Covid, the Environment and Food Systems: Contain, Cope and Rebuild Better

Co id, he En i onmen and Food
Sys ems: Con ain, Cope and Rebuild
Be e
Anil Ma kandya
1
*, Jacob Salcone
2
, Salman Hussain
2
, Alexande Muelle
3
and Simi Thambi
2
1
Basque Cen e o Clima e Change, Leioa, Spain,
2
UNEP –Ecosys em Se ice Economics Uni , Nai obi, Kenya,
3
TMG –Think
Tank o Sus ainabili y, Be lin, Ge many
The objec i e o his pape is o analyse impac s o COVID-19 on he nexus o ood
sys ems, he en i onmen and sus ainable de elopmen and p opose ways o
go e nmen s and in e na ional agencies o mi iga e impac s in he sho and medium
e m. I co e s he his o ic pe iod om ea ly 2020 o ea ly 2021 and also makes an
assessmen on u u e p ospec s. Al hough e idence is collec ed om all a ound he wo ld,
he ocus is p ima ily on de eloping coun ies. The me hods used a e a e iew o he
announced ac ions and p elimina y findings in he academic and g ey li e a u e as well as
on eliable websi es om global and in e na ional ins i u ions. By Oc obe 2020,
go e nmen s a ound he wo ld had in es ed abou $12 illion o coun e ac he
economic e ec s o COVID-19. This in es men could con ibu e o p og ess on he
SDGs and global clima e a ge s inso a as i was in es ed wi hin a amewo k ha
suppo s bo h socio-economic eco e y and sus ainabili y. Ini ial analysis indica es ha
in es men s o economic eco e y did no su ficien ly add ess ood secu i y and
sus ainabili y, concen a ing ins ead on immedia e economic isk managemen . The
global sus ainable de elopmen agenda mus p omo e he esilience and sus ainabili y
o ood sys ems h ough policies and measu es ha : i) accoun o en i onmen al
h esholds and ade-o s; ii) p omo e ood secu i y and heal hy die s; iii) enhance and
p o ec u al li elihoods; and i ) add ess he inequali ies and injus ices ha ha e eme ged
and will p e ail du ing a pos -COVID ansi ion. Na ional s imulus p og ams and he ac ions
o in e na ional agencies mus be assessed and moni o ed o deli e mul iple benefi s
simul aneously and guide building back be e .
Keywo ds: COVID-19, ood sys ems, en i onmen , pollu ion, ebuild
INTRODUCTION
COVID-19 p esen s an unp eceden ed global heal h and economic c isis. Since de ec ion o he i us
a he end o 2019, i has caused a ound 157 million in ec ions and mo e han 3.3 million dea hs.
1
All
a ound he wo ld, millions o people ha e los jobs and income in he deepes economic down u n in
li ing memo y. The heal h impac s include bo h he di ec consequences o in ec ion and he e ec s
Edi ed by:
Ranjan Kuma Ghosh,
Indian Ins i u e o Managemen
Ahmedabad, India
Re iewed by:
Pablo Imbach,
Global Cen e on Adap a ion,
Ne he lands
S ini asa Reddy S igi i,
Deu sches Ins i u ü
En wicklungspoli ik (DIE), Ge many
*Co espondence:
Anil Ma kandya
anil.ma kandya@bc3 esea ch.o g
Special y sec ion:
This a icle was submi ed o
En i onmen al Economics and
Managemen ,
a sec ion o he jou nal
F on ie s in En i onmen al Science
Recei ed: 01 Ma ch 2021
Accep ed: 18 June 2021
Published: 06 July 2021
Ci a ion:
Ma kandya A, Salcone J, Hussain S,
Muelle A and Thambi S (2021) Co id,
he En i onmen and Food Sys ems:
Con ain, Cope and Rebuild Be e .
F on . En i on. Sci. 9:674432.
doi: 10.3389/ en s.2021.674432
1
WHO Co ona i us Disease (COVID-19) Dashboa d | WHO Co ona i us Disease (COVID-19) Dashboa d, Accessed May
10 h
,
2021.
F on ie s in En i onmen al Science | www. on ie sin.o g July 2021 | Volume 9 | A icle 6744321
REVIEW
published: 06 July 2021
doi: 10.3389/ en s.2021.674432
o measu es aken o con ain he ou b eak, such as inc eased
po e y, hunge , unde nu i ion and social dis up ion. These
ha e no ye been ully unde s ood o quan ified.
2
I is clea ,
howe e , om he ma e ial e iewed in his pape , ha he
combina ion o economic and heal h e ec s is s ill impac ing
and will con inue o impac he en i onmen . While he e a e
some posi i e impac s, he majo i y a e nega i e. Mo eo e , i is
cu ailing he p ospec s o achie ing he Sus ainable
De elopmen Goals (SDGs).
This a icle analyses he e ec s o COVID-19 on all aspec s o
he en i onmen , wi h a ocus on in e connec ions be ween he
pandemic and he ag i- ood sys em and conside s how hese
e ec s a e bes mi iga ed. The findings a e highly ele an o he
con inued esponse o he pandemic, as well as o p e en ion o
simila c ises in he u u e.
P io o COVID-19, he case o sys emic change in ood
sys ems was ga he ing momen um as coun ies, he Uni ed
Na ions, and academia d ew a en ion o he ole such sys ems
played—bo h posi i e and nega i e—in achie ing he SDGs.
Mo e han any o he sec o , he ag i- ood sys em en ails a web
o eedbacks be ween ecosys ems, li elihoods, economic
de elopmen , ade ela ions and human heal h. This means i
can suppo o hinde p og ess owa ds many o he 17 SDGs,
such as Ze o Hunge (SDG 2), Good Heal h and Well-Being
(SDG 3), Gende Equali y (SDG 5), Decen Wo k and Economic
G ow h (SDG 8) and Clima e Ac ion (SDG 13). Food p oduc ion
is a leading d i e o biodi e si y loss and a majo con ibu o o
GHG emissions (PBL Ne he lands En i onmen al Assessmen
Agency, 2014;Mbow e al., 2019). The ood and ag icul u e sec o
employs o e a billion people wo ld-wide (Food and Ag icul u e
O ganiza ion o he Uni ed Na ions, 2016, p. 18). Food sys ems
a e he backbone o human heal h bu also con ibu e o some o
he as es g owing heal h p oblems—non-communicable
diseases (NCDs) such as diabe es, obesi y ela ed cance s and
hea disease (Wo ld Cance Resea ch Fund In e na ional, 2014;
Anand e al., 2015;Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion o he
Uni ed Na ions, 2016).
