Jou nal o Imme sion and Con en -Based Language Educa ion 3:2 (2015), 169–193. doi 10.1075/jicb.3.2.01a o
issn 2212–8433 / e-issn 2212–8441 © John Benjamins Publishing Company
This wo k is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial 4.0 license.
Teache s’ belie s in mul ilingual educa ion
in he Basque coun y and in F iesland
Elizabe A ocena Egaña, Jasone Cenoz and Du k Go e
Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y
In his a icle we analyze eache s’ belie s abou lea ning di e en languages
in mul ilingual educa ion, which include o ms o imme sion in he mino i y
and he majo i y languages. In his s udy in e iews we e held wi h 51 p i-
ma y school eache s om he Basque Coun y (Spain), and F iesland (The
Ne he lands). In bo h egions h ee languages a e augh : majo i y, mino i y and
English. Based on he eache s’ iews we ob ain in e es ing insigh s in o he na-
i e speake ideal, pupils as mul ilingual speake s, and he p o iciency le els o
each language. The eache s also exp essed hei ideas on eaching h ough he
mino i y language and h ough English, as well as hei belie s on c oss-linguis-
ic use o languages and how ha is ela ed o he mul ilingual epe oi e. The
social con ex is belie ed o ha e an impo an in luence h ough he pa en s,
he media, and he s a us o he languages in socie y. The a icle concludes ha
belie s a e s ill la gely monolingual and seem o only g adually change o mo e
mul ilingual iews.
Basque and F isian abs ac s a end.
Keywo ds: eache belie s, mul ilingual educa ion, mino i y language, CLIL,
imme sion, Basque, F isian, English
This a icle ocuses on language eache s’ belie s in he con ex o mul ilingual
educa ion, which includes speci ically con ex s in which mino i y and majo i y
languages a e used as he medium o subjec ma e ins uc ion. Teache s’ belie s
a e conside ed impo an because o hei link o he decisions eache s make in
he class oom (Luce o, Valcke & Schellens, 2013; Paja es, 1992; Young & Walsh,
2010). Belie s can in luence pedagogical p ac ices and eache s may accep new
app oaches and eaching s a egies o a mo e o less ex en acco ding o hei be-
lie s. The s udy o belie s is impo an bo h o p e-se ice and in-se ice eache s
(Fischl & Sagy, 2005).
170 Elizabe A ocena Egaña, Jasone Cenoz and Du k Go e
Some belie s a e widesp ead wi hin he con ex o mul ilingual educa ion, and
hey a e sha ed by many eache s and educa ion p o essionals. Cummins (2014)
iden i ied some o hese a - eaching belie s which he calls “monolingual ins uc-
ional assump ions” in F ench imme sion p og ams in Canada:
– Ins uc ion should be ca ied ou exclusi ely in he a ge language wi hou
ecou se o s uden s’ L1;
– No ansla ion be ween L1 and L2 is app op ia e in F ench imme sion p o-
g ams;
– Wi hin imme sion and bilingual p og ams, he wo languages should be kep
comple ely sepa a e. (pp. 9–10)
He c i icizes hese assump ions and explains how hey a e being challenged nowa-
days. These assump ions a e also widesp ead in mul ilingual educa ion in Eu ope
whe e hey a e being challenged by p oposals ha a gue o pedagogies ha so en
he ha d bounda ies be ween languages (see, o example, Cenoz & Go e , 2011,
2015; C eese & Blackledge, 2010). Ne e heless, monolingual belie s ha e a s ong
adi ion and a e s ill widesp ead in educa ion.
In his a icle, we ocus on he s udy o eache s’ belie s in a ime when mono-
lingual ideologies a e being con es ed. Teache s’ belie s a e examined in he con-
ex o wo Eu opean egions, F iesland (a no he n p o ince o The Ne he lands)
and he Basque Au onomous Communi y (consis ing o he h ee p o inces Alaba,
Bizkaia and Gipuzkoa, commonly e e ed o as he Basque Coun y, bu pa o a
la ge a ea in no he n Spain ha also comp ises he Fo al Communi y o Na a e
and an a ea in he sou hwes o F ance called Ipa alde). See Figu e 1.
Schools in hese egions ha e a mino i y language (Basque and F isian), a na-
ional language (Spanish and Du ch), and English as a language o wide commu-
nica ion. The e a e many simila i ies be ween he wo con ex s bu also impo an
di e ences, pa icula ly ega ding he ole o he mino i y language in educa ion,
as will be explained in his a icle.
The aim o his a icle is o analyze and compa e he belie s ha in-se ice
eache s in hese wo egions ha e ega ding mul ilingual educa ion. The s udy
o eache s’ belie s has been ca ied ou in he con ex o a collabo a i e esea ch
p ojec be ween he Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (DREAM Donos ia Resea ch
g oup on Educa ion and Mul ilingualism)1 and he Me ca o Eu opean Resea ch
Cen e on Mul ilingualism and Language Lea ning2 in F iesland.
Teache s’ belie s in mul ilingual educa ion in he Basque coun y and in F iesland 171
1. Teache s’ belie s
Belie s ha e been de ined as “p oposi ions indi iduals conside o be ue and
which a e o en aci , ha e a s ong e alua i e and a ec i e componen , p o ide a
basis o ac ion, and a e esis an o change” (Bo g, 2011, pp. 370–371). In he case
o language eache s, he p oposi ions conside ed o be ue a e opinions and ideas
abou lea ning and eaching languages. Howe e , i is impo an o acknowledge
ha he s udy o belie s is based on epo ed in o ma ion and his has some me h-
odological limi a ions.
