u-
al a eas di ec ly be o e he o ma ion o he Po uguese kingdom we mus
now u n o he a chaeological da a om Bei a Al a. As will be explained, he
documen ed ch onological sequence o his egion is di e en om wha we
ha e seen in Al o Alen ejo. Se e al aspec s migh help o unde s and hese
dispa i ies, om he ob ious geog aphic and mo phological cha ac e is ics
o each e i o y o sepa a e esea ch backg ounds and app oaches. Al hough
we a e awa e ha he key o unde s and he sepa a e e olu ion o each e i-
o y migh s em u he back, we will once again s a om he Roman se -
lemen model.
Roman u al se lemen s documen ed in Bei a Al a we e smalle es a es,
mainly a ms eads. Places ha we e classi ied as illas seem sca ce and small
when compa ed wi h he sou he n e i o ies. Viseu (Vissaium) was he la ge
ci y o Bei a Al a. The e we e o he capi als o ci i as, bu p obably mos o
hem we e ci i as sine u be, like he capi al o In e minienses, p esumably
107
Conside ing peasan agency in he Ea ly Middle Ages
loca ed in Gua da,17 ci i as Cobelco um18 o Bobadela (Oli ei a do Hospi al).
These we e places whe e he main u ban unc ions ( eligious, iscal, comme -
cial, and adminis a i e) we e gua an eed, bu whe e no signi ican popula-
ion esided. Appa en ly, mos o he Roman esiden s li ed in small u al
uni s, dispe sed in he moun ainous e i o y.
Al hough he a chaeological da a is sca ce (mainly su ace su eys and
es -pi s), he a ailable in o ma ion shows ha u al a ms eads in Bei a Al a
we e sys ema ically abandoned be ween he 3 d cen u y and he beginning
o he 5 h. Examples o hese can be seen in he small illa o Mon e Aljão
(Gou eia) whe e he la es use sequence was da ed be ween he end o he 4 h
cen u y, and he beginning o he 5 h cen u y;19 in he small ag icul u al se -
lemen o To e (Fo nos de Algod es), whe e he las use phase was placed in
he 3 h-4 h cen u ies;20 and in he a ms ead o São Gens (Celo ico da Bei a),
whe e he occupa ion sequence is amed be ween he 1s cen u y and he be-
ginning o he 4 h cen u y.21
This appa en ly ea ly decline o he Roman u al sys em likely esul ed in
he eme gence o a new se lemen pa e n ha has no ye been documen ed.
In o ma ion abou he 5 h cen u y onwa ds is a he limi ed, mainly da a om
he episcopal ci y o Viseu and om ancien ci i as capi als ha con inued
o min emisses du ing he Visigo hic pe iod. We also wi ness he e u n
o hill o occupa ion, a p ocess ha has been linked o eme gence o local
eli es who used hose places o mani es powe in he e i o ies domina ed by
hem,22 as illus a ed by Cas o do Tin inolho (Gua da)23 o pe haps in Cas o
de San o And é (Figuei a de Cas elo Rod igo) and Caliab ia.24 I he eli es (lo-
cal o episcopal) can be seen in he a chaeological eco d and w i en eco d,
he same canno be said o he peasan s. Ru al se lemen s om he 6 h o 8 h
cen u ies ha e no ye been documen ed in Bei a Al a. I is possible ha some
o he si es iden i ied in ield su eys as la e Roman a ms eads could in ac
be ea ly medie al, pa icula ly in hose cases whe e ock-cu g a es a e also
p esen . Bu exca a ions a e needed o alida e his hypo hesis.
Ne eless, an impo an change occu ed in Bei a Al a be ween he 7 h
and he 9 h cen u ies and hen again in he end o he 10 h cen u y/ beginning
o he 11 h cen u y. Conclusi e emains o he 8 h cen u y ha e no been iden-
i ied so a , bu we know ha somewhe e be ween he second hal o he 9 h
cen u y and he beginning o he 10 h, new peasan se lemen s we e es ab-
17 Pe ei a and Ramos, “Sequência es a ig á ica.”
18 F ade and Cae ano, “Os Cul os na Ci i as Cobelco um;” Ten e a al., “As placas de xis o
numé icas.”
19 Ten e and Pe ei a, “Mon e Aljão.”
20 An unes, “Figuei ó da G anja.”
21 Ma ques, A ocupação omana; Ma ques e alii. S. Gens ao longo do Tempo.
22 Ma ín Viso, “La o denación del e i o io.”
23 Ten e and Ma ín Viso, “O Cas o do Tin inolho;” Ten e, Ma ín Viso. “El cas o de Tin inol-
ho.”
24 Ten e e al., “As placas de xis o numé icas.”
108
Ca a ina Ten e, Sa a P a a
lished. Some o hem, like São Gens (Celo ico da Bei a), we e buil nea he
uins o a p e ious Roman a m, whe eas o he s, chose ins ead new loca ions
wi h no p e ious occupa ions, cases such as a Senho a do Ba ocal (Sá ão),
Soida (Celo ico da Bei a) and Penedo dos Mou os (Gou eia).
These new se lemen s occupy sub le posi ions in he landscape, aiming
in mos cases o ob ain isual con ol o e he e i o y whils emaining
unseen. Some o hese se lemen s we e su ounded by palisades, less e-
quen ly combined wi h s one walls. Inside he enclosu es he domes ic uni s
whe e simple hu s made o wood and b anches. Usually, each hu had a cen-
al hea h a ound which he domes ic space was o ganized. All he exca a -
ed si es e ealed homogeneous po e y assemblages, and was also e idence
o i on ools p oduced locally. A chaeological e idence sugges s hese we e
plu i- amilia se lemen s, bu small in a ea; he numbe o amilies should
be be ween h ee and six.25 This would be consis en wi h a mo e cen alised
occupa ion pa e n, especially when compa ed wi h he la e Roman pe iod.
All he exca a ed peasan se lemen s we e des oyed by i es da ed ia
adioca bon be ween he second hal o he 10 h cen u y and he beginning o
he 11 h cen u y. Due o hese i es, he dense combus ion laye s p omo ed he
p ese a ion o o ganic ma e (animal bones and plan emains) which es i-
ied o he di e se economic ac i i ies o hese u al communi ies.
Mos o he si es we e abandoned a e hese des uc i e e en s26 and we
do no know whe e he popula ion om he bu ned se lemen s would ha e
been e-loca ed. Some o hem p obably wen displaced o es ablish he me-
die al illages, whe e cas les would be buil du ing he second hal o he 11 h
cen u y. These i es and subsequen changes in se lemen can be in e p e ed
as a consequence o local s uggles o con ol e i o ies, in which peasan
communi ies seem o ha e played a ele an pa .
3. Discussion
As made clea in he abo e o e iew, o Po uguese inland e i o ies,
e en hose such as Bei a Al a and Al o Alen ejo o which comp ehensi e da a
is cu en ly a ailable, i is s ill no possible o ace a con inuous use sequence
om he end o he Roman E a o he o ma ion o he Kingdom o Po ugal.
Likewise, each e i o y p esen s i s own knowledge gaps. In bo h cases, ea -
ly medie al u al landscapes s em om ans o ma ions esul ing om he
disman lemen o he p e ious Roman land-use model (es a es, in as uc-
u es, oad ne wo k…), bu only in Al o Alen ejo do we see a new kind o u al
se lemen pa e n ha eme ges and h i es be ween he 5 h and 7 h cen u-
ies, based on single amily a ms eads. In Bei a Al a, we ha e e idence o 5 h
25 Ten e, “Social Complexi y.”
26 Ten e, “No smoke wi hou i e.”
109
Conside ing peasan agency in he Ea ly Middle Ages
o 7 h cen u ies hill o occupa ions, places ha would be con olled by local
eli es and used in powe dynamics, which o now appea o be absen in Al o
Alen ejo. In bo h e i o ies, conclusi e e idence o he 8 h cen u y is s ill
lacking, a complex issue ha will need o be ully add essed elsewhe e. The
i s well documen ed e idence o he ea ly medie al coun yside in Bei a
Al a is ela ed o concen a ed mul i- amily se lemen s which appea in he
9 h-10 h cen u ies, all o which we e des oyed by iolen i es da ed be ween
he end o 10 h cen u y and he beginning o he 11 h cen u y. This was p oba-
bly he esul o an eme ging poli ical con ol sys em, and hese se lemen s
would ha e been des oyed as pa o a local s uggle o con ol e i o ies and
communi ies. I seems easonable o assume ha he popula ion displaced
om he bu ned illages would e en ually inco po a e newly es ablished
se lemen s, loca ions whe e cas les would be buil a e he second hal o
he 11 h cen u y. Finally, in Al o Alen ejo, u he sou h, medie al illages and
cas es a e qui e la e, ounded only om he la e 12 h cen u y onwa ds, and i
is s ill no clea i hey e lec he inco po a ion o ou side popula ion, a e-
a angemen o cu en inhabi an s, o pe haps a combina ion o bo h. He e,
e idence o wha migh ha e happened in u al a eas be ween he end o he
ea ly medie al se lemen ne wo k and he de elopmen o he i s High Me-
die al cas les and illages is e y limi ed.
Be o e con inuing, we wish o emphasize ha he akeaway om his
compa a i e o e iew should be he p esence o signi ican e i o ial econ-
igu a ion p ocesses which ook place h oughou he ea ly medie al cen u-
ies. Bo h e i o ies in which we ha e ca ied ou ou esea ch lack a comp e-
hensi e diach onic sequence, howe e , in each case we ha e enough e idence
o de e mine in which key momen s he coun yside was clea ly es uc u ed.
In doing so he na u al endency is o ame hese p ocesses in ligh o la ge
his o ical e en s and in e p e local changes as di ec o indi ec consequence
o b oade poli ical changes. Bu how can we shi he ocus in o de o consid-
e peasan agency in his con ex ?
I seems appa en ha a leas some o hese e en s exp ess he di ec
ac ion o ou side powe s wi h s a egic in e es s in u al a eas. Bu peasan
communi ies su ely played hei own ole in hese dynamics. Conside ing he
e idence a ailable so a , i migh be di icul o isualize he ways in which
hese ensions and nego ia ions be ween peasan communi ies and o he so-
cial g oups ook place. Howe e , o now, we a e in e es ed in ocusing di ec ly
on he ma e ial eco d o hese peasan communi ies, and will analyse which
pieces o e idence can be in e p e ed in o de o conside peasan agency.
3.1. Se lemen s and households
A chaeologically, he i s aspec we will be explo ing is se lemen layou
and landscape use, and pe haps he i s ques ion we should keep in mind is
whe he o no ea ly medie al peasan s we e able o decide whe e and how o
110
Ca a ina Ten e, Sa a P a a
build hei houses, and he in es men hey en ailed. As we ha e seen, he ea -
ly medie al se lemen s exca a ed in Cas elo de Vide consis o small a m-
s eads managed by single amily uni s (Fig. 2). F om su ace ield da a, i is
clea ha a leas a pa o hese se lemen s was buil nea p e ious Roman
es a es. The easons o his may a y, bu among he equen a gumen s is
he well-documen ed euse o Roman cons uc ion ma e ials in ea ly medie-
al buildings.27 Howe e , as ecen ly sugges ed, he euse o Roman oli e
g o es migh ha e also played an impo an ole.28 Ano he impo an aspec
o his spa ial ela ion o p e ious in as uc u es is he likelihood ha he
Roman oad sys em was s ill in use, e en i only pa ially and a a egion-
al o e en local scale. Conce ning a chi ec u al ea u es, i is impo an o
no e ha hese a ms eads we e buil en i ely ou o locally a ailable g ani e
s ones and co e ed wi h oo iles. Some o hese buildings a e qui e la ge,
pa icula ly he p ess acili ies and associa ed s o age buildings, so hei con-
s uc ion was ce ainly a conside able in es men . Rega ding he ela ion-
ship es ablished be ween di e en a ms eads, we ha e desc ibed his ype
o se lemen ne wo k as a dispe sed bu connec ed pa e n,29 in he sense
ha e en i hey consis o indi idual peasan households, hey we e isibly
buil in close p oximi y o one ano he which mus imply close social and eco-
nomic con ac s. One o he concep s ha dese es o be u he explo ed o
unde s and he di e en ways in which hese peasan s we e concep ualizing
hei en i onmen and pa icula ly social ela ions, is he deg ee o au onomy
each a ms ead would enjoy, o i he e was some sense o communi y sha ed
among di e en amilies. This would be pa icula ly ele an when conside -
ing hei in e ac ions wi h ou side social g oups.
The ea ly medie al se lemen s in Bei a Al a om he 9 h-10 h cen u y
we e, ins ead, small enclosu es whe e se e al amilies li ed. F om he se le-
men he communi y had es ic isual con ol, mainly co e ing he adjoin-
ing ag icul u al a eas. This migh sugges some deg ee o peasan au onomy
in selec ing he a eas whe e se lemen s whe e buil . All si es we e su ound-
ed by a wall/palisade ha de ined e y clea ly he in e io and ex e io o he
li ing a eas. Inside we ind he domes ic s uc u es and some labou spaces
such as he one iden i ied a São Gens o anning animal hides.30 Di e en
hu s wi h hea hs sugges indi idual domes ic uni s, bu some ac i i ies and
spaces we e ce ainly communal.
Addi ionally, we can assume ha o he p ocesses such as he cons uc-
ion o he se lemen ou e walls was ca ied ou by se e al membe s o he
communi y.
As p e iously s a ed, buildings we e made mos ly o eadily a ailable ma-
e ials, mainly wood and b anches, bu also local g ani e s one. Remains o
27 P a a, “A iculação da paisagem.”
28 P a a and Cues a-Gómez, “Oil and wine.”
29 Cues a-Gómez and P a a, “Se hace camino al anda .”
30 Ten e e al., “Po oamen o e modos de ida.”
Figu e 2. Remains o he ea ly medie al a ms ead o Tapada das Gua i as (Cas elo de Vide).
117
Conside ing peasan agency in he Ea ly Middle Ages
membe s bu , a he same ime, hey engaged in mo e specialized ac i i ies
allowing hem o in eg a e in complex ne wo ks ex e nal o he communi y.44
Al hough a i s glance hese communi ies migh seem o be simila in e ms
o economy and social s anding, he a chaeological e idence om Senho a
do Ba ocal showed he p esence o local u al eli es ha we e ope a ing on
di e en ia ed social le els, dis inc om he emaining local communi ies.45
4. Conclusion
Despi e being much mo e abundan han 15 yea s ago and ha ing e ealed
p e iously unknown eali ies, he a ailable a chaeological eco d o Po u-
guese inland e i o ies is s ill limi ed when i comes o inds ha migh help
us de e mine he scope o peasan agency du ing he ea ly medie al pe iod.
As a heo e ical amewo k, we ag ee ha his can be a ui ul app oach o
g asp he complexi y o pas socie ies, pa icula ly since i in i es us o a ic-
ula e ou discou se a ound peasan g oups and o conside ma e ial e idence
in a mo e eloquen manne .