The a icle is s uc u ed as ollows. Mac oeconomic Impac s
o he COVID19 C ises lays ou he socioeconomic impac s o
COVID-19, as well he b oad economic impac s measu es ha
alle ia e he nega i e e ec s o he pandemic. I examines he
implica ions o he ood sys em and ood secu i y ou comes.
The impac s o he pandemic on he en i onmen and na u al
sys ems a e e alua ed in Impac s o COVID-19 on he Nexus
Be ween Ag i-Food Sys ems and he En i onmen .Coping
S a egies and Thei Impac s looks in de ail a wha
go e nmen s a e doing in hei esponses and how hese
a ec he ag i- ood sys em as well as he en i onmen .
Lessons F om Coping Wi h COVID-19 and he Way Fo wa d
desc ibes wha has been lea n so a om go e nmen
esponses and makes ecommenda ions o ac ions in he
sho and he medium e m. O e all conclusions a e in
Conclusion.
MACROECONOMIC IMPACTS OF THE
COVID19 CRISES
Impac s on GDP G ow h and O he
Indica o s
The nega i e economic e ec s o COVID-19 and he measu es
aken o figh he pandemic ha e bo h been eno mous.
P elimina y es ima es by he IMF o 2020 a e ha a decline
in global GDP o 3.5 pe cen has aken place (In e na ional
Mone a y Fund, 2020b). Such a decline is unp eceden ed in
he pos wa pe iod and has had majo impac s on po e y,
hunge and o he key indica o s o wellbeing. A eco e y is
p ojec ed o 2021 and 2022, bu wi h excep ional le els o
unce ain y, especially gi en he pe sis ence o in ec ion a es
and eme gence o new a ian s o he i us. E en i hese
challenges a e o e come he consequences o COVID-19 will
emain o some ime. As he Wo ld Bank no es, “... beyond i s
sho - e m impac , deep ecessions igge ed by he pandemic a e
likely o lea e las ing sca s h ough mul iple channels, including
lowe in es men ; e osion o he human capi al o he
unemployed; and a e ea om global ade and supply
linkages. These e ec s may lowe po en ial g ow h and labou
p oduc i i y in he longe e m”(Wo ld Bank, 2020a, p. x l). A
compu able gene al equilib ium (CGE) model de eloped o
assess he impac o he pandemic in sub-Saha an A ica based
on pas expe iences o simila c ises (no ably he 2014 Wes e n
A ica Ebola c isis) has ound ha COVID-19 is likely o ha e a
las ing impac on labou p oduc i i y due o i s ad e se e ec on
human capi al and in as uc u e (Djio ack e al., 2020). In he
bes case, wi h he disease apidly con ained, he au ho s es ima e
he GDP o A ica will be pe manen ly 1 pe cen lowe han
wi hou he pandemic; in he ca as ophic scena io, whe e he
c isis las s mo e han 18 mon hs, i will be 4 pe cen lowe o
mo e han a decade. O he s udies show ha budge s o heal h
ha e no inc eased enough o main ain se ices, especially o he
poo e sec ions o he popula ion ac oss a ange o coun ies
(Dash e al., 2020) and he e has been a loss o human capi al.
These e ec s, howe e , will a y ac oss egions and he findings
o A ica may no apply elsewhe e.
Po e y and Hunge
Es ima es o people being pulled in o po e y a y depending on
he po e y line used. They a e in he ange o 71–100 million o
ex eme po e y (a po e y line o $1.9 pe day) (In e na ional
Bank o Recons uc ion and De elopmen and Wo ld Bank,
2020). This implies ha global ex eme po e y would ha e
inc eased om 8.2 pe cen in 2019 o 8.8 pe cen unde he
baseline scena io (whe e he decline in GDP is he middle o he
p ojec ed ange) and o 9.2 pe cen unde he downside (o
pessimis ic) scena io, whe e he GDP decline is a he lowe end
o he ange o es ima es o 2020. I would be he fi s inc ease in
global ex eme po e y since 1998 and would e ec i ely wipe ou
p og ess made since 2017. E en be o e he pandemic, i was
inc easingly unlikely ha he SDG o educing ex eme po e y o
3 pe cen o he global popula ion o e he nex decade would be
achie ed (Wo ld Bank, 2018). The pandemic pu s his goal ou o
2
Afi s o e iew o impac s based on household su eys can be ound a h ps://
ad ances.sciencemag.o g/con en /7/6/eabe0997
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Ma kandya e al. COVID and Food Sys ems
each. Household incomes a e expec ed o be weighed down by a
sha p educ ion in employmen oppo uni ies, los ea nings due
o illness and he all in emi ances (Gup a e al., 2020;Ca uso
e al., 2021;Chowdhu y and Chak abo y, 2021).
A he same ime, many people a e unable o eed hemsel es
adequa ely. The Wo ld Food P og amme (WFP) es ima ed he
numbe o people su e ing om acu e hunge h oughou he
wo ld would double om 135 million a p esen o 265 million by
he end o 2020 (Wo ld Food P og amme, 2020). Child en a e
pa icula ly ulne able o a lack o adequa e nu i ion. An analysis
by Lance ound ha as many as 6.5 million mo e child en unde
5 yea s o age could su e om was ing (low weigh ela i e o
hei heigh ) du ing he fi s yea o he pandemic, an inc ease o
14.3 pe cen . Wi hou app op ia e ac ion being aken, his could
esul in an addi ional 10,000 dea hs pe mon h (Headey e al.,
2020). UNICEF has an online dashboa d ha colla es da a om
159 coun ies o show hei pe o mance o di e en child
wel a e pa ame e s. I shows ha mos coun ies in he low o
lowe middle income ca ego y ha e expe ienced d ops in
nu i ion p og ammes o adolescen gi ls and boys, as well as
in nu i ion p og ammes o schoolchild en (Uni ed Na ions
Child en’s Fund, 2020). The e a e also ulne able g oups in
de eloped coun ies ha a e acing unp eceden ed ood
insecu i y, e en in he wo ld’s weal hies ci ies, such as Gene a
(Pa ick, 2020). A epo by Ox am es ima es ha he e could be
mo e dea hs om hunge han om COVID-19 (Ox am
Aus alia, 2020).