The s udy o belie s in language lea ning has a long adi ion when i comes o
examining lea ne s’ belie s. The e a e e e ences o lea ne s’ belie s al eady in ea ly
s udies abou he “good language lea ne ” (see Jeo ion, Ma couyeux, S a key-
Pe e , Na cy-Combes & Bi kan, 2014). The s udy o eache s’ belie s has had an
impo an de elopmen as linked bo h o p e-se ice and in-se ice eache s.
Bo g’s (2003) concep ualiza ion o Teache Cogni ion has been a aluable heo e i-
cal con ibu ion o he s udy o eache s’ belie s. Acco ding o Bo g (2006, p. 82),
Basque Coun y
F iesland
Figu e 1. Map o Basque Coun y and F iesland on he Eu opean con inen (adap ed
om maps ound a h p://en.wikipedia.o g/wiki/Basque_Coun y_(g ea e _ egion)#/
media/File:Euskal_He ia_Eu opa.png and h p://www.o e heidin iesland.nl/ empla e/
map/ iesland-l.jpg.
172 Elizabe A ocena Egaña, Jasone Cenoz and Du k Go e
eache cogni ion e e s o “belie s, knowledge, heo ies, a i udes, images, assump-
ions, me apho s, concep ions and pe spec i es abou eaching, eache s, lea n-
ing, s uden s, subjec ma e , cu icula, ma e ials, ins uc ional ac i i ies and sel .”
Teache cogni ion ecei es he in luence o p e ious lea ning expe iences (school-
ing), con ex ual ac o s, p o essional cou sewo k (expe ience in p e-se ice and
in-se ice p og ams), and class oom p ac ice ( eaching) (Bo g, 2006). Acco ding
o Bo g, he in luence o schooling and con ex ual ac o s is unidi ec ional bu
he o he wo ela ionships a e bidi ec ional. P o essional cou sewo k and class-
oom p ac ice no only in luence eache cogni ion bu a e also in luenced by i .
Acco ding o Bo g (2006), cogni ion, con ex , and expe ience in e ac wi h each
o he in a dynamic way in language eaching.
Nishino (2012) p oposed he Model o Teache Belie s and P ac ices o
Communica i e Language Teaching. In his model, class oom p ac ices a e in-
luenced by eache s’ belie s, con ex ual ac o s, and pe cei ed eache e icacy.
Nishino highligh s he impo an ela ionship be ween eache s’ belie s, eaching
p ac ices, and eaching con ex s.
The impo ance o con ex is also highligh ed by o he schola s (see, o exam-
ple, Ba ahona, 2014; Jeo ion e al., 2014; Yang & Gao, 2013). In ac , con ex ual
condi ions such as public examina ions, cu icula decisions by he ins i u ions, o
pa en s’ and s uden s’ expec a ions can con ibu e o shaping eache s’ belie s. In
he case o eache s’ belie s on mul ilingualism, he ela i e s a us o he languages
in socie y and he ins i u ional decisions abou he cu iculum, including he ex -
books and ma e ials used, can in luence eache s’ belie s. A he same ime, pa -
en s’ expec a ions and mo i a ions abou he di e en languages can po en ially
ha e an impo an ole in eache s’ belie s on mul ilingualism. Teache s can also
ha e belie s ela ed o p e ious lea ning and eaching expe iences and hei own
p e-se ice and in-se ice aining.
An impo an line o esea ch in he s udy o eache s’ belie s is hei ela ion-
ship wi h eache p ac ices. Bas u kmen (2012) e iewed a numbe o s udies on
eache s’ s a ed belie s and concluded ha he co espondence be ween belie s and
p ac ices is limi ed. In many cases, eache s conside ed ha ex e nal ac o s made
he co espondence mo e di icul . Bas u kmen (2012) highligh s ha he ela-
ionship be ween belie s and p ac ices is in e ac i e. Belie s can in luence p ac ices
bu p ac ices can ha e an in luence on belie s as well.
2. Mul ilingualism and eache s’ belie s
Resea ch and eaching languages in school con ex s ha e been in luenced by mono-
lingual iews (see o example Cummins, 2014). These iews a e cha ac e ized by
Teache s’ belie s in mul ilingual educa ion in he Basque coun y and in F iesland 173
using monolingual na i e speake s’ compe ence as a e e ence and isola ing lan-
guages om each o he in he con ex o he class oom (Young & Walsh, 2010).
Acco ding o monolingual iews, language lea ne s ha e o make p og ess in
he di ec ion o achie ing an impossible goal. They ha e o become ideal na i e
speake s o he a ge language, who a e pe ec ly compe en in all skills in di e -
en communica i e con ex s. This un eachable goal can c ea e a sense o us a-
ion in many lea ne s. This iew implies ha ideally a mul ilingual pe son is a pe -
ec na i e speake o se e al languages. I also implies ha mul ilinguals should
be balanced and ha e he same le el o compe ence in di e en languages. Cenoz
and Go e (2011, 2014), who p oposed he model “Focus on Mul ilingualism,”
conside ha his ideal “monolingual speake ” has o be eplaced by a mo e e-
alis ic “mul ilingual speake ”. Mul ilingual speake s a e no un eal pe ec na i e
speake s o se e al languages, bu eal people who na iga e be ween languages
acco ding o he communica i e si ua ions. They a e no de icien o weak com-
munica o s because hey a e no na i e speake s o hei second, hi d, o ou h
language. They a e s onge communica o s han monolingual na i e speake s be-
cause hey can use hei linguis ic esou ces in mo e communica i e si ua ions
wi h mo e monolingual and mul ilingual speake s.