Bu he app oach o peasan agency h ough he a chaeological eco d
is no unambiguous; in ac , he same se o ma e ial e idence can be in e -
p e ed in con as ing ways. 1) Peasan communi ies a e au onomous and ca-
pable o choosing how hey adap o bo h socio-poli ical and en i onmen al
ci cums ances. These communi ies would ha e gained au onomy in ce ain
egions a e he disappea ance o he Roman adminis a i e sys em and he
subsequen inexis ence o an equally comp ehensi e sys em, lea ing oom o
peasan s in ce ain egions a he om he new cen es o powe o e ec-
i ely possess he au onomy o design hei own socio-poli ical agenda. A a
la e momen , in he case o Bei a Al a, om he 10 h cen u y onwa ds, hese
communi ies would no ha e been able o esis mo e encompassing powe s
and succumbed o p essu e h ough o ce.46 O 2) he changes de ec ed in he
a chaeological eco d o u al communi ies esul om he in e en ion o
mo e cen alizing powe s, e en ually ope a ing a di e en scales and imes
in he e i o ies discussed he e, bu ha in luenced he way peasan ami-
lies occupied he e i o y, used local esou ces, and socially in e ac ed. This
could be seen, o example, in he egula se lemen layou in Al o Alen ejo
om he 6 h cen u y onwa ds and he need o hese peasan amilies o p o-
duce su pluses o ce ain p oduc s. I appea s ha his land-use sys em and
associa ed se lemen ne wo k we e abandoned in he beginning o he 8 h
cen u y, and la e e idence has no ye been eco ded. Fo now, we a e s ill
44 Qui ós, “Inequali y and social complexi y;” Ten e, “Social inequali y.”
45 Ten e e al., “O sí io da Senho a do Ba ocal;” Souza e al., “The islamic po e y.”
46 Ten e, “No smoke wi hou i e;” Ten e, “Social Complexi y.”
118
Ca a ina Ten e, Sa a P a a
unable o de e mine i his was due o an ex e nal imposi ion, o i on he
con a y i would e lec peasan agency in deciding a new cou se o ac ion.
I is ou opinion ha some aspec s o he peasan sphe e a e pa icula -
ly aluable a eas o inqui e o agency. This is he case o ma e ial cul u e
p oduc ion, especially when conce ning local and domes ic manu ac u es;
he layou and con igu a ion o li ing a eas; he selec ion o plan and animal
species; and he bu ial g ounds, as p i ileged a eas o he exp ession o so-
cial dynamics. Howe e , we mus be ca e ul o a oid o e ly p edisposed ap-
p oaches as almos any se o e idence can be used o sugges peasan agency
o a ce ain ex en .
Peasan s wi h capaci y o con ol hei des iny and de e mine he es-
sen ial issues in hei li es could coexis wi h amilies subjec ed o mo e en-
compassing powe s, while e aining some con ol o e daily ac i i ies. Ea ly
medie al social dynamics we e ce ainly much mo e angled, a combina ion
o agency and inac ion, submission, and nego ia ion. Bu ou in e p e a ions
and hypo heses can be imp o ed when amed h ough he lens o peasan
agency, which places peasan communi ies on and cen e in he his o ical
and social deba e.
119
Conside ing peasan agency in he Ea ly Middle Ages
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in Cas elo de Vide (Po ugal)”. In Se lemen change ac oss Medie al Eu ope; old pa a-
digms and new is as, ed. by Niall B ady, and Claudia Theune, 65-71. Leiden: Sides one
P ess, 2019.
P a a, Sa a, and José Fabián Cues a-Gómez. “Oil and wine in ea ly medie al u al se lemen s
om Cas elo de Vide (Alen ejo, Po ugal): da ing, con ex , and scale o p oduc ion.” A che-
ologia Medie ale 47 (2020): 183-98.
P a a, Sa a, and José Fabián Cues a-Gómez. “Fa ming and local economy in he ea ly medie al
coun yside (Cas elo de Vide, Po ugal).” In Paisajes, espacios y ma e ialidades. A queolo-
gía u al al omedie al en la península ibé ica, ed. Sa a P a a, José Fabián Cues a-Gómez,
y Ca a ina Ten e, 89-104. Ox o d: A chaeoP ess, 2022.
Qua esma, José Ca los. “The ine wa es. Conclusions.” In Ammaia. II. The exca a ion con ex s
1994-2011,” ed. by C is ina Co si. A chaeological Repo s 9 (2014): 279-300.
Qui ós, Juan An onio. “Inequali y and social complexi y in peasan socie ies. Some app oaches
o ea ly medie al no h-wes e n Ibe ia.” In A chaeology o Social Inequali y in No h-
wes e n Ibe ia du ing he Ea ly Medie al pe iod, ed. by Juan An onio Qui ós, 1-16. Ox-
o d: A chaeoP ess, 2016.
Qui ós, Juan An onio, and Ca los Teje izo. “Filling he gap: peasan s udies and he a chaeol-
ogy o medie al peasan y in ligh o he No he n Ibe ian e idence.” Jou nal o ag a ian
change (2020): 1-19.
Souza, Gab iel, João Luís Veloso, and Ca a ina Ten e. “The islamic po e y om Senho a do
Ba ocal (Sá ão, Cen al No h Po ugal).” In Paisajes, espacios y ma e ialidades. A queo-
logía u al al omedie al en la península ibé ica, ed. Sa a P a a, José Fabián Cues a-Gó-
mez, y Ca a ina Ten e, 272-7. Ox o d: A chaeoP ess, 2021.
Ten e, Ca a ina. “Social inequali y in Ea ly Medie al u al se lemen s: The case o cen-
al-no he n Po ugal in he 10 h cen u y.” In A chaeology o Social Inequali y in No h-
wes e n Ibe ia du ing he Ea ly Medie al pe iod, ed. by Juan An onio Qui ós, 35-46. Ox-
o d: A chaeoP ess, 2016.
Ten e, Ca a ina. “Rock-cu g a es and ceme e ies in he medie al u al landscape o he Viseu
egion (cen al Po ugal).” In Religions, cul s and i uals in he medie al u al en i on-
men , ed. by C is ine Bis-Wo ch, and Claudia Theune, 215-26. Leiden: Sides one P ess,
2017.
Ten e, Ca a ina. “Os úl imos 30 anos da A queologia Medie al Po uguesa (1987-2017)”. In
T ein a años de A queología Medie al en España, ed. Juan An onio Qui ós, 49-94. Ox-
o d: Access A cheop ess, 2018.
Ten e, Ca a ina. “No smoke wi hou i e. Bu ning and changing se lemen s in 10 h-cen u y
cen al-no he n Po ugal.” Se lemen Change ac oss Medie al Eu ope. Old pa adigms
and new is as, ed. by Niall B ady, and Claudia Theune, 395-403. Leiden: Sides one P ess,
2019.
Ten e, Ca a ina. “Social Complexi y in Local Communi ies in 10 h Cen u y in he Cen al No h
o Po ugal: Nego ia ion and Opposi ion.” In Social inequali y in Ea ly Medie al Eu ope:
Local socie ies and beyond (A ibu e o Ch is Wickham), ed. by Juan An onio Qui ós, 149-
64. Tu nhou : B epols, 2020.
Ten e, Ca a ina, e Iñaki Ma ín Viso. “O Cas o do Tin inolho (Gua da, Po ugal). In e p e ação
dos dados a queológicos como o i icação do pe íodo pós- omano.” In Los Cas illos Al o-
medie ales en el No oes e de la Península Ibé ica, ed. Juan An onio Qui ós, y José Ma ía
Tejado, 57-75. Bilbao: Uni e sidad del País Vasco, 2012.
Ten e, Ca a ina, y Iñaki Ma ín Viso. “El cas o de Tin inolho en época pos omana.” In Fo i-
icaciones, poblados y piza as. La Raya en los p incipios del Medie o: 138-57. Ciudad
Rod igo: Ayun amien o de Ciudad Rod igo, 2018.
Ten e, Ca a ina, e Tiago Pe ei a. “Mon e Aljão (Rio To o, Gou eia)”. In Aspe os da Romani-
zação das e as Bei ãs de En e Tejo e Dou o, 3-36. Celo ico da Bei a: Câma a Municipal
de Celo ico da Bei a /ARA, 2013.
Ten e, Ca a ina, Ósca Lan es e Pila P ie o. “A p odução ce âmica dos séculos IX a XI da egião
do Al o Mondego (Po ugal).” In Es udos de Ce âmica Medie al. O No e e o Cen o de
Po ugal. Séculos IX a XII, ed. Ad iaan De Man, e Ca a ina Ten e, 110-39. Lisbon: Ins i u o
de Es udos Medie ais, 2014.
121
Conside ing peasan agency in he Ea ly Middle Ages
Ten e, Ca a ina, Sa a P a a, José Fabián Cues a-Gómez, S ua B ookes, Ma a Mo eno-Ga cía,
Gab iel Souza, João Ped o Te eso, Cláudia Oli ei a, e Ana Jesus. “Po oamen o e modos de
ida no limi e o ien al do e i ó io iseense du an e o século X. O Po oado de São Gens.”
In Do Impé io ao Reino. Viseu e o e i ó io en e os séculos IV a XII ed. Ca a ina Ten e,
197-228. Viseu: C.M. Viseu, 2018.
Ten e, Ca a ina, Hugo Bap is a, João Ped o Te eso, Ma ga ida Cé cio, João Veloso, Cláudia Oli-
ei a, Luís Seab a, Ca a ina Mei a, Gab iel Souza, Tomás Co de o Ruiz, e Manuel Luís
Real. “O sí io da Senho a do Ba ocal (Sá ão) na i agem do milénio.” In Do Impé io ao
Reino. Viseu e o e i ó io en e os séculos IV a XII, ed. Ca a ina Ten e, 263-95. Viseu: C.
M. Viseu, 2018.
Ten e, Ca a ina, Nádia Figuei a, e Ped o Ca alho. “As placas de xis o numé icas de época i-
sigoda de To e de Almo ala e do Cas o de San o And é (Figuei a de Cas elo Rod igo) e o
po oamen o u al em seu o no.” Bei a Al a 81 (2022): 135-73.
Van de Ploeg, Jan Douwe. The new peasan ies. S uggles o Au onomy and Sus ainabili y in
an E a o Empi e and Globaliza ion. London: Ea hscan publica ions, 2018.
Vigil-Escale a, Al onso, y Juan An onio Qui ós. “Un ensayo de in e p e ación del egis o a -
queológico.” In El poblamien o u al de época isigoda en Hispania. A queología del
campesinado en el in e io peninsula , ed. Juan An onio Qui ós, 357-400. Bilbao: Uni e -
sidad del País Vasco, 2013.
Ca a ina Ten e
Uni e sidade No a de Lisboa (Po ugal)
ca a ina. en e@ csh.unl.p
o cid: 0000-0002-7944-1583
Sa a P a a
Uni e sidade No a de Lisboa (Po ugal)
sa ap a a@ csh.unl.p
o cid: 0000-0002-5205-7522
123
Un eiling a hidden subjec : peasan agency
in he Dou o i e basin (5 h-7 h cen u ies)*
by Edua do Ca doso Da lon
The peasan y o med he mos nume ous g oup in he as cou se o his o y in i s dialec ical
di e si y and speci ici y. Howe e , he peasan s’ impo ance was no ma ched by an equal e-
sea ch e o om his o ians. Some hing especially ue du ing any p e-capi alis con ex in
which he absolu e ele ance o his social class is shaded by he his o iog aphical ascina ion
abou he uling classes o yo e. Hence, he p esen pape aims o con ibu e o unde s anding
he p o agonism o he “hidden subjec ” ha was he ea ly medie al Ibe ian peasan y be ween
he 5 h and 7 h cen u ies. This class is equen ly seem as s a ic o – a mos – passi e. To ame
a clea e pic u e o such an elusi e social g oup his ex p esen s a egional analysis wi h he
a icula ion o w i en and a chaeological sou ces in o de o cap u e he peasan agency in he
p ocess o s uggle wi h he a is oc a ic powe s. The main hypo hesis is ha he p ocess o a is-
oc a ic weakening in he Dou o i e basin du ing he 5 h cen u y ensu ed g ea e au onomy
o his egion peasan s and ha be ween he 6 h and 7 h cen u ies he e is a new onslaugh o a
enewed a is oc acy a icula ed wi h he Visigo h s a e. The e was, wi hou a doub , a pa ially
success ul a is oc a ic ad ance, howe e , I would like o emphasize p ecisely he esis ance im-
posed by he peasan y in a long-las ing e o o p ese e hei li ing condi ions.
Ea ly Middle Ages, Ibe ian Peninsula, Peasan y, Class s uggle.
* I would like o hank he commen s and sugges ions I ecei ed om my colleagues du ing he
Semina on Peasan Agency. A special hanks o D Ca los Teje izo Ga cía, who d ew he map o
he se lemen s e e ed in his wo k. I would also like o hank D Má io Jo ge da Mo a Bas os
and D Thiago Pe ei a da Sil a Magela o deba ing wi h me he ideas p esen ed he e. I am also
g a e ul o K is ine Con oy o he g amma ical e ision o he ex .
Edua do Ca doso Da lon, Fede al Uni e si y o Ma o G osso, B azil, ec.da [email protected], 0000-0002-
2445-0044
Re e ee Lis (DOI 10.36253/ up_ e e ee_lis )
FUP Bes P ac ice in Schola ly Publishing (DOI 10.36253/ up_bes _p ac ice)
Edua do Ca doso Da lon, Un eiling a hidden subjec : peasan agency in he Dou o i e basin (5 h-7 h
cen u ies), © Au ho (s), CC BY 4.0, DOI 10.36253/979-12-215-0562-7.06, in Juan An onio Qui ós Cas illo
(edi ed by), Local Socie ies and Peasan y Agencies in Medie al Ibe ia, pp. 123-150, 2024, published by
Fi enze Uni e si y P ess, ISBN 979-12-215-0562-7, DOI 10.36253/979-12-215-0562-7
124
Edua do Ca doso Da lon
1. Hidden Subjec
Al hough he e a e classic wo ks and manuals ha poin ed o he cen-
ali y o u al a eas in Middle Ages socie ies, he his o iog aphy in gene al
dis ega ds i s impo ance.1 The medie alis s ocus egula ly alls on a is o-
c a ic, ecclesias ical, o mona chical elemen s. This is o en jus i ied by he
lack o sou ces abou he peasan y.2 E en when he e a e sou ces, hey a e
mobilized o exp ess he peasan ’s domina ion by he a is oc acy. Mo e han
eigh y yea s ago, Ma c Bloch syn hesized: “ ields wi hou lo ds a e ields wi h-
ou a his o y.”3
In his sense, he his o ical discipline was since i s bi h – and e en a e
he Annales enewal – e y dependen on he ex s. As a esul , we ha e a
double e asu e o he peasan y om His o y. Fi s , in he pas o no lea -
ing hei own w i en aces and because a is oc a ic documen a ion egis-
e (i a all) hei exploi a ion. The second e asu e akes place in he p esen
and is he esul o he medie alis s ela i e disin e es owa ds he medie al
peasan .4 This con inues o pe pe ua e yes e day’s inequali ies oday. This be-
comes e en mo e d ama ic when we speci ically conside he ea ly medie al
cen u ies.