A epo by he Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion o he
Uni ed Na ions (FAO) highligh s ha as gua dians o
household ood secu i y, women a e also
disp opo iona ely a ec ed by he impac s o he
pandemic. In mos coun ies, women lead ag icul u e and
ela ed ac i i ies, which makes hem mo e ulne able o he
pandemic han men. The e is e idence o his phenomenon
in p e ious epidemics, such as Ebola and Middle Eas
Respi a o y Synd ome. These diseases ha e he po en ial
o se iously unde mine he empowe men o hese women,
making gende -disagg ega ed da a, gende -sensi i e social
secu i y ne s and awa eness o he gende impac o policy
esponses i al (Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion o he
Uni ed Na ions, 2020c).
Food P ices and Food Secu i y
A e age ood p ices ose modes ly in 2020: o 2020 as a
whole he FAO ood p ice index was 3.1 pe cen highe han
in 2019.
3
P ojec ions by FAO and o he agencies a e a ied
bu we a e beginning o see he global epe cussions o
dis up ed ag icul u al p oduc ion du ing 2020. The FAO
ood p ice moni o showed dis essing inc eases in
Janua y and Feb ua y 2021. This global pic u e also
con ains se e e local p ice inc eases in a numbe o
loca ions. The In e na ional Food Policy Resea ch
Ins i u e (IFPRI) has launched a COVID-19 ood p ice
moni o ha acks p essu e on ood p ices showed
mos ly downwa d ends in 2020, bu wi h some
excep ions (Food Secu i y Po al, 2020). Fo example, las
yea po a o p ices in India inc eased mo e han 15 pe cen
and ice p ices ha e also isen in some ma ke s. In Uganda,
p ices o maize, mille and whea ha e gone up mo e han 15
pe cen and some commodi y p ices ha e inc eased in
Rwanda and Bu undi as well, he wo o he coun ies in
A ica ha a e moni o ed. A long e m iew o ood p ice
mo emen s, howe e , shows pe iodic cycles wi h significan
inc eases ollowed by declines. The cu en mo emen s
would no s and ou in his long un pic u e.
4
A numbe o ac o s ha e been iden ified as he causes o local
p ice ises. Some supply chains a e being nega i ely impac ed by a
lack o wo ke s and anspo a ion, such as mea p ocessing
(Schmidhube e al., 2020) and dai y (Min en e al., 2020).
The e a e epo s ha p ohibi ions on he mig a ion o
seasonal a m wo ke s a e also impac ing c op p ices
(Gonzalez and A onczyk, 2020;Schmidhube and Qiao, 2020).
In some places, global supply chains (i.e., he di e en s ages in
aking a ood i em om he g owe o he consume ) ha e b oken
down and while local supply chains a e eo ganizing o
accommoda e his phenomenon, he e has been upwa d
p essu e on p ices in some cases (The Economis , 2020;Food
and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion o he Uni ed Na ions, 2020 ).
Fu he mo e, as o Ap il 2020, 17 coun ies had in oduced
expo es ic ions on ood i ems (Wo ld T ade O ganiza ion,
2020a). While hese a e a ela i ely small numbe compa ed o
p e ious c ises, hey none heless impac ood p ices locally,
pa icula ly in coun ies hea ily dependen on ood impo s,
such as he small island de eloping s a es (Tableau Public,
2020).
5
The same was obse ed in p e ious pe iods when a
decline in p oduc ion o a ood commodi y is ollowed by
expo es ic ions, aising p ices in e na ionally (Espi ia e al.,
2020).
In 2020, he p oblem in mos coun ies was no a ood secu i y
c isis induced by ood p ices going up bu a he incomes going
down (Schmidhube e al., 2020). The inc ease in unemploymen
and po e y e e ed o abo e educes spending on ood and
aises he le el o hunge and unde nu i ion. A he same ime,
he e a e wa nings ha supply ac o s could wo sen due o alling
in es men , labou sho ages and o he aspec s o supply chain
logis ics (Goel e al., 2020). The sp ead o COVID-19 in
slaugh e houses—no om mea i sel bu om he wo king
and li ing condi ions—is pa icula ly impo an (Science
Media Cen e, 2020). Mo e gene ally, es ic ions on
mo emen enac ed o p e en he sp ead o he i us a e
s a ing o dis up he supply o ag i- ood p oduc s o ma ke s
and consume s, bo h wi hin and ac oss bo de s (O ganisa ion o
3
FAO Food P ice Index | Wo ld Food Si ua ion | Food and Ag icul u e
O ganiza ion o he Uni ed Na ions
4
Food P ices - Ou Wo ld in Da a
5
Acco ding o IFPRI, du ing he c isis o 2007–08 expo es ic ions blocked abou
11 pe cen o he calo ies ha flowed h ough global ma ke s. In his pandemic
simila measu es ha e a ec ed only 3 pe cen o supplies bu he e a e signs ha
he numbe is going up. See: h p://sdg.iisd.o g/commen a y/gues -a icles/co id-
19-measu es-in-spo ligh -a -w o-mee ing-on-ag icul u e/.
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Ma kandya e al. COVID and Food Sys ems
Economic Co-ope a ion and De elopmen , 2020b;Nandi e al.,
2021).
6
How his impac s he wide communi y will depend on
na ional policy esponses. The FAO ood p ice index epo ed a
4.3 pe cen global a e age inc ease in Janua y, 2021. Rising ood
p ices in 2021 could compound wi h income loss o c ea e a ood
secu i y c isis.
IMPACTS OF COVID-19 ON THE NEXUS
BETWEEN AGRI-FOOD SYSTEMS AND THE
ENVIRONMENT
The economic, heal h and social impac s o COVID-19 ha e
di ec and indi ec links o he na u al en i onmen and o he
way ag i- ood sys ems a e o ganized. The UNEP COVID-19
upda es lis a numbe o impac s on he en i onmen (h ps://
www.unep.o g/co id-19); his sec ion summa izes hese impac s
and highligh s linkages o ood sys ems. The upda es also discuss
oppo uni ies o mi iga e clima e change and new isks a ising
om he pandemic wi h he po en ial o accele a e clima e
change. Simila ly, hey d aw a en ion o he ole o habi a
des uc ion on he p opaga ion o zoono ic diseases such as
COVID-19 and he h ea acing ag icul u e sec o s, such as
ice p oduc ion, which a e being u he damaged by he
e ec s o he pandemic.