Resea ch on eache s’ belie s abou monolingual e sus mul ilingual iews e-
ga ding mul ilingual speake s is limi ed. G i a and Chos elidou (2012) did no
compa e hese wo iews, as we will do in his a icle, bu asked 120 o eign lan-
guage eache s in G eece abou hei belie s ega ding mul ilingualism. The esul s
indica ed ha mul ilingualism is belie ed o be e y posi i e. Ano he in e es ing
esul is ela ed o he eaching o English om an ea ly age in he Basque Coun y
and F iesland. Mos G eek eache s who pa icipa ed in G i a and Chos elidou’s
s udy conside ed ha o eign languages (English in mos cases) should be in o-
duced in kinde ga en because child en can lea n hem mo e easily. Howe e , one
hi d o he eache s hough ha child en ha e o de elop a i m ounda ion in
hei mo he ongue be o e a o eign language is in oduced.
Ano he deeply- oo ed idea ha e lec s monolingual iews is he need o keep
languages sepa a e om each o he in o de o lea n hem be e . As Cummins
(2007) poin s ou , his idea eme ged om he di ec and audiolingual me hods o
second language eaching, bu i is s ill accep ed in con empo a y me hods as well.
The belie ha languages should be kep sepa a e is also epo ed in a s udy on
eache s’ belie s conduc ed by De Angelis (2011). Pa icipan s in his s udy we e
176 school eache s om I aly, Aus ia, and G ea B i ain who had immig an s u-
den s in hei classes. Teache s answe ed a ques ionnai e on eache s’ belie s abou
mul ilingualism, home language main enance, and class oom p ac ices in ela ion
o home languages. The esul s indica ed ha eache s belie e ha mul ilingualism
174 Elizabe A ocena Egaña, Jasone Cenoz and Du k Go e
has ad an ages. Howe e , hey concei e languages as sepa a e en i ies, and some
eache s belie e ha languages ha e o be lea ned one a a ime.
The monolingual iew ha es ablishes ha d bounda ies be ween languages
has been challenged in many di e en ways. Cenoz and Go e (2011, 2014) e e
o he use o he whole linguis ic epe oi e in “Focus on Mul ilingualism”. The
s udy o mul ilingual discou se p ac ices in and ou side he class oom shows ha
languages a e no sepa a ed. Ga cía (2009) uses he e m “ anslanguaging” o e-
e o mul iple discu si e p ac ices (see also C eese & Blackledge, 2010; Ga cía &
Wei, 2014; Cenoz & Go e , 2015). Resea ch on anslanguaging o en ocuses on
he analysis o mul ilingual p ac ices which a e hyb id and wi hou clea bounda -
ies. Lewis, Jones, and Bake (2012) use anslanguaging as a pedagogical s a egy
in Welsh-medium ins uc ion ha sys ema ically uses one language o inpu and
ano he language o ou pu in he same lesson. O he schola s look a eache s’
and s uden s’ use o hei L1 o o he languages as a esou ce when acqui ing ad-
di ional languages o in con en and language in eg a ed lea ning (CLIL) o con-
en -based ins uc ion con ex s (including imme sion) when lea ning asks a e
complex (Luk & Lin, 2015; Swain & Lapkin, 2013). A s ep u he is he ac i e use
o he i s language (L1) in pedagogical in e en ions o de elop me alinguis ic
awa eness and enhance language acquisi ion and (bi)li e acy skills (see, o ex-
ample, A eagoi ia & Howa d, 2015; Ballinge , 2013; Lys e , Qui oga & Ballinge ,
2013).
In his a icle we look a Basque and F isian eache s’ belie s abou s uden s’
whole linguis ic epe oi e and he use o c oss-linguis ic esou ces. The linguis ic
epe oi e ha Basque and F isian s uden s ha e is de eloped in a social con ex .
In ac , mul ilingual speake s engage in language p ac ices and use hei linguis-
ic esou ces o shape his con ex . The use o di e en languages in school con-
ex s and anslanguaging can be a ec ed by he s a us o he languages. This is
epo ed by Chimbu ane (2013), who conduc ed a s udy on eache s’ belie s abou
code-swi ching in Mozambique. He obse ed ha A ican languages a e used in
he class oom e en i eache s belie e ha i is be e no o mix languages (see
also Heugh, 2015). Chimbu ane (2013) explains ha he lack o adi ion o us-
ing A ican languages in educa ion plays a ole because eache s and s uden s a e
mo e amilia wi h academic language in Po uguese han in hei i s languages.
In his a icle we also look a monolingual and mul ilingual belie s as ela ed o
he social con ex and he s a us o he languages in he cu iculum. This s udy
add esses some gaps in he li e a u e on eache s’ belie s because i explo es belie s
as ela ed o monolingual and mul ilingual ideologies. Fu he mo e, he s udy was
conduc ed in wo con ex s whe e h ee languages can be used o each con en .
Teache s’ belie s in mul ilingual educa ion in he Basque coun y and in F iesland 175
3. Backg ound and esea ch ques ions
3.1 Educa ional con ex s o he s udy
The educa ional sys ems in he Basque Coun y and in F iesland a e simila in
con en and aims. Howe e , he e a e some di e ences be ween bo h sys ems, one
being he legal du a ion o compulso y educa ion. In he Basque Coun y educa-
ion is compulso y o s uden s be ween he ages o 6 and 16, while in F iesland
i is compulso y o s uden s aged be ween 4 and 18. In p ac ice his di e ence is
e en smalle because almos all child en go o p e-p ima y classes a an ea lie
age. P ima y educa ion in bo h con ex s ends a ound he age o 12. In his s udy
we ocus on eache s who each in he highes wo g ades o p ima y educa ion.
In bo h he Basque Coun y and F iesland he e a e public and p i a e schools.