Fo una ely, he las ew decades ha e o e ed a eal enewal o he pos-
sibili ies o s udying he ag a ian space and he Eu opean Ea ly Middle Ages
peasan y. Mo emen made possible h ough a chaeology, being e e ed o
as an a chaeological u n.5 Some hing we can see as well o he Ibe ian, a
con ex on which I will ocus on his pape .6 This discipline has been e eal-
ing a se ies o di ec eco ds o ma e ial peasan li e ha a e indispensable o
unde s and hese hidden subjec s. Howe e , ano he p oblem is posed e en
wi h his ema kable de elopmen .
2. Ibe ian Ea ly Middle Ages: wo e sions o he same eali y
Be o e p oceeding, i is wo h o es ablish he main na a i es buil abou
he Ibe ian peasan y du ing he so-called Visigo hic Pe iod. The ini ial poin
1 Basche , A Ci ilização Feudal, 96; Bloch, His o ia Ru al F ancesa; Le Go , Ci ilização do
Ociden e Medie al, 35.
2 Da lon and Magela, “Po quês de uma His ó ia,” 42-62. The concep o peasan y is qui e con-
o e sial and i is no he main objec i e o his ex . Fo a balance see Se illa Gusmán and
González De Molina, Sob e a e olução. I would also like o poin ou ha ecen ly I made a he-
o e ical e o o apply he concep o peasan o unde s and he Ea ly Medie al pe iod Da lon,
“Conside ações sob e o concei o.”
3 Bloch, Feudal socie y, 242.
4 Ca doso, “Camponês, campesina o,” 24-9.
5 Hame ow, Ea ly Medie al Se lemen s, 156-94; Wickham, F aming he Ea ly Middle Ages,
383-588; Escalona, “Ea ly Cas ilian peasan y,” 119-45.
6 Qui ós Cas illo, “Ea ly Medie al Villages,” 13-26; Teje izo Ga cía, “Unea hing Peasan Soci-
e ies,” 75-108.
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Un eiling a hidden subjec : peasan agency in he Dou o i e basin
I would like o make is ha hese social agen s a e app ehended di e en ly
when s udied by his o ians and a chaeologis s. Thus, i is necessa y o know
he in e p e a ion ad anced by each o hese disciplines.
Apa om some speci ic s udies, among his o ians, he peasan y is
a ely he cen al ocus o analysis.7 In gene al, peasan s a e mobilized as
pa o b oade discussions. Fo example, one could highligh he deba es on
Visigo hic (p o o) eudalism, in which peasan s appea as dependen s on he
a is oc acy.8 O his can e en be seen he discussions abou he p e alence o
sla e y du ing he Ea ly Middle Ages.9
The his o iog aphy app oaches hese opics basically h ough ex ual
documen a ion and his o ians end o look a he whole peninsula in o de
o inco po a e as many sou ces as possible. This would be me hodologically
jus i ied by he ela i ely p eca ious peasan eco ds. Consequen ly, i also
blu s egional and ch onological speci ici ies, mainly because some o he
main sou ces used a e no ma i e.10 In o he wo ds, sou ces ha lack a p ecise
geog aphic inse ion and some imes unce ain da ing.
This blu ed image o he his o y o he Ea ly Medie al Ibe ian peasan y
is e iden ly p oblema ic and i does no allow a mo e comple e unde s and-
ing o ha socie y. In addi ion, i ends up ein o cing a cu en iew o he
peasan y as an ahis o ical being. In o he wo ds, a g oup ha ends o be
mise able and p ac ically does no expe ience changes o e ime and space.11
Besides ha , li le impo ance was gi en o ma e ial cul u e du ing mos
o he 20 h cen u y. Tha is ela ed o he na u e o he a chaeological knowl-
edge a ailable abou Visigo hic socie y. Un il hen, a chaeology was la gely
in luenced by F ancoism and ocused on a is ic o a chi ec u al aspec s.12
Tha is, un il he u al a chaeology boom o he 2000s, he a ailable esea ch
had li le po en ial o con ibu e o he unde s anding o he peasan y.
Du ing he i s decades o he 21s cen u y, he e was an inc ease in uni-
e si y esea ch and especially in comme cial a chaeology, which accompa-
nied he majo in as uc u e wo ks in Spain and Po ugal. This led o an
undeniable inc ease in he numbe o published da a.13 In a chaeology, peas-
an s ha e been s udied based on speci ic exca a ions. This is done by a oiding
d awing gene aliza ions om a clea -cu a chaeological con ex . E en so, a
c ucial esul o his “a chaeological u n” was he ecen publica ion o e-
7 Thompson, “Peasan Re ol s,” 11-23; Ga cía Mo eno, “Campesino hispano isigodo,” 171-87.
8 Ba be o, and Vigil, Fo mación del eudalismo, 155-200; Ga cía Mo eno, His ó ia de España
Visigoda, 247-54; Manzano Mo eno, His o ia de España, ol. 2, 83.
9 Bonnassie, “Supe i encia y Ex inción,” 13-75.
10 Bas os, “Esc a o, se o ou camponês?,” 79-82.
11 Handy, “‘Almos idio ic w e chedness’,” 335-42.
12 Olmo Enciso, “Ideología y A queología,” 157-60; Teje izo Ga cía, “A queología y nacionalis-
mo,” 150-6; Dia e-Blasco, La e An ique, XII-XV.
13 Vigil-Escale a Gui ado, “Úl imos 30 años,” 271-94; Ten e, “Úl imos 30 anos,” 49-94; Qui ós
Cas illo, “Ea ly Medie al Villages,” 13-26.
126
Edua do Ca doso Da lon
gional syn heses on he Ibe ian u al wo ld ha end o poin o a sp ead o
illages and a ms in he Ibe ian Ea ly Middle Ages.14
These syn heses ha e spa ked an impo an deba e among a chaeologis s
dedica ed o his pe iod. On one hand, some a gue ha he a chaeological
da a ein o ces wha is shown by he ex s and a ibu es his new landscape
ma ked by illage con ex s as a p oduc o a is oc a ic ac ion.15 On he o he
hand, se e al au ho s poin ou ha he e was a up u e o a is oc a ic powe
in as pa s o he Ibe ian Peninsula leading o a eali y o g ea e peasan
au onomy.16
These wo ames end no o con e ge on he ole ha peasan s played
be ween he 6 h and 7 h cen u ies. Symp oma ic o he cu en s a us o ou un-
de s anding is he sec ion en i led “The peasan y and he subjuga ed” in San i-
ago Cas ellanos’ ecen manual on Visigo hs.17 Cas ellanos had o w i e wo di -
e en sec ions o discuss he peasan y: one de i ed om w i en sou ces and
he o he om a chaeology. The e o e, he e is a di icul y in combining ex ual
and a chaeological e e ences o unde s and pas peasan socie ies.18 Howe e ,
he peasan y and hei illages in he Visigo hic pas “exis ed ega dless o
oday’s esea ch, and i would be a cos ly ailu e i bo h pe spec i es should no
con e ge on hei sha ed objec ”.19 Thus, he p esen ex consis s o an e o o
combine hese sou ces ha ha e di e en app oaches o he cons uc ion o a
mo e comple e pic u e o he peasan s and hei agency in he his o ical ans-
o ma ions o he Ibe ian Peninsula du ing he Ea ly Middle Ages.
To ca y ou his p oposi ion, i will be necessa y o adjus he scale o
he analysis, which ma ks ano he di e ence be ween he wo ks o his o ians
and a chaeologis s. In gene al, he o me s a om a b oad spa ial- empo-
al pe spec i e while he la e ocus on he speci ic de ails o each con ex .
So, o y o in eg a e ex s and ma e ial cul u e, I will wo k om he poin
o iew o an in e media e egion. My ocus will be a case s udy ha has well
14 Fo example, we ha e syn hesis wo ks on he u al wo ld o he Guadalqui i basin Ga cía
Va gas e al. “El bajo Guadalqui i ”; peninsula no hwes Sánchez P ado, “Powe and u al
landscapes,” 140-68; López Qui oga, “Hábi a , poblamien o y e i o io,” 163-79; Eb o basin
Laliena Co be a, “Ace ca de la A iculación Social,” 149-63, some a eas o Po ugal Ten e, “A -
queologia Medie al C is ã;” Ca alho, “O inal do mundo omano,” 397-435; and he su ound-
ings o Mé ida Co de o Ruiz, Te i o io eme i ense du an e. In addi ion, we ha e wo ks o a
mo e egional scope wi h a peasan a chaeology pe spec i e, ha is, ha ea peasan s as un-
damen al agen s o landscape o ganiza ion. This is he case o he Dou o basin Teje izo Ga cía,
A queología de las sociedades; o he Ca alonia egion Roig Buxó, “Asen amien os u ales y
poblados,” 207-52; he Mad id egion Vigil-Escale a Gui ado, “G anjas y Aldeas Al omedie -
ales,” 239-84; and he Basque Coun y Qui ós Cas illo, “A queología del campesinado al ome-
die al,” 385-403.
15 Dia e-Blasco, La e An ique and Ea ly, 62; Olmo Enciso, “Ma e iali y o Complex Land-
scapes,” 15-42; A iño, “Habi a u al en Península,” 104-6.
16 Ma ínez Jiménez, Sas e De Diego and Teje izo Ga cía, Ibe ian Peninsula, 193; Vigil-Es-
cale a Gui ado and Qui ós Cas illo, “Ensayo de in e p e ación,” 388-98.
17 Cas ellanos, Los Visigodos, 169-77. Mo e ecen ly he same au ho has made a simila ol-
ume, wi h some di e ences, in English, see Cas ellanos, Visigo hic Kingdom.
18 Ma ín Viso, Asen amien os y paisajes u ales, 12.
19 Escalona, “Ea ly Cas ilian peasan y,” 138.
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Un eiling a hidden subjec : peasan agency in he Dou o i e basin
In addi ion o he cons uc i e solu ions o hese illages and a ms being
qui e adap ed o a local eali y, he p oduc i e s a egies also indica e he ype
o li e ha hese communi ies expe ienced du ing he 6 h and 7 h cen u ies.
Un il ecen ly, we only elied on da a collec ed om w i en sou ces o im-
agine wha u al p oduc ion would be. Mo e ecen ly, bioa chaeological da a
applied o peasan communi ies has b ough new pe spec i es o analysis.54
Wha can be said wi h some ce ain y, acco ding o he cu en s a e o
esea ch, is ha he p edominan animals in he Dou o basin a e ca le, goa s
and ( o a lesse ex en ) pigs. The ca le, due o he ma ks o in ense wo k, was
used du ing hea y asks as well as a sou ce o milk. Goa s we e used mainly
o wool, being sac i iced a a la e age, and he pigs would ha e a mo e di ec
ela ionship wi h ood, conside ing ha hey we e sac i iced in gene al qui e
young. Bu bone eco ds a e ound in appa en ly a iable p opo ions in each
loca ion acco ding o wha we know.
In iew o ma e ial cul u e on peasan p oduc ion, i is necessa y o con-
as he in o ma ion ob ained wi h ha which we can ob ain om he w i -
en sou ces a ailable o us. Con as ha mo e han jus gi ing solidi y o
wha we know om ha pas , i also allows us o ha e a be e unde s and-
ing. Fo example, in he li e o Sain F uc uosus, w i en a he end o he 7 h
cen u y, we ha e he e e ence ha du ing childhood he sain wen wi h his
a he – a dux exe ci us Spaniae – o a egion bo de ing he Dou o basin, he
moun ainous e i o y o Bie zo. A ha ime, F uc uosus’ a he was going
o lis his locks and hea om his shephe ds, ein o cing he impo ance o
animal husband y in he egion.55 Mos likely, his a ea co esponded o he
egion whe e he la e ounded his i s monas e y in Compludo, a ew kilom-
e e s wes om As o ga.
The e a e o he cases in F uc uosus li e ha speak o he sain ’s ela ion-
ship wi h a goa ha ollowed him e e ywhe e a e being sa ed om a hun
and ha is la e killed by a young man, gene a ing g ea ange in he sain ’s
hea .56 These cases highligh he impo ance o his animal in he e i o y
conside ed he e. In u n, Vale io o Bie zo’s Au obiog aphy alks abou he
e ibu ion ha he eligious man ecei es in he o m o a goa skin blanke .57
The woman who sewed his blanke made a pilg image o he Sain Felix
Chu ch58 and on he way she came ac oss a g oup o men leading se e al oxen
oge he . An ox acciden ally ended up bu ying i s ho n in he wi hou anyone
being able o ex ac i , lea ing he almos dead. Finally, a man – called by he
i le dominus – lea es he opposi e side o Sain Felix Chu ch and mi aculous-
54 Peña-Choca o, “La a queobo ánica,” 83-98.
55 Nock, Vi a Sanc i F uc uosi, 88-9.
56 Nock, 100-5.
57 Ahe ne, Vale io o Bie zo, 118-26.
58 The exac loca ion o his chu ch is unknown, bu i would no be unlikely ha i was close o
he Compludo monas e y – ounded by F uc uosus – and he e o e jus a ew kilome e s om
As o ga.
134
Edua do Ca doso Da lon
ly es o es he heal h. He e we ha e he ein o cemen o he idea o animal
husband y as a cen al poin o peasan ac i i ies and he p imo dial use o
ca le as d a animals in his con ex .
S ill, in Vale io’s au obiog aphy, we ha e he epo ha he eligious e-
cei ed wo ho ses om a “mos illus ious man” o help in he ac i i ies o he
eligious man.59 I is an animal ha also appea s some imes in he auna e-
co d o he se lemen s wi h ma ks o in ense wo k. I was a gi ha a oused
such en y in he o he monks wi h whom he li ed ha he p io o he mon-
as e y e en o de ed people o s eal hem.60 Thie es we e unsuccess ul and
e u n emp y-handed o ind di ine punishmen wi h hei lands des oyed
and hei oxen s olen.61 Thus, ho ses seem o ha e been highly alued animals
o he poin o a ousing such e ol on he pa o he o he monks.62 Pe haps
i is e en an animal linked o eli e elemen s since he one who gi es he ho ses
o Vale io is a man om he a is oc acy.
Pigs appea in jus wo piza as and hei use is no men ioned in any o
he o he w i en documen s in he Dou o basin.63 This ea i ms wha is ap-
pa en in he ma e ial eco d, which has a minimal swine p esence. Thus, he
pig was no a cen al elemen in he peasan esou ce managemen s a egies,
none heless, hey we e aised in o de o di e si y p oduc ion and minimize
isks. This animal’s seconda y ole in peasan p oduc ion is possibly linked o
he ac ha only i s mea was used, while he o he s b ough o he bene i s,
such as wool, milk o enhanced he capaci y o human e o in ag icul u al
and anspo wo k.