Table 1 p o ides a lis o key ways in which ood sys ems and
na u e a e being a ec ed by COVID-19 and he measu es aken
o con ain i . I g oups impac s acco ding o UNEP’s h ee a eas
o s a egic ac ion: ecosys ems and biodi e si y; pollu ion; and
clima e change. The main channels by which hese ca ego ies a e
impac ed a e h ough he economic, heal h and social e ec s o
COVID-19. Many en i onmen al impac s—bo h posi i e and
nega i e—a e ela ed o he economic con ac ion: on he one
hand, less economic ac i i y may educe pollu ion and emissions;
on he o he , sh inking budge s may cu ail in es men in
sus ainabili y and conse a ion and po e y may inc ease
p essu e on na u al esou ces.
Ecosys ems and Biodi e si y
The e has been some e idence ha wildli e has benefi ed om
noise educ ions and lesse human ac i i y du ing he lockdowns
o 2020 (Chowdhu y and Chak abo y, 2021), bu he economic
down u n is hu ing ecosys ems whe e budge s o he
managemen o p o ec ed a eas a e being cu . Due o limi ed
moni o ing o hese p o ec ed a eas and limi ed e enue om
ou ism he incidence o poaching is inc easing in se e al
coun ies, such as India (Saeed e al., 2020), as well as some
coun ies in A ica (Ro h, 2020)
7
and Sou h-Eas Asia (B iggs,
2020). A UNEP COVID-19 upda e (Uni ed Na ions
En i onmen P og am, 2020b) de ails he decline in e enue
om g ea ape ou ism in Rwanda, which has been hal ed due
o ea s ha humans could ansmi he i us o he animals.
Many p o ec ed a eas use he income gene a ed om ou ism o
TABLE 1 | COVID-19 ela ed impac s on ood sys ems and na u e.
Ecosys ems and biodi e si y Pollu ion Clima e change
Economic
impac s
Less unds o en o cemen : e idence o inc ease in
poaching, fly ipping, e c. (−)
Less unds o ensu e compliance wi h was e
disposal and ag ichemical use (−)
Less unds o ensu e compliance on clima e-
sma ag icul u e (−)
Falling incomes educe p essu e on comme cial
cap u e fishe ies (+)
Lowe p ices o inpu s such as e ilize , bu may
lead o o e use (+/−)
Less bio uel demand lowe ing o es
clea ance- ela ed emissions (+)
Unemploymen inc eases p essu e on subsis ence
fishe ies and wild ood ha es ing (−)
Less wo k absen eeism due o lowe local
pollu an s (+)
Mo e land clea ance o inc ease p o ision o
ood as a esul o highe sel -su ficiency (−)
Less bio uel demand educes p essu e o o es
clea ance and habi a loss (+)
Lowe emissions due o lowe ac i i y (+)
Mo e land clea ing o inc ease p o ision o ood o
eplace wild mea in some places bu mo e hun ing
o wildli e in o he s (+/−)
Emissions impac s du ing eco e y phase
depend on na u e o fiscal s imulus (+/−)
Heal h- ela ed
impac s
Die shi s due o lowe incomes (?) Die shi s due o lowe incomes (?) Die shi s due o lowe incomes (?)
Labou sho ages educe c op and li es ock
p oduc i i y, educing ood a ailabili y (−)
Highe mo ali y a es om COVID-19 in a eas
whe e pollu ion le els a e high (−); bu lowe
pollu ion le els due o lowe ac i i y (+)
Las ing shi in p oduc ion and consump ion
pa e ns (?)
Less human esou ces o manage land (−) Indoo ai pollu ion wo sens as people, p ima ily
women and child en, spend mo e ime indoo s (−)
G ea e con ol o use o wildli e in some places (+);
less con ol and mo e use in o he s (−)
Res ic ions on mo emen making access o
sani a ion and sa e wa e di ficul (−)
Social impac s Inc eased p essu e on common esou ces as
wo ke s e u n om u ban a eas and om
o e seas (−)
Possibili y o changing use o anspo o wo k
and social easons o e he long e m wi h lowe
local ai emissions (+)
Lowe GHG emissions unde a el
es ic ions (+); highe emissions due o
educed mass- ansi use (−)
Inc eased p essu e on land as wo ke s e u n om
u ban a eas and om o e seas (−)
Possible long- e m changes in a el/
anspo o all uses, wi h lowe GHG
emissions (+)
6
Real ime epo s on he impac s o Co id19 and he measu es agains he
pandemic on he e e yday li e o people a e p esen ed on Twi e
@Co idFoodFu u e o on Medium h ps://link.medium.com/VkoF73QRRdb
7
Financial Times, 2–3 May, 2020.
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Ma kandya e al. COVID and Food Sys ems
und law en o cemen , biomoni o ing and s a sala ies. Se e al
mon hs wi hou ou ism e enue has pushed many p o ec ed
a eas in o a financial c isis. The elease o s a and he suspension
o law en o cemen can easily lead o an inc ease in poaching and
enc oachmen , fi s ly because he e is li le law en o cemen , and
secondly because communi y membe s ha e los hei income
and ha e ew o he al e na i es (Lindsey e al., 2020). P ima e
sanc ua ies and escue cen es a e also a ec ed. Despi e being
closed o ou ism, animals mus s ill be ed and ope a ions canno
simply be s opped. All hese de elopmen s ha e a nega i e e ec
on ac i i ies associa ed wi h he g een economy.
The p oblems a e no confined o p o ec ed a eas con olled o
managed by he s a e bu ex end o communi y-managed a eas,
whe e he e ec s could be e en mo e se e e as hey o en ha e no
s a e/ ax e enue (Lindsey e al., 2020). Popula ions ha depend
on hese a eas a e being hi ha d, wo ke s a e losing hei jobs
(ibid). Beha iou al changes in he e y communi ies ha we e
p o ec ing wildli e and engaged in i s conse a ion may become
pa o he p oblem i al e na i e employmen and income
oppo uni ies a e no ound. The e ha e been some signs, such
as in Tamil Nadu, India ha wild animal hun ing has inc eased o
fill gaps in income and he a ailabili y o mea (Sa hishkuma and
Rajan, 2020).
An A ican Union policy b ie (A ican Union, 2020) epo s
ha lockdowns will inc ease wildli e poaching. Many wildli e
managemen au ho i ies in A ica a e semi-au onomous, la gely
elying on e enue om he ou ism indus y. Howe e , an
unp eceden ed decline in he numbe o in e na ional isi o s
is educing e enue (Lindsey e al., 2020). Conse a ion in many
places depends upon ou ism e enue (Buckley, 2020). Many
wildli e us s will lose significan unding, u he pushing
communi ies in o p o ec ed a eas in sea ch o li elihoods.