The la e a e dis inguished di e en ly; in he Basque Coun y, p i a e schools can
be ei he conce ados (g an -aided p i a e schools) o ikas olak (schools ha each
h ough Basque and p omo e he use o Basque in all sphe es o li e). In F iesland,
p i a e schools a e usually based on eligious alues (mainly p o es an , some
ca holic, and some o he ). In bo h cases he go e nmen p o ides ull unding o
bo h public and p i a e schools, al hough he pa en s may be asked o paymen
o a ela i ely small pa en al ee o inance ex a ac i i ies, e.g. cul u e o spo s.
In bo h egions, child en can ecei e educa ion in h ee languages: he mino -
i y language (Basque o F isian), he dominan language (Spanish o Du ch), and
he o eign o hi d language (English in bo h egions). In bo h egions all h ee
languages can be used o each con en , bu language educa ion policy is di e -
en in each egion. In he Basque Coun y he language policy o he go e nmen
is aimed a e i alizing Basque and one o he sec o s o socie y whe e Basque is
suppo ed mos s ongly is educa ion. In F iesland he language policy is much
weake and e en i F isian is an obliga o y subjec in all schools, he posi ion o
F isian in he educa ional sys em is a he modes .
In he Basque Coun y, he majo i y language in socie y is Spanish. I li es
alongside he mino i y language, Basque. Bo h languages ha e o icial s a us in he
Basque Coun y and bo h a e compulso y in educa ion. Since 1982, all pa en s
ha e had he igh o choose he language o ins uc ion and en oll hei child en
in one o h ee bilingual models:
– Model A: O iginally in ended o Spanish L1 s uden s who choose o be in-
s uc ed in Spanish. Basque is a school subjec .
– Model B: O iginally in ended o Spanish L1 s uden s who wan o be bilin-
gual in Spanish and Basque. Bo h Spanish and Basque a e used as languages o
ins uc ion o almos 50% o he ime (wi h a ia ions om school o school).
176 Elizabe A ocena Egaña, Jasone Cenoz and Du k Go e
– Model D: O iginally in ended o Basque L1 s uden s who wish o be ins uc -
ed in Basque. Spanish is a school subjec .
Al hough o iginally model D was in ended as language main enance p og am o
s uden s wi h Basque as hei L1, o e he yea s i has become he mos popula
model, and mo e and mo e s uden s wi h Spanish as hei L1 a e en olled in i .
This is due o he demand o Basque in socie y and he ac ha esea ch shows
ha s uden s in model D become p o icien in Basque unlike he s uden s in he
o he wo models (Go e , Zeno z, E xague & Cenoz, 2014). As a consequence,
en ollmen in model A has declined and en ollmen in model B has emained
mo e o less s eady (abou 20%). Thus, mos child en in he Basque Coun y a e
ins uc ed h ough he medium o Basque ega dless o hei mo he ongue, in
ac , mos s uden s’ L1 is Spanish.
The ea ly in oduc ion o English in kinde ga en (ages 0–6) was ini ia ed in
he 1990s ollowing he idea ha mo e yea s o exposu e o English would esul in
highe le els o p o iciency (Go e & Cenoz, 2011). In all h ee models English is
augh alongside Basque and Spanish. The Basque Depa men o Educa ion speci-
ies in i s cu iculum guidelines he numbe o hou s o ins uc ion pe week o
each o he h ee languages. In p ima y school, depending on he g ade, Basque
and Spanish ha e o be augh be ween 3.5 and 4 hou s and English be ween 2
and 3 hou s as a subjec . Each school can decide which subjec s i wan s o each
h ough he medium o each language, o Basque and Spanish ha leads o he
di e en models which can exis side-by-side in one school. Fo English mos
schools p o ide ins uc ion in one o wo subjec s, o example, Science o A s
and C a s.
In F isian schools he si ua ion is almos he e e se; abou hal o he chil-
d en’s home language is F isian and in all schools he p edominan language o
ins uc ion is Du ch. The e a e no linguis ic models simila o he Basque models
in he F isian schools; Du ch is he main language o ins uc ion bu schools ha e
been obliga ed o each F isian as a subjec since 1980. In he Ne he lands schools
can decide hemsel es how many hou s o ins uc ion hey each in each language,
and he e a e no no ms om he Minis y o Educa ion. The mos common pa -
e n is o each F isian o hal an hou pe week in he wo lowes g ades and o
one hou in G ades 3 o 8. As a medium o ins uc ion F isian is used on a modes
scale by abou 20% o all schools (Go e & Cenoz, 2011) in hose schools eache s
may use F isian o one day o hal a day, hus o abou 3 o 6 hou s pe week. In
1986, English became obliga o y in p ima y schools bu i is usually augh only in
he uppe wo g ades (7 and 8) o abou one hou pe week. In 1997, a ilingual
schools’ p ojec was es ablished in se en p ima y schools in o de o imp o e he
quali y o educa ion and especially o F isian and English (Rieme sma & De V ies,
Teache s’ belie s in mul ilingual educa ion in he Basque coun y and in F iesland 177
2011). O e he yea s, he numbe o schools in ol ed in ha p ojec has g own o
o e 40 ou o almos 500 p ima y schools in F iesland. In hese ilingual schools
F isian and Du ch a e each used o subjec ma e ins uc ion o abou 40% o
he ime and English o abou 20%, al hough in he lowe g ades he e will be less
English. Some o he ilingual schools a e expe imen ing wi h he ea ly in oduc-
ion o English a he age o 4 o o 6.
Thus in bo h he Basque Coun y and in F iesland, in addi ion o he mino -
i y and he dominan languages, a hi d language, English, is augh in p ima y
schools always as a subjec and in many cases also as a medium o ins uc ion
o one o wo subjec s. Al hough English is conside ed a hi d language in bo h
egions as in many o he Eu opean coun ies, in he Basque Coun y i is also a
o eign language no used in e e yday communica ion (Cenoz, 2009).