Rega ding he c ops, i is di icul o compa e he w i en sou ces and
ma e ials since we a e e y much in need o s udies on he seeds ound in
he exca a ed se lemen s in he No h Pla eau. Bu , h ough he ex s o he
piza as we know abou ce eal c ops – such as whea and ba ley – as well as
speci ic e e ences o oli es and men ion o oli e oil p oduc ion and e en he
cul i a ion o ineya ds.64 Pe haps a leas some o hese cul i a ed ineya ds
supplied he monas e ies linked o Sain F uc uosus’ monas ic ule.65 Final-
ly, he ag icul u al p oduc ion o hese illages and a ms was supplemen ed
wi h he consump ion o ege ables and, o a lesse ex en , chickens, and sea-
ood, which had a minimal bone egis e in he se lemen s.66
These peasan illages and a ms we e a om being au onomous. Con-
side ing some elemen s o ma e ial cul u e as indica o s – such as me al ob-
59 Ahe ne, Vale io o Bie zo, 101-3.
60 Ahe ne, 103.
61 Ahe ne, 103.
62 Such app ecia ion is also sugges ed by he sla e numbe 42. All e e ences o he piza as a e
ound in Velázquez So iano, Piza as Visigodas.
63 PizVis 54, 92.
64 Whea (PizVis 34, 54, 93, 95); ba ley (PizVis 31, 78, 79, 96); oli e (PizVis 103); oli e oil (Piz-
Vis 95); and wine (PizVis 116, 124, 149).
65 Campos Ruiz and Roca Melia, San os Pad es Espanholes, 142-3.
66 Campos Ruiz and Roca Melia, 142-3; Teje izo Ga cía, A queología de las sociedades, 171.
135
Un eiling a hidden subjec : peasan agency in he Dou o i e basin
jec s, ce amics, glass, and o eu ics – i is possible o obse e he complexi y
o hese se lemen s in he Dou o basin, as hey demons a e a ious o ms o
ci cula ion and in eg a ion.67
The ypes o ce amics consumed indica e p oduc ion and dis ibu ion a
local and egional scales. On he o he hand, we can pe cei e he e a chical
o ms be ween di e en se lemen s, wi h a mic o- egional exchange o spe-
cialis a isans and, o a ce ain ex en , an in e - illage di ision o asks. In
u n, indings in b onze, glass o mo e e ined me als exp ess he ela ionship
o Dou o illages wi h p oduc i e and echnological chains h ough e ical
ci cula ion and signal inequali ies wi hin he illage con ex s.
In o he wo ds, he ma e ial eco d poin s in he opposi e di ec ion o a
e y adi ional iew o u al communi ies basically ocused on sel -supply.
I mus he e o e be unde s ood ha he e is a complex ne wo k o p oduc-
ion and dis ibu ion o many objec s in he Dou o basin, which me he daily
needs o peasan li e.68
Ha ing es ablished his pano ama o illages and a ms, i eally seems
ha we ha e a ac u ed eading. The spa ial loca ion o he illages nea o
wa e sou ces, he cons uc ion echniques, he o ganiza ion o p oduc ion
and he o ms o s o age a e ma e ial elemen s ha sugges communi ies wi h
high deg ees o au onomy. On he o he hand, in he w i en sou ces hey eg-
is e he p esence o noblemen – dux, dominus and ui illus issimus – wi h
he capaci y o subjec dependen s and some le el o concen a ion o weal h.
Howe e , I would like o ein o ce he e ha we mus be ca e ul abou
egionaliza ion and ch onology o he his o ical p ocesses. The sou ces ha
mos clea ly es ablish le els o hie a chy and social domina ion a e la e and
concen a ed in he wes e n po ions o he No he n Pla eau. In o he wo ds,
i was p ecisely hose ha since he 5 h cen u y had p ese ed an a is oc a ic
class ha ended up much mo e powe ul han in he o he pa s o his zone.
So, we need o unde s and his de elopmen p ocess and how he peasan y
is ela ed o i .
5. T ans o ma ions in illages and a ms in he 6 h and 7 h cen u ies
Due o he limi s in he es ablishmen o clea ch onological sequences in
he illages and a ms in he Dou o basin, i is o en di icul o unde s and
he de ails o he his o ical ans o ma ions ha hese spaces wen h ough.
Howe e , some clues a e no iceable h ough ca e ul analysis o wo elemen s:
silos and ceme e ies.
67 Teje izo Ga cía, A queología de las sociedades, 159-68; Vigil-Escale a Gui ado and Qui ós
Cas illo, “Ensayo de in e p e ación del egis o a queológico,” 376-81.
68 Teje izo Ga cía, A queología de las sociedades, 167-8.
136
Edua do Ca doso Da lon
Abou silos, hese changes can be seen h ough hei dimensions. Abou
75% o he silos in he No h Pla eau can be classi ied as small, ha is, wi h a
capaci y be ween 500 and 1,500 li e s. A ound 20% would be a e age, wi h
a olume anging be ween 1,500 and 3,000 li e s. In o he wo ds, a ound
95% o he silos would co espond o small o medium s uc u es linked o
he immedia e consump ion needs o he peasan amilies who managed he
su plus.
Only abou 5% o he silos could be classi ied as la ge, ha is, wi h a capac-
i y g ea e han 3,000 li e s and an insigni ican numbe o hese silos would
ha e had a capaci y g ea e han 5,000 li e s. I is in e es ing o no e ha
hese highe capaci y silos a e associa ed wi h la e se lemen phases, da ed
be ween he end o he VII and he beginning o he VIII, as in he case o El
Ven o o, Lade a de los P ados, San o enia o Can o Blanco. This allows us o
aise he p oposi ion ha in hese la e momen s he e was an inc ease in he
s o age capaci y in he silos.69 This could pe haps be ead bo h as a possible
concen a ion o weal h on he pa o some domes ic uni s in la e pe iods o
he need o p oduce a la ge su plus in o de o mee ex e nal demands.
In u n, changes in bu ials ollow a ch onology like ha o silos. Le us
s a wi h hose ha a e undoub edly he p edominan une a y disposi ion
in he Dou o basin: he communi y nec opolises.70 As al eady men ioned,
he e is in gene al a p olonged use o hese spaces and he da a a ailable o
us allows us o pe cei e ha he e is a change in he logic o app op ia ion o
space ha akes place be ween he 6 h and 7 h cen u ies.71 Thus, i ep esen s a
second momen o up u e wi h he ans o ma ion ha ook place in he 5 h
cen u y.
These bu ials in nec opolises we e o a long ime seen as p oduc s o e h-
nic, Visigo h o Hispanic-Roman iden i ies depending on he elemen s ound
in he g a es. An in e p e a ion ha , despi e no being o ally ou da ed, inds
much less suppo in his o iog aphy han a ew decades ago.72 One o he mos
ele an indings in hese ceme e ies o his “e hnic” a ibu ion by a chaeol-
ogis s we e elemen s o d ess, such as b ooches.
Howe e , hese objec s had a echnological and specialized p oduc ion
chain linked o a is oc a ic p oduc ion cen e s. The e o e, hey e e less o
an e hnic elemen and mo e o elemen s o social dis inc ion wi hin he com-
69 Qui ós Cas illo, “Silos y sis emas,” 171-92; Teje izo Ga cía, A queología de las sociedades,
156;
70 Teje izo Ga cía, A queología de las sociedades, 184.
71 Teje izo Ga cía, 186-7.
72 This is a e y p oblema ic posi ion since he numbe o hese b ooches a e ound in jus a ew
ombs and e en less equen when conside ing he o al numbe o bu ials. Quan i ica ion ha
is nuclea , since he ombs we e eused. Fu he mo e, in addi ion o bu ials, he indings linked
o speci ic “e hnici ies” a e p ac ically null in o he spaces – such as he Toledo o Reccopolis
egion – whe e we know ha he Visigo h a is oc acy was concen a ed. The e hnic explana ion
gene a es mo e p oblems han i sol es. Thus, i may be mo e p oduc i e o hink ha h ough
hese bu ials we can ind a di e ence in s a us due o he p esence o his ype o objec . Dia e
Blasco, La e An ique and Ea ly, 131-2; Teje izo Ga cía, A queología de las sociedades, 184.
137
Un eiling a hidden subjec : peasan agency in he Dou o i e basin
muni y. In his way, we could in e p e hese indings as signs o he di e en
scales o powe wi hin he communi y, as well as hei in e nal ensions. A e
all, he e we e conc e e cha ac e s wi hin u al a eas capable o accessing
hese luxu y goods, e en when impo ing medium and long- ange goods –
such as ce amics o glass – was qui e es ic ed o null.73
Thus, bo h he changes in pe sonal objec s a bu ials and he appea ance
o b ooches om he 7 h cen u y onwa ds a e pa o his dispu e p ocess in
he communi ies. In u n, he b ooches pe haps ep esen ed he use o s a e-
gies o domina ion o he indi idual o a icula ed a is oc acy in he s a e o
peasan domina ion.74 A e all, hese objec s had p oduc ion p ocesses ha
made hem e y es ic i e. They enabled pa hs o social con ol ca ied ou
h ough he c ea ion, consolida ion o subsump ion o local leade s h ough
he g an ing o gi s.75
We also ha e he appea ance o isola ed bu ials wi hin he illages. In
hem, we also ha e objec s deposi ed wi h he dead (such as kni es, sickles,
and ce amics), which a e o en simila and con empo a y o hose o he com-
muni y nec opolises. This is some hing ha could indica e ha his une -
a y ypology was a ype o p es ige, ansla ing o a g ea e compe i i eness
among he a ious domes ic uni s du ing he 7 h cen u y. Thus, hese ypes
o isola ed bu ials could indica e a g ea e au onomy o he domes ic uni in
ela ion o he communi y when i comes o disposing o he dead. This could
indica e an in e nal dispu e o memo y and e en o p ope y, which would
explain he p oximi y o hese bu ials o housing.76
The combina ion o in o ma ion om silos and une a y spaces is a win-
dow o us o glimpse he changes ha we e aking place in he peasan com-
muni ies o he Dou o be ween 6 h and 7 h cen u ies. Tha is, hey indica e
new ela ions and in e nal ensions in he communi ies ha we e absen in
p e ious pe iods.
So, h ough he a chaeological da a, he e is almos no e idence o asym-
me ic social ela ions o any kind among peasan s in he illages. E en when
we can e i y some ma e ial di e en ia ion, we canno speak o inequali y
in he s ic sense. In o he wo ds, i is no possible o ind any capaci y o
signi ican weal h concen a ion by some illage membe s. Howe e , a ca e ul
analysis allows us o glimpse he social “mic o-s a i ica ion” ha is e lec ed
in di e ences in s a us and class. Howe e , e en hough hese inequali ies ex-
is be ween social g oups in he peasan communi ies o he Dou o, hey a e
73 Teje izo Ga cía, A queología de las sociedades, 190-1.
74 A de ailed discussion on he his o iog aphy p oduced ega ding he Visigo hic s a e would
escape he objec i es o his ex . Fo a aluable c i ical balance see Pachá, “Es ado e Relações,”
specially he i s chap e . He e I unde s and he s a e as a social ela ionship. Some gene al
e lec ions on his idea can be ound in Bas os, “Os ‘Reinos Bá ba os’,” 1-11. I applied his con-
cep ualiza ion on ano he pape : Da lon, “Tumul os e Clamo es,” 132-67.
75 Ca ajal Cas o and Teje izo Ga cía, “Teo iza el es ado”; Godelie , O enigma do dom.
76 Teje izo Ga cía, A queología de las sociedades 181-4.
138
Edua do Ca doso Da lon
qui e opaque. Despi e his opaci y, we can say ha hese di e ences and ine-
quali ies become mo e and mo e e iden as we mo e h ough he 7 h cen u y.
6. F on s unde a is oc a ic p essu e
Ha ing es ablished he illages’ and a ms’ social s uc u e in he Dou o
basin and hei his o ical ans o ma ions, we s ill need o conside he p o-
cesses ha in e e ed wi h hem and how hey a ec ed he class s uggle and
he condi ion o peasan exis ence. As a gued in he p e ious sec ions, hese
ans o ma ions begin in he egion o he Dou o basin wi h he inal disa -
icula ion o he Roman Empi e, which esul ed in an adap a ion o he eli es.
These eli es s a ed o occupy di e en spaces om he old Roman uillae wi h
he cons uc ion o o i ica ions. The ci ies also showed signs o weakening
a is oc a ic powe s in much o he Dou o basin. The excep ion seems o ha e
been he wes e n pa s o he Dou o, close o ci ies like León and As o ga
whe e he ce amic dis ibu ion and he p esence o u al chu ches da ed be-
ween he 4 h and 5 h cen u ies would indica e a ce ain con inui y o he a is-
oc a ic powe s.
In his i em, I wan o y o unde s and how he a is oc acy ea icula ion
p ocess ook place in he No h Pla eau and i s consequen g ea e capaci y
o exploi he peasan y. Thus, he i s impo an poin conce ns he b oade
p ocesses o a is oc a ic ea icula ions in he Ibe ian Peninsula, which we e
al eady happening in some o m by he end o he 5 h and beginnings o he
6 h cen u ies.
As s a ed be o e, i is especially ue o he egions o he peninsula
no h. This is some hing ha could be ela ed wi h he p ocess o consolida -
ing he Suebi s a e. Howe e , i also showed i s i s signs in he a eas o he
Eb o alley, Ca alonia, he Tagus alley, and Mé ida wi h he o ma ion o he
Visigo h s a e in Hispania.77
The s a e o ma ion only gained well-de ined con ou s a e he eigns o
Leo igild and Recca ed.78 No because hese we e wo “s ong” mona chs, bu
because du ing he pe iod hey occupied he h one hey we e able o b ing
he a is oc acy oge he h ough nego ia ion and iolence. I is wi h hese
wo kings ha a mo e s uc u ed con ol o e he peninsula e i o y is es-
ablished, which ansla es in o he ma e ializa ion o cons uc i e p ojec s.
These cons uc ions we e exp essed on a smalle scale in u al chu ches and
Ch is ianiza ion o he u ban en i onmen and wi hin he scope o oyal pow-
e wi h he ounda ion o Reccopolis and he monumen aliza ion o Vega Baja
de Toledo be ween mid-6 h and mid-7 h cen u ies. These we e p ojec s ha
77 Da lon, “Des elando um Sujei o Ocul o,” 293.
78 The e is abundan bibliog aphy ha poin s ou hese eigns as u ning poin s in he p ocess
o s a e o ma ion and consolida ion. Fo an o e iew, see Cas ellanos, Los Godos y la C uz.
139
Un eiling a hidden subjec : peasan agency in he Dou o i e basin
o aciously demanded peasan exp op ia ion on a much la ge scale han
du ing he 5 h o he i s hal o he 6 h cen u y.
Thus, e en hough he e was a shaking in Roman o ms o domina ion,
i was ela i ely b ie in se e al pa s o he peninsula and each o hem had
a pa icula de elopmen . Thus, we mus conside he e olu ion o he a is-
oc a ic a icula ion in he No h Pla eau wi h he s a e powe s ha began o
in eg a e he en i e peninsula du ing he 6 h cen u y. Tha is essen ial o us
o ha e a be e idea o he deg ee o peasan au onomy and o he his o ical
ans o ma ions unde way. I will also help us o ha e a be e unde s anding
o he peasan y’s ela i e esilience and o he a is oc acy’s abili y o ex ac
su plus.