Meanwhile, he e a e a g owing numbe o calls o ban he
ade and consump ion o wildli e globally because o e idence
ha sugges s COVID-19 o igina ed in wild ba s (Global Wildli e
Conse a ion 2020). Howe e , he links be ween wildli e, heal h,
gende equali y and he en i onmen a e complex (Keesing e al.,
2010;Os eld, 2010;Uni ed Na ions En i onmen P og amme,
2020a) and bans could ha e unin ended consequences o u al
communi ies (see Sec ion on En i onmen al Compliance
Measu es).
The A ican Union also epo s he pos ponemen and in some
cases ou igh cancella ion o many sus ainable o es managemen
ac i i ies (A ican Union, 2020). Ano he conce n is ha o es
p oduc s will be seen as a means o eco e y om he economic
down u n c ea ed by COVID-19. Go e nmen s may eso o
licensing ex ac i e indus ies on public lands o aise he
despe a ely needed financial esou ces o suppo socioeconomic
de elopmen a e he pandemic (Buckley, 2020). De o es a ion o
he Amazon, which soa ed in 2019 unde he Bolsona o
adminis a ion, accele a ed u he in 2020 as Sou h Ame ica
ba led he pandemic. In Ap il, 405 squa e kilome es o
ain o es wilde ness was azed, an a ea almos ou imes he
size o Pa is. The B azil space esea ch agency epo s his o be
an inc ease o 64 pe cen om Ap il 2019. De o es a ion u he
impac s indigenous people li ing in hose a eas, whe e he e is poo
access o heal h ca e acili ies, especially o indigenous women
seeking access o sexual and ep oduc i e se ices, he elde ly and o
hose wi h unde lying illnesses.
Despi e all hese nega i e e ec s, he e a e also some posi i es.
In Ou amba Kilimi Na ional Pa k, Sie a Leone, he a e o illegal
imbe ha es ing has plumme ed o ze o, due o he d op in
in e na ional demand. Howe e , his si ua ion mus be ca e ully
moni o ed, since local en e p ises may ake ad an age o he lull
o es ock hei imbe ya ds wi h illegal logs in an icipa ion o he
end o he pandemic (In een, 2020).
Ecosys ems Suppo ing Ag i-Food Sys ems
In addi ion o p o iding habi a o biodi e si y, ecosys ems
suppo ood and ene gy sec o s ha con ibu e o human
heal h, li elihoods, and wellbeing. The p o ision o hese
ecosys em se ices a e also being impac ed by he pandemic.
Examples a e bio uel, ice p oduc ion, and fishe ies.
Bio uel Demand
Less demand o all uels, including bio uels, owing o alling
demand o anspo a ion and lowe oil p ices has educed
demand and p ices o eed s ocks (Schmidhube and Qiao,
2020). Bio uels con ibu e o powe ing anspo a ion sys ems,
bu hey also d i e con e sion o land use o bio uel c ops. The all
in a el associa ed wi h he pandemic should also educe bio uel
demand and hus he incen i e o clea land o g owing uel
c ops, bu so a , he e is no e idence ha his has changed he
p essu e on o es clea ance. The ques ion o wha happens o
land ha was used o bio uel p oduc ion me i s u he
in es iga ion.
Rice P oduc ion
UN agencies ha e highligh ed he ad e se e ec o COVID-19 on
ice p oduc ion and expo s (Uni ed Na ions En i onmen
P og amme, 2020c;Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion o he
Uni ed Na ions, 2020d). Pandemic-induced panic buying has
encou aged some ice expo ing coun ies o impose bans on
expo s, which has a ec ed impo ing coun ies. Meanwhile,
ex ended lockdowns in majo ice p oducing coun ies ha e
delayed he acquisi ion o inpu s like e ilize s and seeds by
local a me s (Esiobu, 2020). Res ic ions on he mo emen o
a m labou e s could a ec plan ing and ha es ing, educing
u u e yields (Wo ld Bank, 2021). These supply dis up ions will
inc ease p ices. P ice su ges disp opo iona ely ha m poo e
households, o which ice is a s aple and accoun s o a
significan p opo ion o mon hly spending.
Comme cial and Subsis ence Fishe ies
Fishe ies ha e also su e ed mixed impac s om he pandemic. A
d op in demand has hu comme cial fishe ies bu may imp o e
wild fish s ocks in he sho e m (Food and Ag icul u e
O ganiza ion o he Uni ed Na ions, 2020e). Comme cial
fishe ies may also su e labou sho ages and anspo a ion
dis up ion (Ma schke e al., 2021). S udies show ha in island
coun ies and coas al a eas, people who a e unemployed may u n
o fishing o ood and income, inc easing p essu e on nea -sho e
fish s ocks. The pandemic may also exace ba e un egula ed and
un epo ed small-scale fishing in some a eas, while in o he a eas
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Ma kandya e al. COVID and Food Sys ems

he d op in demand may inc ease po e y in fishing communi ies
(Benne and Robinson, 2000).
Pollu ion
COVID-19 has been linked o ha m ul emissions in ai , wa e and
he land. Al hough hese impac s do no di ec ly implica e
ag icul u e o ood sys ems, hey ha e impo an economic,
heal h and social consequences. They also poin o po en ial
measu es ha can be applied in he ag icul u al sec o and o
ood sys ems as pa o ebuilding be e , as discussed la e .
Ai Emissions
Emissions o ni ogen dioxide (NO
x
) and pa icula e ma e (PM)
ha e declined no ably ac oss many coun ies (Be man, 2020).
NO
x
sa elli e measu emen s o ai quali y o China, Sou h Ko ea,
I aly, Spain, F ance, Ge many, I an, and he Uni ed S a es (ea ly
epicen es o he i us) all show educ ions om 20 o 40 pe cen
in NO
x
a imes du ing he fi s hal o 2020. On pa icula e
ma e , a s udy ocused on China epo ed a 35 pe cen educ ion
in PM
2.5
(Shi and B assuu , 2020) while he educ ion in India
was es ima ed o be 43 pe cen o PM
2.5
and 16 pe cen o NO
x
(Sha ma e al., 2020).