This s udy was designed o in es iga e eache s’ belie s conce ning mul ilin-
gual educa ion in gene al and hei iews abou hei pupils as mul ilingual speak-
e s in pa icula .
3.2 Focus on Mul ilingualism and esea ch ques ions
The speci ic esea ch ques ions a e ela ed o he h ee dimensions o he “Focus
on Mul ilingualism” app oach (Cenoz & Go e , 2011, 2014). “Focus on mul ilin-
gualism” is an app oach o eaching and esea ch in educa ion ha ela es he way
mul ilingual s uden s (and mul ilingual speake s in gene al) use hei commu-
nica i e esou ces in spon aneous con e sa ion o he way languages a e lea ned
and augh a school. The h ee dimensions o his model a e (i) he mul ilingual
speake , who is di e en om a monolingual speake and has o be ea ed as such,
(ii) he linguis ic epe oi e, whe e all he languages in he speake ’s epe oi e a e
included ins ead o looking a one language a a ime, and (iii) he social con ex ,
whe e he use o languages in in e ac ion and language p ac ices a e aken in o ac-
coun ; his also conside s he use o languages in socie y a la ge.
We add ess he ollowing h ee ques ions:
1. Wha a e he belie s o eache s conce ning he mul ilingual speake ?
2. Wha a e he belie s o eache s conce ning he whole mul ilingual epe oi e?
3. Wha a e he belie s o eache s conce ning he social con ex ?
184 Elizabe A ocena Egaña, Jasone Cenoz and Du k Go e
class, I epea in English and encou age hem o epea in English, I would no ep-
imand him” (EUS7). Se e al eache s emphasize ha hey do no wan o co ec
he pupils all he ime because hen: “They ge i ed” (EUS10), “They would become
quie ” (EUS3), o “They ge emba assed” (EUS6). The F isian eache s seem e en
mo e awa e ha a nega i e app oach o code-swi ching can be coun e p oduc i e:
“I co ec i bu in a sympa he ic way. They ha e o be mo i a ed o speak English
bu when you a e oo ha d on hem hey do no da e anymo e” (FRY48). The F isian
eache s gene ally a e mo e elaxed abou code-swi ching, mos o hem “do no
mind” when hei pupils do no use he language o ins uc ion a all imes. These
eache s much less emphasize using English du ing he English lessons and some
e en say ha code-swi ching o hem is a eaching s a egy. To each English
h ough he medium o Du ch is a he common in F isian schools and is seen
as uncommon in Basque schools, because he belie s in language sepa a ion a e
much s onge among Basque eache s.
Because a he p ima y le el all o almos all subjec s a e augh by he same
class oom eache , he eache s ha e become awa e ha he e a e skills and con-
cep s ha a e he same in di e en languages. One eache obse ed: “because I
each bo h Basque and Spanish I make links o each subjec (…) Wi h he English
eache we do commen on pupils’ p og ess bu no abou coo dina ion o he subjec s
as we do wi h Basque and Spanish” (EUS6). In he Basque Coun y some schools
a e con inced o he impo ance o an in eg a ed ea men o all languages and
some o hei s a membe s ha e a ended a speci ic aining cou se: “We wan
o wo k on ‘in eg a ed language ea men ’ and om now on, we do in end o ha e
mee ings wi h eache s o all languages oge he ” (EUS7). This a i ude e lec s an
openness o change om a sepa a ed o a coo dina ed app oach.
These eache s in he Basque Coun y e e ed o an in eg a ed and coo di-
na ed app oach o languages in he cu iculum ha allows o he ans e o wha
is lea ned in one language o he o he languages. A simila p og am o in eg a ed
languages eaching was no men ioned in F iesland, al hough F isian eache s also
will p obably sha e he belie ha you a e able “ o pass along he skills you ha e
in one language in o ano he , so you will use he h ee languages well” (EUS12).
Because he F isian eache s a e less s ic abou language sepa a ion, hey use
ansla ion mo e o en as a s a egy in hei classes: “O cou se, you ansla e English
wo ds. They ha e o know wha hey a e w i ing down” (FRY47). Fo Basque each-
e s ansla ion is a las ecou se “ ansla ion would be he las hing o do” (EUS31).
E en i he F isian eache s in p ac ice sepa a e languages less s ic ly han
he Basque eache s, se e al F isian eache s poin o language sepa a ion as a ac-
o ha can con ibu e o he success o mul ilingual educa ion, as he ollowing
quo es illus a e: “i can be only success ul i you consequen ly sepa a e he languag-
es” (FRY39), “Teach F isian, Du ch and English as sepa a e subjec s” (FRY44), and
Teache s’ belie s in mul ilingual educa ion in he Basque coun y and in F iesland 185
“You ha e o make good a angemen s and sepa a e he languages well” (FRY46).
In bo h cases we ind a con as be ween belie s and p ac ices; on he one hand,
Basque eache s p ac ice sepa a ion bu belie e hey ha e o allow o mixing, and
F isian eache s p ac ice mixing bu belie e in sepa a ion.
5.4 Teache s’ belie s abou he in luence o he social con ex
The e a e se e al ac o s ou side he school which can ha e an in luence on he pu-
pils’ lea ning o languages. Ou hi d esea ch ques ion conce ns he belie s o he
eache s abou he social con ex in ela ion o mul ilingualism as an aim o he
pupils. The ac o social con ex was no pe cei ed in he same way by all eache s
and again we saw some in e es ing simila i ies and di e ences be ween he Basque
and F isian eache s. We ha e g ouped he belie s in o h ee b oad ac o s: he
in luence o he pa en s, he media, and socie y in gene al.