In o de o do so, le us e u n o he p e iously men ioned le e s o Bish-
op Mon ano o Toledo a ached o he minu es o he Second Council o Toledo
o 531.79 These a e e e ences om he end o he i s hi d o he 6 h cen u y
ha can shed ligh on he con igu a ion o social ela ions in he No h Pla-
eau. The i s le e is add essed “ o you, dea es b o he s and sons o he
Palen ine e i o y”. The second is add essed o a igu e called To ibio ha we
should no con use wi h he one ha co esponded wi h Bishop Leo o Rome
in he 5 h cen u y.80
The cen e o he dispu e eco ded in hese ex s is he ac ha he e
was a dis ega d o he au ho i y o Toledo’s me opoli an bishop. Tha is be-
cause he cle gy o Palencia called a bishop om ano he egion o conse-
c a e chu ches in he ci y. The o he egion o which hey e e p obably co -
esponded o he Suebi Kingdom because Mon ano said ha his ac ion was
agains he in e es s o he Visigo h mona ch.81
A e admonishing he Palen ine cle gy o hei a i udes, we ha e he
ex add essed o To ibio. I is no clea who his indi idual would be, his
being a hea ed deba e ha goes back decades in he pas .82 A i s possibili y
ha we can quickly exclude is ha he was he bishop o Palencia since his
was a acan sea o a long ime a he ime o w i ing hese co espondences.
Much o he di icul y we ace conce ns he e ms ha Mon ano uses o
e e o To ibio, calling him “domino e ilio” i s and hen “sace do is”.83 The
e m “son” is gene ally used o e e o a laype son o membe o he lowes
ank in he cle gy. As we know om he le e ha To ibio is no longe in sec-
ula li e, we could assume ha he was someone o ele ance as an abbo . How-
e e , he complica ing elemen comes nex when Mon ano calls him “co-bish-
op”.84 Thus, he e is a di ec men ion o an episcopal digni y ela ed o he
79 Isla F ez, “Desde el Reino,” 41-52; Ma in, “Las ca as de Mon ano,” 403-426; Ma in, “Mon-
anus e les schisma iques,” 9-20.
80 Vi es e al., Concílios Visigó icos, 46.
81 Vi es e al., 49.
82 Thompson, Los Godos en España, 406; Cas ellanos, and Ma ín Viso, “Local a icula ion,”
12-3.
83 Vi es e al., Concílios Visigó icos, 50-1.
84 Vi es e al., 51.
140
Edua do Ca doso Da lon
igu e o To ibio, ein o ced by some o he e ms such as celsi u o ues a and
ca i as ues a, which in he pe iod could also be used o e e o bishops.85
In his sense, an in e es ing hypo hesis is ha To ibio could ha e been a
bishop who se ed in he Suebi Kingdom, pe haps e en in As o ga. In ac , i
is possible ha his name would indica e a po en ial kinship o he desi e o
claim he memo y o he o me bishop o he same name om he 5 h cen u y
amous o ha ing ough p iscilianism. This kinship would no be impossi-
ble gi en he his o y o episcopal amilies in he Ibe ian Ea ly Middle Ages.86
Thus, hese le e s we e mean o wa n ( h ea en?) he alleged bishop o As-
o ga ha he solu ion o he c isis in Palencia was in his in e es . A e all,
i would a oid a Visigo h-Suebi con lic ha had i s main s age in he dispu e
o he No h Pla eau.
This in e p e a ion seems adequa e and in acco dance wi h he pic u e o -
e ed by he dispe sion o ce amics om As o ga. In o he wo ds, he wes e n
egion o he Dou o basin was linked o a is oc a ic dynamics, pe haps linked
o he Suebi s a e, and i was making e o s o p ojec i s in luence and capac-
i y o domina ion owa ds he No h Pla eau. I was in a wes e n po ion in
which he main enance o a is oc a ic powe s was much mo e igo ous han
in o he pa s o he a ea conside ed he e.
When Toledo began o asse i sel as a cen al a icula ion pole o he
Visigo h s a e om he Sou he n Mese a, in he beginning o he 6 h cen u y,
he dispu e g ew be ween he Suebic and Visigo hic a is oc a ic ac ions o
he cen al zones o he Dou o Basin. I we accep ha To ibio was bishop o
As o ga, i makes mo e sense o men ion a ce ain p i ilege men ioned by he
co-bishop o As o ga and ag eed wi h Mon ano’s p edecesso a he Toledo
see. Acco ding o he le e s, he e i o ies o Sego ia, Bui ago and Coca
we e g an ed, his being done no by igh , bu in iew o he digni y o he
episcopal o ice and o cu b “ ile” in e es s. And, adds Mon ano, “(...) bea in
mind i was g an ed o him only as long as i could help him. We wan ed o
ake hese measu es so ha in no way you omi he old cus oms[.]”87
Wi hin his line o in e p e a ion, he e e ence o an ag eemen be ween
he po en ial co-bishop o he As oga See and he o me Toledan p ela e
would expose dis inc phases o he ensions be ween he Visigo h and Sue-
bi powe s h oughou he No h Pla eau. The idea is ha hese le e s e eal
in ense dispu es o he poin ha he e is he cession o he ecclesias ical
e i o y o h ee municipali ies o b eak and s abilize ension. The ela ions
became unbalanced again when he ep esen a i es om he bishop ic o As-
o ga wen o consec a e basilicas in Palencia, a ci y ha would be o icially
ou side he es ablished pac and, he e o e, unde he au ho i y o Toledo.
85 Isla F ez, “Desde el Reino,” 46.
86 O landis, His o ia del Reino Visigodo, 31-2.
87 Vi es e al., Concílios Visigó icos, 51.
141
Un eiling a hidden subjec : peasan agency in he Dou o i e basin
These le e s allow us o alk abou he beginnings o Ch is ianiza ion in
he Dou o basin egion since he i s hal o he 6 h cen u y, wi h he con-
s uc ion o basilicas in Palen ine e i o y. The chu ches appea in he a -
chaeological eco d o u al a eas jus in mo e ad anced pe iods. This is wha
makes us hink ha hese documen s signal he cons uc ion o chu ches
wi hin ci ies and hei subu bs. Howe e , his is some hing ha he a chaeo-
logical eali y a he momen s ill eludes us. Anyway, we can ead hese chu ch
buildings – he consec a ion o which gene a ed so much ension – wi hin a
p ocess o ea icula ion o he a is oc acy ha is now able o build places o
wo ship whe e he e we e none be o e.
Thus, he w i en sou ces es i y o a p ocess o e i aliza ion o he old
u ban en i onmen s. Somewha like wha a chaeology in o ms us om he
middle o he 6 h cen u y and ha is consis en wi h he peninsula p ocess o
esuming he de elopmen o ci ies in he pe iod be ween he yea s 550 and
650.88 This pe iod was ma ked by an a is oc a ic a icula ion h ough o he
Visigo h s a e and po en ially by expanding he peasan y’s submission ca-
paci y.89 Howe e , despi e his u ban enewal, he absence o Medi e anean
ce amics in he Dou o basin om he 5 h cen u y onwa ds demons a es i s
isola ion om long-dis ance ci cui s.90
Thus, he au onomy achie ed by he No h Pla eau peasan y wi h he end
o he Roman Empi e s a ed o change in he beginning o he 6 h cen u y. On
he one hand, we ha e he ea icula ion o he local a is oc acy and he inco -
po a ion o his egion wi hin he b oade logic ha began o be o med om
wo nodal poin s, he Suebi and Visigo h s a es. E iden ly, a e he conques
o he Suebi Kingdom in 585, he undamen al link was Toledo, bu wi hou
disca ding he impo ance o local a is oc acies and Gallaecia.
Pe haps i is e en possible o map he p og essi e ad ances being made
by he a is oc acy h ough he c ea ion o he ew bishop ics in he Dou o
basin egion. Fo example, we know ha he e was an episcopal see ac i e
in Palencia when he signa u e o Mu ila, p ela e o ha ci y, was egis e ed
a he Council o Toledo III in 589.91 He is one o he bishops who abho s A -
ianism du ing he con e sion o King Recca ed o Nicene Ch is iani y.92 I is
a signi ican ac ha he pe son esponsible o he Palen ine see had un il
hen been an A ian, gi en he close ies ha would link him o he Visigo hic
mona chy. This ein o ces he hesis ha con ol o e a dispu ed egion mus
ha e been he keyno e h oughou he middle o he 6 h cen u y. I is known
ha he adi ion o he o de o signa u e o he concilia minu es is based on
88 Teje izo Ga cía, A queología de las sociedades, 233.
89 Ma ínez Jiménez, Sas e De Diego and Teje izo Ga cía, Ibe ian Peninsula, 154-78; Ma ín-
ez Jiménez, “C isis o C ises?,” 81-5.
90 Dia e Blasco, La e An ique and Ea ly, 76, 79.
91 He e we ha e a ansmission e o in he documen s, Mu ila ha ing been egis e ed o he
ci y o Valencia. Ce ainly, Mu ila is om he Palencia see, being men ioned in o he documen s
linked o ha ci y, see Ga cía Mo eno, P osopog a ia del Reino Visigodo, 139-40.
92 Vi es e al., Concílios Visigó icos, 122.
142
Edua do Ca doso Da lon
he an iqui y o ca hed a. So, we can sa ely assume ha Mu ila was al eady
he bishop o Palencia a ound 579.
By his same logic, P oculos o Sego ia mus ha e s a ed his episcopa e
a ound 580.93 Wi h ega d o he Salamanca bishop ic, we could es ablish
i s o dina ion be ween 585 and 586 due o i s posi ion in ela ion o he sig-
na u es o o he bishops whose da es a e clea e in he minu es o he Thi d
Council o Toledo.94 Ano he bishop ic ha poin s us owa ds he consolida-
ion o a is oc a ic powe s is Osma. This las one mus ha e been ounded in
he las yea s o he 6 h cen u y.95 The see o Á ila is men ioned o he i s
ime in 610, wi h Bishop Jus inian signing he dec ee o King Gundema o
and, inally, we ha e he diocese o Caliab ia ha was p obably consec a ed
a ound 625.96
Thus, we see ha he oldes bishop ic in he Dou o basin a e As o ga is
he Palencia. I may ha e eme ged p ecisely om his dispu e p e iously na -
a ed as a kind o p ojec ion o he Toledan a is oc acy. Then we would ha e
a mo emen o a is oc a ic in lec ion s a ing om he sou heas e n sec o s
o he Dou o basin wi h he c ea ion o he bishop ics o Sego ia and Osma.
This was pe haps ela ed o an expansion o episcopal powe s in he wes e n
zone o he high Eb o alley, wi h he de elopmen o see-like places as Auca
wi hin a simila ch onology.97 Only a he beginning o he 7 h cen u y did we
ha e any in lec ion o he a is oc a ic powe s h ough he bishop ics in he
sou hwes a ea o No h Pla eau, h ough he c ea ion o he dioceses o Á ila
and Caliab ia.
A no able sign o he consolida ion o hese episcopal powe s ha o m in
he Dou o can be seen h ough a e e ence egis e ed in he eigh h canon o
he Council o Mé ida celeb a ed in 666. In i , we see ha Bishop Sclua om
Idanha complains be o e he episcopal assembly agains Jus o who was he
p ela e o Salamanca. The eason o his ac ion was because he Salman ine
bishop ic had come o exe cise con ol o e a e i o y ha would belong o
he see o Idanha.98
E en hough he concilia assembly ul illed he unc ion o exe cising
collec i e con ol o e he indi idual o aci y o he Salman ine bishop, his
does no change he ac o he ension ha exis ed. So, he undamen al hing
I wan ed o highligh is ha h oughou he 7 h cen u y he No h Pla eau
ecclesias ical powe s we e no longe imid. On he con a y, hey we e able o
93 Vi es e al., 137.
94 Vi es e al., Concílios Visigó icos, 137; Ga cía Mo eno, “Campesino hispano isigodo en e
bajos,” 185.
95 Vi es e al., Concílios Visigó icos, 157.
96 Vi es e al., 137. I s exac loca ion is unce ain, bu appa en ly i was close o Ciudad Rod igo
as p oposed by Ga cía Mo eno, P osopog a ia del Reino Visigodo, 174.
97 Cas ellanos and Ma ín Viso, “Local a icula ion,” 12-4.
98 Vi es e al., Concílios Visigó icos, 330-2. These con lic s possibly da e back o he end o he
6 h cen u y wi h he ed awing o ecclesias ical bo de s a e he conques o he Suebi Kingdom
in 585.
245
Peasan agency and peopling p ocesses in Ea ly Medie al Ca alonia
o a illa we e s ill in use in he 6 h cen u y AD, and su e ed an inc ease in
p oduc ion du ing his pe iod. In addi ion, he s uc u es and in e nal dis i-
bu ion o he abo emen ioned Vilauba we e en i ely ans o med be ween he
6 h and 7 h cen u ies AD.42 This phenomenon o eoccupa ion and inc ease
in p oduc ion in hose si es wi h p eceden s in he Roman illae was ela ed
o he consolida ion o a social s uc u e based on peasan y. O ganized and
mo e ma u e peasan communi ies we e now li ing in illages o a ms, o-
ge he wi h o he se lemen s loca ed nex o a Roman si e bu buil in a nea -
by a ea, wi hou occupying o modi ying he p eceden Roman buildings. The
concomi ance o hese wo phenomena – he inc ease in p oduc ion in ancien
illae and he appea ance o new peasan se lemen s– was p obably a esul
o he e y same dynamic o landscape occupa ion and social o ganiza ion, in
a new con ex whe e he Roman poli ical s uc u es we e almos ex inc , and
he new ea ly medie al peasan y was a ac .
4.1. The inc ease in p oduc ion: e idence and examples
One o he mos e iden ac s o p o e he b eak be ween he classic Ro-
man illa model and he new o ms o peasan se lemen in he Ea ly Middle
Age is he euse o s uc u es o p oduc i e and une a y pu poses a some
si es, usually a e a sho e o longe pe iod o abandonmen . This p ocess
a ec s a signi ican numbe o u al es ablishmen s –pa icula ly medium
and small in size– ha we e es uc u ed wi h he aim o expanding he p o-
duc ion a eas a he han he habi a s uc u es, which usually disappea ed.43
A conside able numbe o u al se lemen s wi h small habi a a eas in ensely
de eloped p oduc i e ac i i ies om his pe iod onwa ds. The illae o Vi-
lauba (Camòs), Els Ame lle s (Tossa de Ma ), Can Sans (San And eu de Lla-
ane es), Pacs (Pacs del Penedés), Vinya del C ispí (Guissona), San Amanç
(Rajadell), L’Espel (Òdena), Can Te és (La Ga iga), L’Aiguacui (Te assa),
To e Llaude (Ma a ó), among o he s, a e good examples o his ans o ma-
ion (Fig. 10.3).