Reduc ions in PM concen a ions ha e no been obse ed
h oughou he wo ld. The Eu opean En i onmen Agency
epo s ha al hough NO
x
concen a ions ha e declined ac oss
he con inen , a consis en educ ion has no ye been obse ed
ac oss Eu opean ci ies (EEA, 2020). This is likely due o he ac
ha he main sou ces o his pollu an a e mo e a ied. In Eu ope,
hey include he combus ion o uel o hea ing esiden ial,
comme cial and ins i u ional buildings, as well as indus ial
ac i i ies. A significan ac ion o pa icula e ma e is also
o med in he a mosphe e om eac ions o o he ai
pollu an s, including ammonia, which, in Eu ope is ypically
emi ed by he applica ion o ag icul u al e ilize s in he
sp ing. Un o una ely, educ ions in NO
x
ha e coincided wi h
inc eases in su ace ozone. An analysis o China no ed ha he
decline in PM
2.5
has been accompanied by an inc ease in
concen a ions o seconda y pollu an su ace ozone in he
coun y o 150–200 pe cen (Shi and B assuu , 2020).
Simila ly, ozone concen a ions in India ha e inc eased by 16
pe cen (Sha ma e al., 2020). This inc ease is p obably a di ec
consequence o he declines in NO
x
on he p esence o ola ile
o ganic compounds, since pho ochemical eac ions be ween
hese wo pollu an s can esul in highe ozone le els when
NO
x
concen a ions decline.
Changes in emissions o hese ha m ul pollu an s could
significan ly educe p ema u e mo ali y and mo bidi y, as well
as losses om absen eeism.
8
Links be ween concen a ions o
hese pollu an s and hese heal h and wo k- ela ed impac s a he
global le el a e well documen ed (Wo ld Bank and Ins i u e o
Heal h Me ics and E alua ion, 2016) bu he e is no as ye an
e alua ion o he gains in e ms o li es sa ed o educed heal h
and absen eeism cos s associa ed wi h he cu en educ ions.
Ai pollu ion and highe concen a ions o hese pollu an s
ha e been linked o inc eased hospi aliza ion and dea h om
COVID-19 in ec ion. New esea ch has ound ha long- e m
exposu e o ai pollu ion may be “one o he mos impo an
con ibu o s o a ali y caused by he COVID-19 i us”a ound
he wo ld (Ogen, 2020). The s udy examined COVID-19 a ali ies
in ou Eu opean coun ies ha ha e been hi ha d by he i us
(Ge many, F ance, I aly and Spain). I ound 78 pe cen o dea hs
occu ed in jus fi e egions in no he n I aly and Spain. These
egions had he highes concen a ions o ni ogen dioxide (NO
2
),
a pollu an ha m ul o human espi a o y sys ems. Mo eo e , he
geog aphy o hese egions mean hey also su e ed om
downwa d ai p essu e, which can p e en he dispe sal o
ai bo ne pollu an s. The findings o ano he ecen s udy on
he Uni ed S a es a e simila : an analysis o 3,080 coun ies ound
ha e en a small inc ease in long- e m exposu e o ai pollu ion
could ha e a significan impac on he se e i y o COVID-19
symp oms (King, 2020). I sugges s ha lowe ing he a e age
amoun o ai bo ne PM in Manha an by jus 1 μg o e he pas
20 yea s could ha e led o 248 ewe dea hs om he disease
so a .
In addi ion o weakening ou espi a o y sys ems and making
us mo e suscep ible o COVID-19, ai pollu ion migh also be
unc ioning as a ec o o ansmission o he i us. Scien is s in
I aly ha e de ec ed co ona i us on pa icles o ai pollu ion,
which could, hey belie e, help he i us sp ead (Se i e al.,
2020). Howe e , hese findings a e p elimina y.
The hi d link be ween COVID-19 and ai quali y ela es o
inc eased exposu e o indoo ai . The inc ease in he numbe o
people emaining indoo s as a esul o he co ona i us pandemic
makes managing indoo ai pollu ion e en mo e impo an . In
de eloping coun ies, he e a e also emissions om he
combus ion o wood and coal inside homes. The S ockholm
En i onmen Ins i u e no es ha in many de eloping
coun ies, COVID-19- ela ed measu es equi ing people o
s ay indoo s and a home could inc ease exposu e o indoo s
emissions. Fo example, exposu e o ai pollu ion among
membe s o households who spen mo e ime a home and
use coal o cooking in Acc a, Ghana, was wice as high as
membe s who spen mo e ime ou side (SEI, 2020). Globally,
h ee billion people s ill cook using unclean uels and
echnologies leading o household ai pollu ion u he
unde mining hei heal h. Acco ding o he WHO, “3.8 million
people a yea die p ema u ely om illness a ibu able o he
household ai pollu ion caused by he ine ficien use o solid uels
and ke osene o cooking.”Exposu e is pa icula ly high amongs
women and young child en who spend he mos ime nea he
domes ic hea h, u he educing hei immuni y agains
zoono ic diseases including COVID-19 (Wo ld Heal h
O ganiza ion, 2018).
Access o Wa e
In many communi ies a ound he wo ld, a lack o a clean wa e
supply and adequa e sani a ion dep i es people o hei mos
basic p o ec ions agains he sp ead o he i us. This means ha
whe e handwashing is limi ed and wa e bo ne diseases a e
al eady common COVID-19 could sp ead mo e easily (Uni ed
8
Gi en he educ ions in ou pu and demand o labo due o he i us, he e ec on
absen eeism will no be as impo an as i is unde no mal condi ions.
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Ma kandya e al. COVID and Food Sys ems
Na ions En i onmen P og amme, 2020d). This aspec is also
ela ed o gende (Uni ed Na ions Child en’s Fund, 2016). In
many pa s o he wo ld, women and gi ls spend hou s e e y day
e ching wa e o wai ing in c owded queues o wa e endo s,
po en ially inc easing hei isk o exposu e o he i us. Thei
heal h and consequen ly hei wellbeing could be u he
comp omised i hey s uggle wi h hese asks because hey a e
ill o ha e o ca e o people who a e sick.
Clima e Change
GHG Emissions
The In e na ional Ene gy Agency (IEA) es ima es ha global
GHG emissions ell by abou 8 pe cen in 2020 due o
con ac ions in demand o a el, anspo and ene gy
(In e na ional Ene gy Agency, 2020a). The UNEP Emissions
Gap Repo in 2019 es ima ed ha o limi global wa ming o
1.5°C, emissions would need o con inue o all by 7.6 pe cen on
a e age e e y yea o he nex 10 yea s (Uni ed Na ions
En i onmen P og amme, 2019). These figu es show he scale
o he challenge we ace in o de o educe GHG emissions.