5.4.1 In luence o pa en s
Pa en s do ha e an impo an in luence on hei child en and on he lea ning o
languages, on his all F isian and Basque eache s do ag ee. One Basque eache is
e en con inced ha “ he pa en s ha e mo e in luence han we do” (EUS28).
The eache s sense he in luence o pa en s h ough he language a i udes he
child en b ing o he school which hey ha e acqui ed om hei pa en s. The
pa en s’ expec a ions ha e consequences o language lea ning aims, because he
a i udes o he pa en s a e no he same owa d each o he school languages. The
desi e o English is s ong among pa en s and hei a i ude owa d English is im-
po an o he Basque eache s, as exp essed by wo eache s whose hough s a e
sha ed by se e al: “Pa en s eally wan English” (EUS29) and e en “English o hem
is mo e impo an han ma hs” (EUS5). Basque eache s men ioned ha many pa -
en s send hei child en o English language academies o p i a e lessons which
c ea e di e ences be ween pupils ha , in u n, ha e had an in luence on hei own
eaching o English. The phenomenon o p i a e English lessons does no exis
in F iesland, bu simila o Basque pa en s, F isian pa en s also alue English:
“Pa en s a e posi i e abou he ilingual school, especially abou English” (FRY35).
Teache s also sha ed he belie ha pa en s some imes ha e di e en alua-
ions o he lea ning o English and o Basque: “English is be e accep ed because
i is a wo ld language while Basque is jus local” (EUS14). This opinion is p ob-
ably excep ional gi en he gene al impo ance a ibu ed o Basque and eache s’
s ong p e e ence o Basque medium educa ion. F isian eache s belie e ha he
alue pa en s gi e o F isian can be qui e low: “Pa en s ha e an impo an ole in
he app ecia ion o F isian. I child en hink i is unimpo an , ha is some hing hey
186 Elizabe A ocena Egaña, Jasone Cenoz and Du k Go e
a e old a home” (FRY40). The pa en s can e en be a eason o no using F isian
as medium o ins uc ion, because “ he pa en s a e no in e es ed” (FRY41).
Concluding his sec ion, i can be said ha in bo h egions he eache s belie e
he a i udes o he child en a e usually a e lec ion o he pa en s’ a i udes and
expec a ions. This implies ha hey gi e a high alue o lea ning English, and ha
Basque as a mino i y language is alued, bu no always in p ac ice, whe eas he
impo ance gi en o he eaching o F isian is low.
5.4.2 In luence o media: ele ision and social ne wo ks
Socie y in gene al, and ele ision, social media, and compu e games in pa icu-
la , a e among he sou ces ha in luence he language lea ning p ocesses o he
pupils. In he Basque Coun y he e a e wo ele ision channels h ough Basque
and nume ous channels in Spanish. The e a e se e al p og ams o child en, some
in Basque and many in Spanish. Wi h ew excep ions, p og ams ha we e o igi-
nally in English, o example Ame ican se ies o mo ies, a e dubbed in o Basque
(and on o he channels in o Spanish); only in some digi al b oadcas s he o iginal
sound can be made a ailable. Mos o he eache s a e con inced ha ele ision
has a s ong in luence on child en a his age. The Basque eache s poin ed o a
shi in he in e es o child en a a ound 12–13 yea s: “The in luence om TV is
huge. When hey a e li le hey wa ch he Basque TV bu when hey each he age o
12–13, hey choose o he mo e a ac i e channels which a e in Spanish” (EUS13).
I implies ha he eache s om ha age onwa d ob ain less suppo o Basque
om ele ision and ha e o s uggle agains he in luence o Spanish. Some Basque
eache s belie e ha ha ing ele ision p og ams in English would help hei pupils
o ad ance: “This is no an English speaking a ea…we need TV in English, mo e
inpu ” (EUS4).
In F iesland he e is only one channel h ough F isian wi h ew p og ams
aimed a p ima y school child en. The o he channels in he Ne he lands b oad-
cas in Du ch and also ha e many p og ams wi h he o iginal sound in English and
sub i les in Du ch. Whe e Basque eache s belie e ele ision p og ams ha e a huge
in luence on he use o Spanish, he F isian eache s a e equally con inced o he
s ong in luence o ele ision (and popula music) on knowledge o English: “The
pupils al eady know a lo o English wo ds because hey wa ch English ele ision p o-
g ams and because hey lis en o English songs” (FRY34). Tele ision, in o he wo ds,
is belie ed o acili a e lea ning English.
Today, social media such as Facebook also ha e an in luence. They in luence
he pupils’ language use and hey may ha e an e ec on hei knowledge and use
o Spanish, bu also o Basque. One Basque eache obse ed: “Those [pupils] in 5 h
and 6 h g ades do use hem [social media]. The e hey mainly use Spanish bu a e us-
ing Basque mo e and mo e” (EUS33). So in con as o ele ision, he social media
Teache s’ belie s in mul ilingual educa ion in he Basque coun y and in F iesland 187
may p o ide some suppo o Basque. The F isian eache s again ocused on how
social media and compu e games in luence lea ning English. One eache sha ed
i s hand expe ience: “I ha e some boys in he class oom who play a lo o compu e
games a home… hey a e a be e a English han he o he pupils” (FRY39). The e
was no men ion o he use o F isian in social media, which in p ac ice is e y
limi ed.
In summa y, he iews o eache s abou he in luence o ele ision, social
media, and compu e games a e ela ed o gene al di e ences in socie y ega d-
ing he use o he h ee languages in he media. The mino i y language Basque is
belie ed o ecei e suppo om ele ision (up o a ce ain age) and om social
media (once he pupils s a using hem). F isian, in con as , does no ecei e
any suppo om he media acco ding o he eache s. F isian eache s belie e,
howe e , ha child en also lea n English om ou side sou ces such as he media.