A new layou was iden i ied a hese si es, whe e sunken ea u ed build-
ings had o be in e p e ed in he a chaeological eco d om a se ies o pos -
holes and ca ings designing a new dis ibu ion o s uc u es, only isible
and p ope ly iden i iable by means o an ex ensi e exca a ion. The emains o
ancien buildings inhe i ed om he Roman pe iod, wi h lime mo a pa ial-
ly eused in he ea lies ans o ma ion o hese si es, we e inally subs i u ed
by simple s uc u es wi h an op ional s one-made unde pinning s uc u e
and wooden walls and co e s. The p esence o p oduc i e acili ies among
hese s uc u es changed he physiognomy o he si es. Se lemen s om his
42 Gu and Na a o, “Les ans o macions en els assen amen s,” 88.
43 Cha a ía, “Re lexiones sob e el inal de las illas,” 27.
246
Ka en Ál a o Rueda, Es he T a é Allepuz
Figu e 3. Se lemen pa e n du ing he 6 h and 7 h cen u ies AD, when some abandoned illae
we e eoccupied. The p esence o Ea ly Ch is ian chu ches sca e ed h oughou he landscape
p o ed he inc easing ole o he Chu ch.
pe iod migh ecall hose o he P e- oman landscape; and he a chaeological
app oach equi es simila me hods.
Some si es de eloped an inc easing ac i i y. The p oduc ion o wine be-
came an in ensi e and specialized indus y a he si es o La Fon del Vila
(A inyone de Puig en ós), Can Sans (San And eu de Lle ane es), Can Sen -
Romà (Tiana), San a Ma ia de Sales (Viladecans), La Salu (Sabadell), Mas del
Ca xo o (Beni alle ), among o he s. The si e o Vilauba (Camós, Gi ona) is,
again, an example o endu ance and ans o ma ion o he ea lie s uc u es
o in ensi y he p oduc ion o wine and oil. Two o ens we e buil in he illage
o Puig Rodon (Co çà, Gi ona) in he same pe iod; and some deposi s we e
ins alled in To e Llaude (Ma a ó, Ba celona), oge he wi h a cella wi h
dolia o wine s o age.
247
Peasan agency and peopling p ocesses in Ea ly Medie al Ca alonia
4.2. Nec opolises and new se lemen s: owa ds new ways o li e and dea h
The une a y e idence is ano he elemen o conside in he analysis o
u al se lemen , and i is no exemp o knowledge gaps and me hodological
limi s. The e e ences o nec opolises associa ed o ea ly medie al illages
a e no e y p ecise, and conside a ions ega ding hei connec ion wi h hab-
i a s uc u es a e poo . Fune a y elemen s ha e a ely been he objec o an
ex ensi e exca a ion, and a chaeological wo ks ha e adi ionally add essed
ypological aspec s in sea ch o a p ecise ch onology, a he han he gen-
e al layou o ceme e ies and hei ole wi hin he illage. The e a e some
examples o illae wi h an associa ed nec opolis such as Pla de l’Ho a (Sa ià
de Te , Gi ona), To e Llaude (Ma a ó, Ba celona) o Els Mun s (Al a ulla,
Ta agona).
Pla de l’Ho a had se e al bu ial phases, one o hem a ibu ed o he
Visigo hs acco ding o he bu ial goods ound in some o he ombs. In his
phase, bu ials combined di e en ypologies (single pi s o pi s wi h s one
slabs, among o he s) bu hey we e no ela ed o any pa icula inhabi ed a -
ea.44 Fune a y complexes in To e Llaude (Ma a ó, Ba celona) and Els Mun s
(Al a ulla, Ta agona) we e placed 400 me es and 100 me es away om he
habi a buildings espec i ely. The nec opolis o Els Mun s occupied an a ea
ha had p e iously been a s o age space wi h silos ha we e abandoned in
he second hal o he 3 d cen u y AD. This nec opolis included 170 g a es cu
in o he ock o soil and co e ed wi h slabs, all o hem a anged in a adial
dis ibu ion. A his si e, child en we e usually bu ied inside egulae and am-
pho ae. Di e en ypes o bu ial coexis ed in he pe iod be ween he 5 h and
8 h cen u ies, which makes he ch onological a ibu ion o ypes o speci ic
phases e y ad en u ous. Ce ainly, he p esence o one ype o bu ial o an-
o he migh ha e been he esul o socio-economic c i e ia a he han he
ch onological e olu ion o bu ial s uc u es.
Ceme e ies a e p esen in hose se lemen s wi hou Roman p eceden s.
The new se lemen s bo n in his pe iod a e equen ly loca ed nex o Ro-
man a eas which had been abandoned. New se le s did no eoccupy any
Roman s uc u e, bu hey could occasionally p ese e and adap some o he
p oduc ion a eas. The plunde o Roman building ma e ials om abandoned
si es –when a ailable– and i s use o building hese new se lemen s was a
equen p ac ice. The bes -known example o his phenomenon in Ca alonia
is he si e o Plaça Majo de Cas ella del Vallès (Cas ella del Vallès, Ba celo-
na) (Fig. 10.4a). The si e exca a ed in his own is da ed be ween he 6 h and
he 8 h cen u ies. The e we e emains o a small illage buil ex no o wi h
sunken ea u ed domes ic s uc u es once he e was no u he ac i i y in he
Roman illa close o he si e. The main elemen s a his si e we e a wine p o-
duc ion a ea wi h p esses, an annexe wi h b ead-baking o ens, a wide s o age
44 Llinàs, e al., “Pla de l’Ho a.”
248
Ka en Ál a o Rueda, Es he T a é Allepuz
Figu e 4. Examples o eoccupied illae in he 6 h and 7 h cen u ies AD. Layou s o he si e in
Plaça Majo de Cas ella del Vallès a e Roig, “Vila ges i assen amen s pagesos,” 231 (a); and
L’Aiguacui in Roig and Coll, “Los pala ia al omedie ales del Vallès,” 241 (b).
a ea wi h plen y o silos co esponding o di e en phases, and a une a y
a ea wi h wen y g a es, a anged in a well-delimi ed space.45 A simila case
was ound in L’Aiguacui (Te assa, Ba celona) (Fig. 10.4b), whe e he si e
was eoccupied in he 6 h and he 7 h cen u ies AD and he ma e ials om he
Visigo h phase esemble hose om Me o ingian and Ge manic nec opolis-
es.46 A pa icula opic o be explo ed wi h ega d o une a y p ac ices is he
p esence o de ian bu ials o people and animals h own in silos, which a e
no an isola ed phenomenon. They usually a e in e p e ed as anomalous p ac-
ices ela ed o excluded o ma ginalised g oups.47 These p ac ices in ea ly
medie al Ca alonia migh poin owa ds he endu ance o sla e y, acco ding
o some in e p e a ions.48
In his sec ion we discussed he elemen s o pe manence and change is-
ible in his pe iod. Endu ing illae om he Roman pe iod we e ans o med
in o p oduc ion complexes, hose which we e abandoned we e occasionally
eoccupied wi h he same pu pose, and o he illages wi hou ea lie p ece-
den s appea a his momen . The ac is ha he se lemen o ms inhe i ed
45 Roig, “Asen amien os u ales.”
46 Roig, “Fo mas de poblamien o u al,” 128.
47 Holloway, “Cha coal Bu ial: A Mino i y Bu ial Ri e in Ea ly Medie al Eu ope,” 131.
48 Ripoll and Molis , “Cu a mo uo um,” 25.
249
Peasan agency and peopling p ocesses in Ea ly Medie al Ca alonia
om he Roman Empi e seemed o disappea comple ely in he 8 h cen u y
when new o ms o peasan y exis ed in mos pa s o he Wes e n Medi e -
anean.49 Consequen ly, he p og essi e abandonmen and disa icula ion o
u al se lemen s a e he end o he Roman Empi e, and he beginning o
new o ms o peasan agency and people-landscape en anglemen , a ising
om new social o ganiza ion and needs, should be unde s ood as coexis ing
p ocesses wi hou a clea up u e be ween hem.
4.3. The ans o ma ion o he ce amic eco d: ea ly medie al g eywa e
p oduc ion
The change in ce amic a e ac s in hese la e con ex s is also ema kable.
The la es emains o Roman po e y had almos disappea ed, and a lack o
ma e ials is clea ly asc ibed o a well-de e mined imespan. The ma e ial e-
co d a hese si es no longe co esponds o he well-known impo ed po e y
om he p e ious pe iod, which was mos ly subs i u ed by common and cook-
ing coa se wa es usually i ed unde educing a mosphe e. Thei mo phology
adop ed simple and mo e unc ional shapes which emained unchanged o
long pe iods. This new ce amic pano ama demands new me hodological ap-
p oaches in o de o de elop sys ema ic p og ams o a chaeome ic cha ac-
e iza ion, pa icula ly o po e y om hose si es wi h be e s a ig aphic
eco ds and con ex ual asc ip ion.
The inc easing absence o ampho ae and o he s anda dized con aine s
o ood anspo ac oss he Wes e n Medi e anean led o he sp ead o
mo e local and egional p oduc ions. The ea lies exca a ion o some o hese
si es, du ing he ea ly 1980s and be o e, e idenced he unspeci ied cha ac e
o ea ly medie al g eywa es a ha ime wi hin a scien i ic con ex in which
he consolida ion o medie al a chaeology as a discipline was s ill unde way.
The ce amic ma e ial eco e ed om exca a ions by P. de Palol a he si e o
El Bo ala (Se ós, Lleida) was a well-s udied da ase ha , un o una ely, was
ne e published.
Howe e , he s udy o he ce amic se ies da ing om he La e Roman pe-
iod o he Middle Age we e e y complex. Mo e ecen exca a ion on hese
si es has p o ided new in o ma ion abou his po e y, upda ing p e ious
s udies. The analy ical cha ac e iza ion o po e y om La Bas ida si e (Rubí,
Ba celona) e ealed he exis ence o eigh een di e en ab ics o local o e-
gional o igin.50 The abo emen ioned case o L’Aiguacui (Te assa, Ba celona)
e ealed he exis ence o common wa es and cooking g eywa e coexis ing
wi h some impo ed ab ics and oxidizing po e y om he Visigo h pe iod.51
49 Wickham, F aming he Ea ly Middle Ages, 383-8.
50 Gu and Na a o, “Les ans o macions en els assen amen s,” 89.
51 Roig, “Fo mas de poblamien o u al.”
250
Ka en Ál a o Rueda, Es he T a é Allepuz
5. New o ms o peasan agency: Hill o s and si es on he plains
Du ing he end o he 7 h cen u y and he beginning o he 8 h cen u y
AD, an impo an de elopmen o illages and o i ied se lemen s in medi-
um-high places ook place. These new 8 h-cen u y si es we e de o ed o a m-
ing and he ding ac i i ies in some a eas ha had been conside ed ba en o
pe iphe al in ea lie pe iods ( ig. 10.5). New habi a s uc u es, usually wi h
a sunken ea u ed base and delimi ed wi h s one plin hs o sho walls sup-
po ing adobe o wooden walls and pe ishable co e s, occupied a he e oge-
neous assemblage o na u al en i onmen s and s a ed a long-las ing occu-
pa ion ha will be a he basis o landscape a icula ion om he 9 h cen u y
onwa ds. Simul aneously, o he se lemen s appea ed ex no o on he plains.
Figu e 5. Ca alonia in he 8 h and 9 h Cen u ies AD, wi h hill o s and se lemen s c ea ed ex
no o wi hin he inc easing in luence o F ankish domain. P e- omanesque emples in his pe-
iod a e indica ed a e Roig Buxó, “Asien amen os u ales,” 240.
251
Peasan agency and peopling p ocesses in Ea ly Medie al Ca alonia
These si es p o e he exis ence o an economic change and a new phase in
peasan agency, when new a ming s a egies de ined ag a ian exploi a ions
wi h clea ly planned inne s uc u es and layou . In his sec ion we will dis-
cuss some examples o bo h ype o se lemen s consolida ed du ing he 8 h
cen u y AD.
Recen wo k in he egions o Bages, Solsonès, Be guedà and Ando a
ha e p o ided in o ma ion abou an assemblage o ex no o si es loca ed be-
ween 400 and 800 me es o al i ude. These si es occupied some ex ensions
o i egula e ain in ocky o moun ain en i onmen s which we e no sui a-
ble o ce eal g ow h and, consequen ly, had no been exploi ed in he Roman
pe iod. This new esea ch ou come o e s a good and con as ed e e ence
o compa ison in some o he si es exca a ed in he ea lies yea s o medi-
e al a chaeology ha should be e iewed now, in a enewed epis emologi-
cal con ex . These si es a e o med by di e en uni s o dispe se se lemen ,
assembling a ew small amily households depending on he a ea. Domes ic
s uc u es we e made wi h d y s one walls, occasionally co e ed wi h mud a
he join s, and wooden oo s. S o age s uc u es a hese si es we e e y a e,
which ein o ces he in e p e a ion o he seconda y ole played by ag icul-
u al p ac ices in high places. The economic ac i i y widely documen ed a
hese si es is a subsis ence wine-making indus y, a es ed by he p esence o
p esses and cella s, p obably o communi a ian use. Combined wi h he ding
ac i i ies, he exploi a ion o ineya ds was a common p ac ice in he Ca alan
Py enees. W i en es iges p o ide aluable in o ma ion abou he exis ence
o ineya ds o sel -consump ion in ough and ha d- o- each a eas in he
Coun y o Palla s.
Some examples o hese high o medium-high places we e ound in he
no he n pa o he p o ince o Ba celona, da ing om he 6 h o he 8 h cen-
u ies AD, usually de o ed o wine p oduc ion as hei main ac i i y. Ten silos
we e ound a he si e o Vilacla a (Cas ell olli del Boix, Ba celona). This a ea
p esen ed some s uc u es and deposi s o d y s one and pe ishable building
ma e ial. An o en and a winemaking p ess we e ound a his si e,52 in which
a ming seems o ha e been a seconda y ac i i y. The hill o o Se a dels
T es He eus (Casse es, Ba celona), was loca ed on a hill p e iously occupied
by an ancien Ibe ian own and abandoned du ing he Roman and pos -Ro-
man pe iods.53 Amongs he a ious s uc u es iden i ied in his si e, no s o -
age elemen s we e eco ded, al hough a comple e s udy o he se lemen has
no been published ye . A simila case was ound in he small illage o Colle
dels Clape s de Segue s (Pinós, Lleida), wi h a simila ch onology o ha o
he si es in Ba celona. A small building consis ing o ou di e en spaces
included a p ess and did no ha e any silo.54
52 En ich, En ich and Ped aza, Vilacla a.
53 Folch, e al., “L’ocupació de l’al a Eda Mi jana.”
54 Guà dia, “El Colle dels Clape s del Segués.”
252
Ka en Ál a o Rueda, Es he T a é Allepuz
A chaeological emains o se lemen s on he plain o his pe iod a e
une enly sca e ed h oughou he Ca alan e i o y, and hey a e mos ly
concen a ed in he Ba celonese me opoli an a ea, wi h some a eas being
mo e densely popula ed han o he s a e. P obably his dis ibu ion is he e-
sul o he cu en s a e-o - he-a , which is pa ial and will be modi ied as
soon as mo e si es a e ex ensi ely exca a ed and published. The si es we al-
eady know, usually wi hou de ensi e walls o p o ec i e s uc u es, we e
dedica ed almos exclusi ely o in ensi e ag icul u al asks. Toge he wi h he
ci cula o ellip ical sunken ea u ed buildings, p esen in u al se lemen s
since he 6 h cen u y AD, buildings wi h a ec angula o squa e base we e
ound a hese si es in a mo e ecen pe iod. The la ges buildings we e e-
quen ly di ided in o se e al ooms wi h unde pinning s one s uc u es and
clay walls. These seemed o be s o age buildings including g ana ies, o ens
o silos. The p esence o manual o a ion mills in some si es p o ed he p o-
cessing o whea o ob aining lou o be one o he usual domes ic ac i i ies.