The e is also some e idence o a ebound e ec , whe eby his
all in emissions may be e e sed in he ex emely sho e m,
pa ly as ea o in ec ion makes people a oid public anspo
and swi ch o p i a e ehicles wi h highe pe capi a emissions (a
end al eady pa ly obse ed in China). A simila e e sal was
obse ed a e he 2008 c ises. In Ap il, 2020 when mos coun ies
we e in lockdown, ossil uel emissions we e 17 pe cen lowe
compa ed o he compa able 2019 figu e (Le Qué é e al.,).
Howe e , he easing o es ic ions has educed his figu e o
jus 5 pe cen below he 2019 a e age and emissions in China
ha e al eady ebounded o p e-pandemic le els (In eg a ed
Ca bon Obse a ion Sys em, 2021). As such, any all in
emissions due o he pandemic should be seen as empo a y.
De o es a ion and Land Clea ing
FAO has a gued ha COVID-19 could inc ease widesp ead o es
loss (Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion o he Uni ed Na ions,
2020c). The CEO o Conse a ion In e na ional no es, “poaching
and de o es a ion in he opics ha e inc eased since COVID-19
es ic ions came in o o ce a ound he wo ld, acco ding o ecen
epo s om Conse a ion In e na ional field o fices”, s essing
ha “a su ge in ag icul u al expansion and illegal mining has
accele a ed o es loss in B azil and Colombia”(P ice, 2020).
P elimina y e idence sugges s ha his is due o he educed
p esence o go e nmen , policing o ganiza ions and NGOs in
a eas p one o illegal logging (Amado -Jimenez e al., 2020;Fai
2020). The links be ween he pandemic, en o cemen o land-
clea ing p ohibi ions and demand o land o ood and uel c ops
a e complex and me i u he in es iga ion.
Compound Human Heal h Impac s
Die - ela ed heal h condi ions appea o inc ease he mo ali y
and mo bidi y o people who become in ec ed wi h COVID-19.
Jus as ai pollu ion may wo sen in ec ion a es and symp oms,
non-communicable diseases (NCDs) like diabe es, hea disease
and obesi y ha e been linked o inc eased a es o in ec ion,
hospi aliza ion, in ensi e ca e and dea h (Popkin e al., 2020).
S udies om Mexico, China and he Uni ed S a es ha e iden ified
a connec ion be ween NCDs and he se e i y o COVID-19
in ec ions (Aza pazhooh e al., 2020;He nandez-Galdamez
e al., 2020;Popkin e al., 2020). These compound mo bidi ies
a e highligh ed he e because o he ela ionship be ween ood
sys ems and NCDs (Global Panel on Ag icul u e and Food
Sys ems o Nu i ion, 2016;B anca e al., 2019). I appea s
ha heal hie die s and he consequen lowe incidence o
NCDs could inc ease global esilience o COVID-19.
Resea che s ha e no ed ha ackling hunge and obesi y
equi es a ood sys ems app oach (S eine e al., 2020). Poo
access o nu i ious oods and he a ailabili y o inexpensi e,
high-calo ie oods a e associa ed wi h an inc easing p e alence o
NCDs globally. The connec ion be ween obesi y and he se e i y
o he pandemic p o ides u he e idence o he u gen need o
sys emic imp o emen s o ood sys ems bu is also an a ea whe e
u he esea ch is equi ed.
COPING STRATEGIES AND THEIR
IMPACTS
S a egies a e classified in his sec ion unde he ollowing
headings: mone a y and fiscal s imuli; in e na ional aid and
ans e s; a ge ed suppo o ag icul u e; and a ge ed
suppo o he en i onmen .
Response Th ough Mone a y and Fiscal
S imuli
The fiscal and mone a y s imulus p o ided by go e nmen s as
pa o he global esponse o he pandemic has been
unp eceden ed. Globally, in la e 2020 he le el o fiscal
s imulus s ood a app oxima ely $11.7 illion as o
Sep embe 2020, equi alen o nea ly 14 pe cen o global
GDP (In e na ional Mone a y Fund, 2020a). Fiscal suppo
packages co e a wide ange o measu es ha aim o eplace
los household income and business e enues. They include
easing o delaying paymen obliga ions o axes, u ili ies, en s
and se icing deb (In e na ional Bank o Recons uc ion and
De elopmen and Wo ld Bank, 2020). As o June 2020, he G20
coun ies we e es ima ed o be p o iding $7.6 illion in fiscal
suppo , equi alen o 11.2 pe cen o hei combined GDP o
2019. O his sum, $4.1 illion has suppo ed di ec
go e nmen spending, $2.6 illion o c edi enhancemen s
and $0.8 illion o ax elie (Segal and Ge s el, 2020). Se e al
cen al banks ha e also loosened hei mone a y policy in he
wake o he pandemic (In e na ional Mone a y Fund, 2021). In
mos ad anced economies, his has b ough al eady low
in e es a es close o o below ze o (O ganisa ion o
Economic Co-ope a ion and De elopmen , 2020a).
Coun ies ha e also implemen ed ex ao dina y measu es o
ease igh c edi ma ke s by pu chasing co po a e deb . This
app oach ollows in he oo s eps o he financial c isis o 2008
and ma ks he second ime majo economic p oblems in he
p i a e sec o ha e been ackled by a massi e inc ease in
public deb .
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Ma kandya e al. COVID and Food Sys ems
Policymake s in eme ging ma ke and de eloping economies
(EMDEs) ha e also used a ange o mone a y and fiscal measu es
o espond o he pandemic. In e ms o mone a y policy, hey
ha e suppo ed he flow o c edi , wi h se e al cen al banks
sha ply lowe ing in e es a es and some complemen ing his
wi h asse pu chase p og ammes simila o hose in ad anced
economies. In e ms o fiscal policy, mos EMDEs ha e
announced fiscal policy suppo o con on he immedia e
heal h c isis and sa e li es, limi he scale o he economic
con ac ion and accele a e he e en ual eco e y. A leas
h ee-qua e s o EMDEs ha e inc eased unding o heal h
ca e sys ems o expand es ing and hospi al capaci y. Fiscal
suppo has a ge ed he expansion o he co e age o social
p o ec ion, including wage subsidies o p o ec jobs, cash
ans e s o households and inc eased access o unemploymen
benefi s. Measu es ha e also been implemen ed o ensu e
con inued access o c i ical public se ices o ulne able
g oups, including low-income households and he elde ly
(A gen ina, Indonesia, Pakis an, he Philippines and Russia).
Las ly, se e al coun ies ha e suppo ed s ained ood sys ems
h ough subsidies o inpu s and cash ans e s o ood pu chases
(O ganisa ion o Economic Co-ope a ion and De elopmen ,
2020c;ONE n.d.;Wo ld T ade O ganiza ion, 2020b).