Lea ning English om ele isions, social media, o games ha dly plays a ole in
Basque eache s’ belie s, which does no come as a su p ise gi en he ela i ely
modes p esence o English in Basque media and socie y.
5.4.3 In luence o socie y in gene al
The eache s pe cei e social con ex as an impo an ac o which acili a es lan-
guage lea ning o Basque when i has a s ong p esence in he di ec en i onmen
o he school. In con as , i Basque is used much less in he social con ex and i
emains con ined o he class oom, he con ex may become an obs acle o lan-
guage lea ning. This sounds all a he as an ob ious u h, bu i is in e es ing
o no e how he eache s sha e ce ain belie s. Fo example, hey d ew a en ion
o di e ences o Basque in di e en geog aphic pa s o he Basque Coun y. In
one case he con ex was pe cei ed o ha e a posi i e in luence: “Ou s is a good
en i onmen o lea n Basque, be e han in o he Basque a eas” (EUS4) bu in less
Basque-speaking a eas eache s belie e ha he e is no enough Basque: “They
only use Basque he e a school, e e y hing hey do ou side is in Spanish” (EUS10).
Some eache s in F iesland e e ed also o hei own geog aphic a ea o hei
speci ic local si ua ion as o how hey hink i has an in luence on he possibili y
o each (mo e) F isian: “I unde s and ha i migh be nice [ o use mo e F isian],
bu hings a e di e en he e [in ou own]” (FRY41). One eache was con inced i
is impossible o each h ough F isian e en i he would wan i himsel : “I wish i
we e di e en …, because F isian is my mo he ongue, bu ha is how ou socie y
wan s i ” (FRY42).
In gene al eache s’ belie s e lec he impo ance o he social con ex , in he
sense ha he mul ilingual compe ence o he pupils is no only a ma e o he
school o o hei eaching, bu is in luenced o a la ge deg ee by he social su ound-
ings o he school and he s a us o he di e en languages in socie y in gene al.
188 Elizabe A ocena Egaña, Jasone Cenoz and Du k Go e
6. Conclusion
This s udy shows ha eache s in wo egions whe e a mino i y language, a na ion-
al language, and English a e pa o he cu iculum sha e some belie s abou mul-
ilingualism. The s udy also indica es ha he e a e impo an di e ences be ween
he wo con ex s. Basque and F isian eache s hold e y posi i e belie s abou mul-
ilingualism. Ou esul s con i m hose o eache s in Aus ia, I aly, G ea B i ain,
and G eece as epo ed by G i a and Chos elidou (2012) and De Angelis (2011).
Teache s’ belie s ega ding he h ee dimensions o “Focus on Mul ilingualism”,
he mul ilingual speake , he whole linguis ic epe oi e, and he social con ex ,
p o ide use ul insigh s on monolingual and mul ilingual ideologies. Bo h Basque
and F isian eache s belie e ha he ideal monolingual speake is he e e ence o
each o he languages bu a he same ime hey a e awa e o he ac ha achie -
ing ideal na i e speake compe ence is an un eachable goal. The e is some ension
be ween he eal and he ideal bu hey seem o conside one language a a ime
and he e we e no e e ences o he ac ha hei s uden s a e eme gen mul ilin-
guals who a e di e en om monolinguals. The da a also indica e ha he goals
o Basque a e a lo mo e ambi ious han o F isian due o di e ences in he social
con ex , including he s eng h o language educa ion policies.
Teache s’ belie s ega ding he whole linguis ic epe oi e con i m ha he
“monolingual ins uc ion assump ions” iden i ied by Cummins (2014) a e also
pe asi e and pe sis en in he Basque Coun y and F iesland, bu he e a e some
in e es ing di e ences be ween he wo con ex s. F isian eache s belie e ha us-
ing he L1 as a sca old in English language classes can ha e ad an ages. Basque
eache s’ belie s a e mo e complex. On he one hand, he e is a s ong idea o isola-
ion and using ansla ion as a las possible ecou se, and on he o he hand, some
eache s belie e ha he eaching o he h ee languages should be coo dina ed.
Belie s agains mixing languages a e s ong in he Basque Coun y whe e Basque
is he main language o ins uc ion bu is a mino i y language. The e is a gene al
idea in socie y and a school ha code-swi ching could ha e nega i e implica-
ions o he weake language. The belie s abou using only he a ge language
in English lessons may be in luenced by monolingual ideologies sp ead in p e-
se ice and in-se ice cou ses in he Basque Coun y. A he same ime, eaching
he h ee languages in an in eg a ed language cu iculum could enhance he use
o s uden s’ linguis ic and me alinguis ic esou ces and enhance lea ning (Cenoz
& Go e , 2015). These belie s abou in eg a ion show a sligh end owa ds mul-
ilingual ideologies.
Bo h Basque and F isian eache s belie e ha eaching English is impo an
bu he e a e di e ences ega ding he use o he mino i y language as he language
o ins uc ion. Basque eache s ha e a long adi ion o eaching h ough Basque
Teache s’ belie s in mul ilingual educa ion in he Basque coun y and in F iesland 189
and ake i o g an ed. F isian eache s’ belie s a e qui e di e en . Al hough i
would be a good idea o each mo e con en h ough he medium o F isian o in-
c ease he s a us o he language, i seems ha he sho age o ma e ials, adequa e
eache aining, and a lack o adi ion o eaching h ough F isian has an e ec ,
as was also epo ed by Chimba u a (2013) in ela ion o A ican languages and
Po uguese as an academic language.