These so s o p oduc ion and s o age a eas we e ound in he nea by a eas
a ached o he main buildings as well. Small nec opolises, no usually ela ed
o a chu ch, we e also pa o hese si es.55
The amoun and ea u es o s o age sys ems in hese se lemen s on he
plain a e signi ican enough o s and o a clea and delibe a e ag icul u -
al pu pose. The s o age capaci y exceeds he need o sel -consump ion and
poin s owa ds he p oduc ion o su pluses o egional ade, which is a -
es ed in he e i o y o Ba cino and he o me bishop ic o Ega a, whe e a
high concen a ion o se lemen s was documen ed.56 The speci ic e i o y o
Vallès o ms a co ido be ween he Coas al and P e-coas al moun ain ang-
es, whe e se e al si es illus a e his speci ic o m o peasan agency. Ana-
ly ical s udies ca ied ou in some o hese deposi s a e s ill sca ce, bu he
exis ing analyses e eal he g ow h o ce eals –mainly whea and ba ley– and
he exploi a ion o ineya ds and oli e ees.57 The in ensi ica ion o ag icul-
u e and he di e si y o p oduc s and supplies a e also documen ed in o he
se lemen s wi h simila ea u es ound in o he a eas a he no h and cen e
o he Ibe ian Peninsula.58
Can Gambús-1 (Sabadell, Ba celona) and Els Mallols (Ce danyola del
Vallès, Ba celona), wi h 232 and 139 silos espec i ely, a e eloquen exam-
ples o hese kinds o si es ( ig. 10.6a). The ex ension o Can Gambús-1 has
been comple ely exca a ed. The o al a ea occupied by his si e is es ima ed
in 2 hec a es. The s a ig aphic sequence o silos, p oduc ion s uc u es, a
wine-p essing a ea, and se e al o ens de e mines he exis ence o h ee di -
e en phases o se lemen .59 A li le beyond he illage, he e was a small
55 Roig, “Asen amien os u ales” and Folch, e al., “L’ocupació de l’al a Eda Mi jana.”
56 Roig, “Fo mas de poblamien o u al,” 128.
57 Fo ó e al., “Los yacimien os del Pla del Se ado ,” 267-8.
58 Qui ós Cas illo, “La a qui ec u a domés ica.”
59 Roig, “Asen amien os u ales,” 225-6.
253
Peasan agency and peopling p ocesses in Ea ly Medie al Ca alonia
Figu e 6. Examples o ea ly medie al se lemen s wi h silo ields. Layou s o Can Gambús-1 in
Roig, “Vila ges i assen amen s pagesos,” 233 (a) and he sac a ia phase o San a Ma ga ida, in
T a é e al. “De l’església paleoc is iana a la sag e a medie al,” 185 (b)..
254
Ka en Ál a o Rueda, Es he T a é Allepuz
nec opolis o 35 g a es. The anomalous bu ial o 15 people wi hou any i ual
o une a y ibu e and se e al animals h own inside silos we e ound. The
abandonmen o silos by illing hem wi h po e y, bone emains o ga bage
in gene al was a common p ac ice documen ed in many o he con empo a y
si es wi h simila ea u es.
Also in he e i o y o Ba cino, Els Mallols60 was a simila bu smalle
se lemen . I occupied a bi mo e han one hec a e on he plain as well. The
gene al layou o he si e when compa ed o Can Gambús-1 shows a simila
a angemen o sunken ea u ed s uc u es and p oduc ion o s o age a eas.
A small nec opolis is loca ed nea he illage and anomalous human bu ials
we e ound inside some silos. The e y same pa e n is also ound in o he
si es such as La Solana o La Bas ida, bo h in Ba cino, un il he 8 h cen u y
AD.
6. Rein e p e ing peasan agency a e e ence si es
Among he gaps and unce ain ies o he a chaeological eco d a he
momen , he e a e wo emblema ic se lemen s which ep esen he ans-
o ma ion o peasan agency along he ea ly medie al pe iod. The si es o El
Bo ala 61 and Puig Rom62 ha e been known o a e y long ime and ha e
been conside ed as e e ence examples in a chaeological li e a u e. Ongoing
esea ch in bo h si es migh s ill p o ide upda ed in o ma ion as pa o cu -
en esea ch p ojec s. Despi e o he ac ha he in o ma ion a ailable is
pa ial, bo h o hem ha e some pa icula i ies dese ing special a en ion.
The a chaeological complex o El Bo ala (Se ós, Lleida) was disco e ed
in he i s hal o he pas cen u y, when a basilica and a small pa o he
su ounding habi a s uc u es we e exca a ed; i was no un il la e when
a chaeological exca a ion ocused on he nec opolis and he illage. The si e,
loca ed a he igh sho e o i e Seg e, is an in e es ing example o he pe-
iod be ween he 5 h and he 8 h cen u ies AD. The chu ch, da ing om he
5 h cen u y, con ains a ipa i e apse, and was in use un il he abandonmen
o he se lemen . A bap is e y and a nec opolis we e associa ed o he main
building. Acco ding o he ela ion exis ing be ween he eligious complex
and he habi a buildings, he monas ic unc ion has been sugges ed a leas
in some phases o he si e.63 The se lemen was inhabi ed un il an unknown
momen be ween 711 and 723 AD, when i was des oyed by a i e as a esul
o he Muslim in asion. A coin om Visigo h king Achila II de e mines he
ch onology o he abandonmen o he si e.
60 F ancès, Els Mallols.
61 Palol, El Bo ala .
62 Palol, El cas um del Puig; Subias, e al., “Nue os da os.”
63 Gu , “Complejos eclesiás icos.”
261
Peasan agency and peopling p ocesses in Ea ly Medie al Ca alonia
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Ka en Ál a o Rueda
Uni e si a de Ba celona (Spain)
kal a[email p o ec ed]
o cid: 0000-0003-1321-7260
Es he T a é Allepuz
Uni e si a de Ba celona (Spain)
es he . [email p o ec ed]
o cid: 0000-0002-6769-4487
265
The eoccupa ion o he la e Roman illae
o he Ibe ian Peninsula
and he eco d o he subal e n deb is.
The case o Fuen e Álamo (Puen e Genil, Có doba)
by Jesús Be mejo Ti ado
Recen s udies on he peasan y in he ancien wo ld and ea ly Middle Ages on he Ibe ian
Peninsula ha e expe ienced a e i aliza ion due o new a chaeological eco ds and he appli-
ca ion o landscape a chaeology. Al e na i e his o iog aphical pe spec i es ha ocus on con-
cep s such as collec i e ac ion, peasan agency, and small poli ics ha e led o a e hinking o
peasan communi ies in u al a eas. Howe e , he his o iog aphy o he ancien peasan y on
he Ibe ian Peninsula s ill s uggles wi h his o ical explana ions o he ansi ion be ween an-
iqui y and he Middle Ages. This pape p oposes an al e na i e his o iog aphic pe spec i e
ha analyses he a chaeological eco d o he inal phases o occupa ion in Roman illae using
concep s om peasan and subal e n s udies. The ocus o ou app oach is on unde s anding
he e e yday p ac ices and agency o subal e n u al communi ies du ing La e An iqui y, a he
han iewing he a chaeological eco d solely om an a chi ec u al pe spec i e. We illus a e
ou p oposal using a case s udy: he la e an ique eoccupa ion o he Roman illae o Fuen e
Álamo (Puen e Genil, Có doba).
La e An iqui y, Ibe ian Peninsula, Roman illae, Peasan y, Subal e n agency, E e yday p ac-
ices.
1. In oduc ion
In ecen yea s we ha e wi nessed a e i alisa ion in s udies o he peas-
an y in he ancien wo ld and du ing he ea ly Middle Ages on he Ibe ian
Jesús Be mejo Ti ado, Uni e si y o Mad id Ca los III, Spain, jb i [email protected], 0000-0002-1797-8545
Re e ee Lis (DOI 10.36253/ up_ e e ee_lis )
FUP Bes P ac ice in Schola ly Publishing (DOI 10.36253/ up_bes _p ac ice)
Jesús Be mejo Ti ado, The eoccupa ion o he la e Roman illae o he Ibe ian Peninsula and he eco d
o he subal e n deb is. The case o Fuen e Álamo (Puen e Genil, Có doba), © Au ho (s), CC BY 4.0, DOI
10.36253/979-12-215-0562-7.11, in Juan An onio Qui ós Cas illo (edi ed by), Local Socie ies and Peasan y
Agencies in Medie al Ibe ia, pp. 265-289, 2024, published by Fi enze Uni e si y P ess, ISBN 979-12-215-
0562-7, DOI 10.36253/979-12-215-0562-7
266
Jesús Be mejo Ti ado
Peninsula.1 To a la ge ex en , his e i al has been based on he e alua ion
o new a chaeological eco ds esul ing om p e en i e a chaeology and he
gene alisa ion o spa ial s udies ha we can g oup unde he denomina ion
o landscape a chaeology.2 The de elopmen o hese new me hodological
pe spec i es has led o an exponen ial inc ease in he olume o empi ical
e idence a ailable o he analysis o hese peasan communi ies. In pa allel
o his inc ease in e idence, he in oduc ion o al e na i e his o iog aphical
pe spec i es based on he applica ion o concep s such as collec i e ac ion,3
peasan agency4 o small poli ics,5 has led us o e hink he making o peasan
communi ies in a ious u al a eas.
Despi e all hese undeniable ad ances, he a chaeology o he peasan y
on he Ibe ian Peninsula is s ill ma ked by he sea ch o his o ical expla-
na ions ega ding he ansi ion be ween an iqui y and he Middle Ages.6 In
o he wo ds, he s udy o la e an ique peasan communi ies is s ill concei ed
mainly as a ansi ion be ween he sla e7 and peasan modes o p oduc ion.8
Pe haps one o he bes examples o he applica ion o his his o iog aph-
ical amewo k is he ques ion o he pu po ed “end” o he Roman illae.9
This his o iog aphical ope is epea edly ci ed as a p eceden in he i s
chap e s o he mos ecen syn heses on he la e an ique and ea ly medie al
1 Vigil-Escale a, Los p ime os paisajes al omedie ales; Teje izo Ga cía, A queología de las
sociedades campesinas; Be mejo Ti ado, “Roman peasan habi a s;” Qui ós Cas illo, A chae-
ology and His o y o Peasan ies 1, A chaeology and His o y o Peasan ies 2; Qui ós Cas illo
e Teje izo Ga cía, “Filling he gap;” Be mejo Ti ado, and G au Mi a, The A chaeology o Peas-
an y; Ki chne , “La a queología del campesinado en época al o-medie al;” Nesbi , “New Book
Ch onicle.”
2 Mayo al, G au and Bellón, A queología y sociedad de los espacios ag a ios; Fe nández Mie
e al. “La o mación de los paisajes;” Ki chne , “A queología del paisaje y a queología de los
espacios de cul i o;” Balles e os A ias, e al. “Po una a queología ag a ia.”
3 Ca ballo, Roscoe and Feinman, “Coope a ion and Collec i e Ac ion;” Feinman, “Mul iple
pa hways o la ge-scale;” Ca ballo, “Cul u al and e olu iona y dynamics;” DeMa ais and
Ea le, “Collec i e Ac ion Theo y;” Blan on, “Collec i e Ac ion and Adap a i e;” Blan on and
Fa ghe , Collec i e Ac ion in he Fo ma ion. Fo he Ibe ian case, Ca ajal Cas o, “Collec i e
Ac ion and Local Leade ships.”
4 Boucha d, Nego ia ion and Resis ance, 128-53.
5 Da ies, Small Wo lds: The Village Communi y; G ey, Cons uc ing Communi ies in he La e
Roman, 91-121. Fo he Ibe ian case Ma ín Viso, “Unequal Small Wo lds.”
6 F anco ich and Hodges, Villa o Village. Fo a nuanced e iew o hese his o iog aphic ap-
p oaches, Qui ós Cas illo, “F om Villa o Village?.”
7 Ca andini, Se e ines e. Una illa schia is ica; Le eau, ““ illa, omanisa ion, dé eloppe-
men économique.”
8 Wickham, F aming he Ea ly Middle Ages; Teje izo Ga cía, “The A chaeology o he Peasan
Mode o P oduc ion.”
9 To ame his gene al discussion B ogiolo, La ine delle ille omane; F anco ich and Hodges,
Villa o Village; Me áux, “La e An ique Villas;” Cas o ao Ba ba, La ine delle ille omane in
I alia; Mun o, “Recycling, demand o ma e ials;” B ogiolo, Cha a ía and Valen i, Dopo la ine
delle ille; Ca ale i and Sacchi, La illa dopo la illa; Ca ale i and S ameni, La illa dopo la
illa 2. Fo he Ibe ian case, Cha a ía A nau, “Conside azioni sulla ine delle ille;” Cha a ìa
A nau, El inal de las ‘ illae’ en ‘Hispania’; Ripoll and A ce, “The T ans o ma ion and End o
Roman;” Cha a ía A nau and B ogiolo, “El inal de las illas y las ans o maciones.”
267
The eoccupa ion o he la e Roman illae o he Ibe ian Peninsula
u al communi ies and landscapes o he Ibe ian Peninsula.10 I onically, al-
hough in oduced as he conclusion o an e a, he end o he illae is he basis
on which mos published his o iog aphical p oposals explain he eme gence
o ea ly medie al peasan communi ies.11 Howe e , as Juan An onio Qui ós
Cas illo has ecen ly poin ed ou ,12 his ype o p oposal eclipses he p e ious
exis ence o peasan communi ies in Roman imes13 as undamen al agen s
o unde s anding he his o ical e olu ion o he u al wo ld in la e an iqui y.
In his pape , we p opose an al e na i e his o iog aphic pe spec i e o
analysing in hei own con ex he people who li ed in he Roman illae in
hei inal phases o occupa ion. These human g oups cons i u e an exam-
ple o “people wi hou his o y”14 who need o be analysed independen ly o
p e ious his o iog aphic agendas and academic specialisa ions. One o he
essen ial poin s o ou p oposal is based on he applica ion o se e al concep s
aken om he so-called peasan s udies.15 Ou main aim is o explain how
he a chaeological eco d o hese las phases should no be unde s ood as he
esul o an abandonmen p ocess bu as a e lec ion o he e e yday p ac ic-
es and agency o he subal e n u al communi ies ha inhabi ed hese si es
du ing la e an iqui y.