This s udy also con i ms he ole o he social and educa ional con ex in he
de elopmen o eache s’ belie s (Bas u kmen, 2012; Bo g, 2006; Nishino, 2012).
Teache s belie e ha pa en s and social media ha e an impo an in luence in
lea ning languages. Thei belie s also e lec he di e ences in he ins i u ional
suppo o he mino i y language and he di e ences in he use o English in he
wo social con ex s.
An impo an implica ion o eache aining could be o inco po a e mo e
clea ly a c i ical a i ude owa d monolingual assump ions and also an awa eness o
he impo ance o ea ing he s uden s as mul ilingual speake s in hei own igh .
Nowadays monolingual ideologies in mul ilingual educa ion a e being eplaced by
mul ilingual ideologies ha so en he bounda ies be ween languages so as o use
he esou ces mul ilingual speake s ha e a hei disposal. The esul s o his s udy
indica e ha monolingual assump ions a e s ill s ongly oo ed among eache s.
Mo e esea ch e idence on he ad an ages o mul ilingual app oaches is needed o
in luence eache s’ belie s and p ac ices owa ds a uly “Focus on mul ilingualism”.
No es
1. Mo e in o ma ion abou he DREAM esea ch g oup a he Uni e si y o Basque Coun y can
be ound a h p://mul ilingualeduca ion.eu/en/.
2. The Me ca o Eu opean Resea ch Cen e on Mul ilingualism and Language Lea ning is u -
he desc ibed a h p://www.me ca o - esea ch.eu/.
3. We would like o acknowledge he unding by he Spanish Minis y o Economy and
Compe i i eness EDU2012–32191 and he Basque Depa men o Educa ion, Resea ch and
Uni e si ies IT-362–10 (UFI 11/54).
4. Teache s quo ed in he ex om he Basque Coun y a e e e ed o as EUS and om
F iesland as FRY ollowed by a unique iden i ica ion numbe .
190 Elizabe A ocena Egaña, Jasone Cenoz and Du k Go e
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Labu pena
A ikulu hone an, i akasleek hezkun za eleaniz una en a loan hainba hizkun za ikas ea-
i bu uz di uz en i i zi-us eak az e u di ugu. Ho e a ako, Euskal He iko (Espainia) e a
F isiako (He behe eak) Lehen Hezkun zako 51 i akasle elka izke a u di ugu. Bi e emuo an
hi u hizkun za i akas en di a: nagusia, gu xi ua e a ingelesa. I akasleek esandakoan oina i-
u a, ikuspegi in e esga iak jaso di ugu ja o izko hiz un ideala i bu uz, ikasle eleaniz una i
bu uz e a hizkun za bakoi zean lo u beha ko li za ekeen gai asun maila i bu uz. I akasleek,
halabe , be en ideiak azaldu di uz e hizkun za gu xi ua en e a a ze iko hizkun za en bi a ez
i akas ea i bu uz, e a be en i i zi-us eak adie azi di uz e i akaskun za-ja dunean hizkun za ba
baino gehiago a eka zeaz e a ho ek ikasleen e epe o io eleaniz una ekin izan dezakeen lo-
u az. Emai zen a abe a, badi udi giza e- es uingu uak, e a be eziki gu asoek, hedabideek e a
hizkun zek giza ean du en es a usak, e agin handia du ela i i zi-us een e ake an. A ikulu ho-
nen ondo io nagusi ba da i i zi-us eak o aindik hizkun zen ikuspegi elebaka ean oina i u a
daudela, e a oso pixkanaka a i di ela ikuspegi eleaniz un ba e an z alda zen.
Gea e ing
Yn di a ikel analisea je wy de mieningen an ûnde wize s oangeande i lea en an e skillende
alen yn mea alich ûnde wiis. Yn dizze s údzje hawwe wy aachpe ea en hâlden mei 51 basiss-
koalle lea k ê en ú Baskelân (Spanje) en F yslân (Nede lân). Yn beide egios wu de ije alen
ûnde wiisd: de mea de heids aal, de minde heids aal en i Ingelsk as ak en as ie aal. Basea e
op de mieningen an de lea k ê en, k ije wy in nijsgji ich ynsjoch yn i ideaal an de ´na i e´
sp ekke , de lea lingen as mea alige sp ekke s, en de behea skingsni o´s oa elke aal. De lea -
k ê en hawwe ha op e ings ek jûn oe i lesjaan middels de minde heids aal en ia i Ingelsk,
likegoed as ha miening oe i ochinoa hinne b ûken an alen en hoe da yn e bân s ie mei
i mea alige epe oi e. De wu d och da de sosjale omjouwing in g u e yn loed ha och
de âlde s, de media en de s a us an de alen yn de maa skippij. I a ikel konkludea e da de
op e ings noch al yd oa i g u s e pa ien alich binne en ma by sje by by sje e oa je yn in
mea mea alich inken.
Teache s’ belie s in mul ilingual educa ion in he Basque coun y and in F iesland 193
Au ho s’ add esses
Elizabe A ocena Egaña
Depa men o Theo y and His o y o
Educa ion, FICE
Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y UPV/EHU
Tolosa Hi ibidea 70
20018 Donos ia-San Sebas ián
Basque Coun y, Spain
mi enelizabe .a [email protected]
Jasone Cenoz
Depa men o Resea ch Me hods in
Educa ion, FICE
Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y UPV/EHU
Tolosa Hi ibidea 70
20018 Donos ia-San Sebas ián
Basque Coun y, Spain
[email protected]
Du k Go e
Depa men o Theo y and His o y o Educa ion, FICE
Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y UPV/EHU — IKERBASQUE
Tolosa Hi ibidea 70
20018 Donos ia-San Sebas ián
Basque Coun y, Spain
d.go[email p o ec ed]g