2. The end o he Roman illae: a his o ical o e iew
The inal decades o he 20 h cen u y wi nessed he shaping o a p o-
ound his o iog aphical deba e ega ding he “end” o he illae in he pa s
occiden alis. This deba e was insigh ully sys ema ised in a wo k by B ian
Wa d-Pe kins16 om he o mula ion o wo opposing ends: ca as ophis
and con inuis . In summa y, he ca as ophic endency b ough oge he
hose schola s who a gued ha he end o he illae would ha e been he e-
sul o a p ocess o ab up des uc ion explained by he impac o such phe-
nomena as he c isis o he 3 d cen u y AD and he Ge manic in asions. This
g oup, mainly composed o his o ians, made use o accoun s om la e an-
ique au ho s o suppo his iew. Ano he g oup o schola s, he so-called
con inuis s, disag eed wi h his idea o sudden des uc ion. They suppo ed
a mo e de ailed e iew o he a chaeological eco d o e e y single case, ci -
10 Caballe o, Ma eos and Co de o, Visigodos y Omeyas: el e i o io; A iño, “El hábi a u al
en la Península;” Dia e-Blasco, La e An ique & Ea ly Medie al.
11 E. g. Vigil-Escale a, Los p ime os paisajes al omedie ales; Teje izo Ga cía, A queología de
las sociedades campesinas.
12 Qui ós Cas illo “F om Villa o Village?.”
13 Se e al ecen publica ions ha e de ended he impo ance o he peasan communi ies in he
Roman pe iod: Reddé, “Fe mes e illae omaines,” Be mejo Ti ado, “Roman peasan habi a s;”
Be mejo Ti ado and G au Mi a, The A chaeology o Roman Peasan y; Bowes, The Roman
Peasan P ojec ; Van Oyen, “Inno a ion and in es men .”
14 Wool , Eu ope and he People.
15 Be mejo Ti ado and G au Mi a, The A chaeology o Roman Peasan y.
16 Wa d-Pe kins, “Con inui is s, Ca as ophis s.”
268
Jesús Be mejo Ti ado
ing he exis ence o a la e occupancy o hese se lemen s associa ed wi h he
ans o ma ion o he ea u es eco ded a hose si es.
In he case o he Ibe ian Peninsula, he wo ks o Alexand a Cha a ía
A nau17 can be jus i iably conside ed as a undamen al landma k in disp o -
ing he ca as ophic hypo hesis. He s udies con i med he gene alised ab-
sence o de as a ion laye s ha could be linked o his hypo he ical sudden
de as a ion caused by he Ge manic in asions o o he simila wa a e ep-
isodes. In addi ion, he s udies ha e se ed o documen sys ema ically he
a chi ec u al econ igu a ion o many la e Roman illae h ough he building
o p oduc i e ea u es ela ed o ag icul u e.18
Ne e heless, Cha a ía’s wo k was in luenced by a se ies o limi a ions
ha condi ioned he in e p e a ions. E en when he amous book con ained
a ca alogue wi h many illae,19 in e y ew cases was p ecise s a ig aphic
documen a ion om a chaeological exca a ions a ailable. In mos cases, he
documen a ion o di e en occupa ion phases eco ded in he illae can be
es ablished om he p esence o cons uc i e elemen s o e laying he monu-
men al phases o he ins alla ion o p oduc i e ea u es in he esiden ial sec-
o s o he se lemen s.20 These limi a ions, which in no way can be a ibu ed
o Cha a ia bu o he s a e o he e idence i sel , o ced he o ake a unda-
men ally a chi ec u al poin o iew in which he monumen al phases o he
se lemen emained he ocus o he pe spec i e, as is e e ed o in he e y
i le o he well-known essay, El inal de las illae en Hispania. E en when
his “ inalis ” pe spec i e21 is linked o he con inuis end (sensu Wa d-Pe -
kins), i implies a hie a chisa ion o he occupa ion phases ha eclipses he
emains gene a ed by o he o ms o habi a ion ha a e only e ealed i we
apply a b oade concep o he a chaeological eco d no exclusi ely ocused
on a chi ec u al elemen s.
The i s decades o he new millennium ha e b ough he publica ion o
he esul s o new exca a ions wi h he applica ion o p ecise s a ig aphic
documen a ion, including he eco ding o a la ge numbe o ind assemblag-
es. These new a chaeological eco ds ha e opened up no el discussions on he
end o he illae in he Roman Wes . A good example o his ype o discussion
can be ound in wo a icles published in he Jou nal o Roman A chaeolo-
gy.22 In his a icle, Vanishing Villas, Tama a Lewi heo ises ha he changes
seen in his ype o se lemen can be in e p e ed as a esul o he cul u al
17 Cha a ía A nau, “Conside azioni sulla ine delle ille,” Cha a ía A nau, El inal de las ‘ il-
lae’ en ‘Hispania’.
18 Cha a ía A nau, 126-9.
19 Cha a ía A nau, 163-298.
20 On his kind o aphonomic p oblems in he con ex o he la e an ique occupa ion o Roman
illae see Kasp zyk, “Léquipemen e les o mes,” 235-8.
21 Roo ed in he I alian adi ion o la e an ique e ea ly medie al a chaeology, e.g. B ogiolo, La
ine delle ille omane.
22 Lewi , Vanishing illas; Bowes and Gu e idge, “Re hinking he la e .”
269
The eoccupa ion o he la e Roman illae o he Ibe ian Peninsula
e olu ion expe ienced by he u al eli es o la e an iqui y.23 Lewi openly e-
jec s he in e p e a ion o he changes in ha pe iod as e idence o decadence
o impo e ishmen and suppo s he con inui y o occupa ion by eli es whose
aes he ic expec a ions would ha e been changing in he new cul u al con ex
o la e an iqui y.
Two yea s la e , in di ec esponse o Lewi ’s wo k, Kimbe ly Bowes and
Adam Gu e idge p oposed he need o e hink he la e an ique u al se le-
men om a di e en pe spec i e. This pape highligh s he need o analyse
he a chaeological s a a o hese la e an ique occupa ions in hei own con-
ex , independen ly o any possible beginning o end. In o he wo ds, hey
should no be seen om an a p io i classical o medie al pe spec i e and
mo e comp ehensi e conside a ion should be gi en o he possibili ies o e ed
by he new a chaeological eco ds gene a ed by landscape a chaeology and
p e en i e exca a ions.
Implici ly, he impac o many o he ideas aised in his pape has been
el in some o he mo e ecen s udies on his issue. This is he case o Be h
Mun o’s s udy24 o he ecycling ac i i ies and managemen o he esou ces
a ailable o he inhabi an s in he inal phases o he illae. O he s udies o
in e es can be ound in he ecen olumes en i led La illa dopo la illa25 on
he a chaeology o u al se lemen in he cen al and no he n sec o s o he
I alic Peninsula.
3. Peasan agency: A Roman a chaeologis ’s pe spec i e
The use o he e m peasan y in his o ical s udies has been con o e -
sial in ecen decades. Many au ho s ha e p e e ed o a oid i in di e en
his o iog aphical con ex s, eplacing i wi h mo e ambiguous e ms.26 This
con o e sy canno be sepa a ed om he decline in peasan s udies in he
social sciences since he la e 1980s.
In he case o Roman s udies, his decline27 is ma ked by he success o
he illa schia is ica pa adigm, which is linked o he model in oduced by
he Se e ines e exca a ions unde he di ec ion o And ea Ca andini.28 The
applica ion o his pa adigm implied accep ance o he Ma xis sla e mode
o p oduc ion model as he basis o he economic and social s uc u e o he
en i e Roman u al wo ld. This also implies accep ing he idea ha he eason
23 Lewi , Vanishing illas, 270-1.
24 Mun o, “Recycling, demand o ma e ials.”
25 Ca ale i and Sacchi, La illa dopo la illa; Ca ale i and S ameni, La illa dopo la illa 2.
26 On his ques ion see Qui os Cas illo, “Do we need an a chaeology;” Qui ós Cas illo and Te-
je izo Ga cía, “Filling he gap.”
27 E en when we a es ed he publica ion o some ema kable s udies on he Roman peasan -
y since he la e se en ies (Ga nsey, “Peasan s in ancien Roman,” “Non-sla e labou ;” E ans,
“Plebs Rus ica I;” E ans, “Plebs Rus ica II”).
28 Ca andini, Se e ines e.
270
Jesús Be mejo Ti ado
peasan communi ies disappea ed om he ields was he Roman impe ialis
expansion in he Medi e anean.29
In ecen yea s, howe e , hanks o se e al esea ch p ojec s ocusing on
he applica ion o a ious spa ial analysis me hodologies in a chaeology and,
abo e all, he sys ema ic s udy o new a chaeological eco ds gene a ed by
p e en i e exca a ions, we ha e wi nessed he explici ein oduc ion o he
concep o peasan y in se e al publica ions on he Roman u al wo ld.30 A
common ac o in many o hese s udies is he applica ion o models and ana-
ly ical concep s de eloped in he ield o he so-called peasan s udies. Ano h-
e common poin is he ecogni ion o wide di e si y in he peasan commu-
ni ies o all he e i o ies o he Roman Empi e.
The ecogni ion o his he e ogenei y ende s any a emp o es ablish an
essen ialis de ini ion o peasan y in Roman imes an impossible ask. As
schola s such as Theodo Shanin o Jan Douwe Van de Ploeg ha e al eady
poin ed ou ,31 he idea o es ablishing a ixed de ini ion o his e m does no
wo k om an analy ical poin o iew. By way o con as , we ad oca e he use
o his concep in a mo e p agma ic sense, speaking o peasan communi ies
a he han o a peasan class in i sel .
In spi e o his di e si y, we belie e he e is a common elemen ha mus
appea in any a emp o cha ac e ise he peasan communi ies o he Roman
pe iod, i.e. hei subal e n condi ion. These g oups we e usually subjec ed o
di e en o ms o con ol o coe cion by he au ho i ies, ei he h ough a spe-
ci ic landowne o h ough a s a e o p o incial adminis a ion o magis a-
cy,32 as was o en he case du ing he Roman pe iod. The subal e n condi ion
o hese peasan communi ies and hei own lack o de ini ion in e ms o
social class make i e y di icul o eco d hei his o ical e olu ion om a
diach onic pe spec i e. These di icul ies a e ma ked by he ac ha mos o
he his o ical sou ces o which we can u n o in o ma ion on hem a e no
na a i es.33 This is a pa icula ly ele an p oblem in ela ion o ou abili-
y o eco d hei agency. T adi ionally, schola s in e es ed in he his o ical
analysis o subal e ns ha e used synch onic sou ces o hei s udy (e.g. an in-
sc ip ion alluding o an episode in he li e o a pe son o a documen e e ing
o li iga ion by a communi y agains an au ho i y o highe ins i u ion). How-
e e , o analyse he p o ound his o ical impac o peasan communi y agency,
we ha e o adop diach onic pe spec i es di e en om hose adi ionally
posi ed by con en ional his o ical na a i es. As Kos as Vlassopoulos ecen -
29 On his assump ion Ga nsey, “Peasan s in ancien Roman;” Ra hbone, “The De elopmen o
Ag icul u e.”
30 E.g. G ey, Cons uc ing Communi ies; Bowes, The Roman Peasan P ojec ; Reddé “Fe mes
e illae omaines”; Be mejo Ti ado and G au Mi a, The A chaeology o Peasan y.
31 Shanin, Peasan s and Peasan Socie ies, 20-3; Van de Ploeg, El Campesinado y el a e de
la ag icul u a, 104-19.
32 G ey, “Con ex ualizing Colona us.”
33 Vlassopoulos, “Subal e n communi y o ma ion,” 36-7.
277
The eoccupa ion o he la e Roman illae o he Ibe ian Peninsula
men Ga cía Me ino in he case o he las occupa ion phase o he own o Al-
mena a de Adaja-Pu as.70 Acco ding o hose schola s, he documen a ion o
la ge olumes o ea ly Impe ial po e y is explained by i s euse as a binde o
ea hen wall cons uc ion. In he exca a ions i is impossible o dis inguish
he collapsed walls om o he abandonmen p ocesses. In ac , he ele a ed
p esence o such inds in hese con ex s can be in e p e ed as an indica o
o he use o ea h cons uc ion echniques o segmen in e nal a eas in his
sec o o he illa.
O he i ems o ablewa e included examples o oxidized coa se wa e and,
abo e all, a ious pieces o TSA, such as a Hayes 73 bowl,71 a Hayes 76 A ican
D pa e a wi h an deco a ion o incised concen ic ci cles on i s base,72 as well
as ano he agmen o a pa e a o an A ican C open pla e, p obably Hayes
51.73
A no able aspec o he consump ion pa e ns eco ded a his s age con-
ce ns cookwa e. The mos ou s anding inds in hese assemblages a e he
po s wi h u ned ims and no handles, e y simila o o he simple essels
documen ed in 5 h and 6 h cen u y AD Andalusian con ex s.74 Also wi hin his
sec ion, we ha e o men ion se e al casse ole she ds ha p esen p o iles sim-
ila o hose documen ed in la e an ique con ex s in he Malaga a ea.75 These
consump ion da a a e complemen ed by he a chaeo aunal analysis ca ied
ou by L. Colominas (ICAC). Al hough he aunal emains ound we e pa -
icula ly exiguous, in he sample eco ded in hese con ex s he emains o up
o se en molluscs (belonging o he gene a Os ea, Callis a and Glycyme is)
we e iden i ied.76
7. Discussion: The la e an ique occupa ion o Fuen e Álamo and he a o
no being go e ned
The analysis o he daily p ac ices eco ded in he subal e n deb is o
Fuen e Álamo cons i u ed by hese so-called abandonmen le els can be con-
side ed an essen ial sou ce om which o egis e he his o ical agencies (in
plu al) o hese peasan communi ies ha inhabi ed he si e du ing la e an-
iqui y. The econ igu a ion o he buil en i onmen s, oge he wi h all he
changes eco ded in he daily p ac ices, p o ide undeniable p oo o he al-
e a ions in he ways o li e in he se lemen . Con on ed wi h he hesis ha
ad oca es in e p e ing hese changes as a “cul u al e olu ion” o ganised by
70 Ga cía Me ino and Sánchez Simón, El inal de la illa de Almena a, 19-32.
71 Hayes, La e Roman Po e y, ig. 21, 134.
72 Hayes, La e Roman Po e y, 125; Boni ay, E udes su la cé amique, 203.
73 Hayes, La e Roman Po e y, ig. 13.
74 Se ano Ramos, Ce ámica común omana, 134; Acién Almansa e al. “Ce ámicas a do o-
manas y al omedie ales,” 515-30.
75 Se ano Ramos, 155; igs. 17-22.
76 Be mejo Ti ado, Mo eno Na a o and Colominas, “Economías domés icas y pa ones,” 261-2.
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