Howe e , in some o he wo s a ec ed EMDEs, he fiscal
esponse is cons ained by he insu ficien ax base and he lack o
bo owing po en ial. In India he pandemic led o a significan
con ac ion in ax e enues, causing he fiscal defici o 2020–21
o balloon much highe han he budge ed 3.5 pe cen .
9
This
limi s he scope o go e nmen suppo and highligh s he need
o access o addi ional esou ces and o make public spending
mo e e ficien . Many de eloping and low-income coun ies a e
likely o ace fiscal cons ain s as a esul o high exis ing deb - o-
GDP a ios and he isk o infla iona y p essu e (Ins i u e o
In e na ional Finance, 2020). India, o example, has pu oge he
a 20 illion Rupee ($266 billion) elie package, which is among
he la ges in he wo ld and amoun s o oughly 10 pe cen o he
coun y’s GDP.
Response Th ough Aid T ans e s and Deb
Relie
Specific unds o poo coun ies o add ess COVID-19 include:
•Lending o up o $150–160 billion om he Wo ld Bank,
pa icula ly o e o s o suppo ulne able popula ions in
clien coun ies.
10
•The IMF has doubled access o i s u gen acili ies (Rapid
C edi Facili yand Rapid Financing Ins umen ), allowing i
o mee a ound $100 billion o demand o financing. The
IMF has also o e ed immedia e elie o se icing deb s o
29 coun ies unde i s e amped Ca as ophe Con ainmen
and Relie T us , as pa o i s esponse o help add ess he
impac o he COVID-19 pandemic.
•The Eu opean Union is making €15 billion a ailable o help
poo coun ies (pa icula ly hose wi h weak heal h ca e)
figh he co ona i us epidemic and assis wi h he long- e m
economic eco e y.
11
•The G20 coun ies ha e ag eed o suspend deb se icing on
a ound $11 billion o o ficial bila e al c edi o poo e
coun ies. The IMF, he Wo ld Bank and he G20 ha e
also called o p i a e-sec o c edi o s o eplica e his
measu e, which could add a u he $7 billion o elie .
Indi idual coun ies a e also amping up aid p og ammes
o COVID-19.
While he amoun s in ol ed a e clea ly subs an ial, hey mus
be conside ed in he con ex o he size o he c isis and he impac
i will ha e on in e na ional aid in gene al. I is p obable ha
COVID-suppo will d i e o e all educ ions in global aid.
12
Fu he mo e, eme gency suppo will also shi he ocus away
om o he de elopmen p og ammes.
13
Global o ficial
de elopmen assis ance le els could d op sha ply by a ound
$25 billion by 2021, wi h he p ospec o a p o ac ed
economic ecession causing dono s o ealloca e hei ex e nal
budge o domes ic spending and e i al.
14
This would amoun o
abou 16 pe cen o o al o ficial de elopmen assis ance o 2019.
In o he wo ds, spending in esponse o he pandemic may no
esul in addi ional ne esou ces o de eloping coun ies.
Simila ly, shi in budge s owa ds acu e heal h could see a
educ ion in suppo o en i onmen al p o ec ion and
ag icul u e. The e is al eady some e idence o less unding o
he en i onmen as s a ed in he p e ious sec ion.
Fu he mo e, many in es men s ha e no been designed o
add ess pe sis en unde lying inequali ies. In suppo o gende
mains eaming e o s in coun ies esponses, he UN In e -
Agency Ne wo k on Women and Gende Equali y (IANGWE)
has published guidelines o in eg a ing gende equali y in he
implemen a ion o he UN amewo k o he socioeconomic
esponse o COVID-19; and UNDP and UN Women ha e
published a “COVID-19 Global Gende Response T acke ”,
which moni o s policy measu es enac ed by go e nmen s
wo ldwide o ackle he COVID-19 c isis, and highligh s
esponses ha ha e in eg a ed a gende lens. The acke
which is s ill a wo k-in-p og ess shows ha in July 2020, o
he measu es aken in esponse o COVID pandemic, only 42%
a e gende -sensi i e. The acke , includes 2,500 measu es ac oss
o e 206 coun ies o examine go e nmen measu es aken in
esponse o COVID-19 wi h a gende lens. The measu es a e
9
h ps:// hep in .in/economy/pandemic-pushes-indias-fiscal-defici - o-9-5-in-
2020-21-es ima ed-a -6-8-in-2021-22/595806/ ; h ps://www.business oday.in/
cu en /economy-poli ics/go -keeps-expenses-check-amid-co id-19-spending-
ap il-oc /s o y/423404.h ml
10
h ps://www.wo ldbank.o g/en/news/p ess- elease/2020/04/17/wo ld-bankim -
sp ing-mee ings-2020-de elopmen -commi ee-communique
11
h ps://www.eu ac i .com/sec ion/de elopmen -policy/news/eu-announces-e15-
billion- o-figh - i us-in-de eloping-coun ies/
12
h ps://de ini .o g/ esou ces/how-aid-changing-co id-19-pandemic/
13
h ps://www.un.o g/de elopmen /desa/en/news/sus ainable/sus ainable-
de elopmen -goals- epo -2020.h ml
14
h ps://de ini .o g/ esou ces/co ona i us-and-aid-da a-wha -la es -dac-da a-
ells-us/
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Ma kandya e al. COVID and Food Sys ems
sp ead ac oss h ee a eas: hose ha ackle iolence agains
women and gi ls, suppo unpaid ca e, and s eng hen
women’s economic secu i y.
Suppo o Ag icul u e and he
En i onmen in Responses o COVID-19
As no ed, he bulk o fiscal suppo has aken he o m o cash
ans e s and addi ional esou ces o heal h se ices. The IMF
Policy T acke o COVID-19 ci es a ew examples o fiscal
policies specifically a ge ing he ag icul u al sec o bu none
ocused on he en i onmen .
15
O hose ha a ge he ag i-
ood sys em in gene al e y ew pay a en ion o he
en i onmen al aspec s o ood p oduc ion and consump ion.
The suppo men ioned o A ghanis an, Bangladesh and
Nige ia a e pa ial excep ions.
16
Some o he examples o
na ional in e en ions o suppo ag icul u e and he
en i onmen a e de ailed below.
Suppo o Ag icul u al Inpu s
The FAO ecommends ou measu es o ensu e supply o
ag icul u al inpu s: educe a me income unce ain y; suppo
digi iza ion o inpu ma ke s; ease mo emen es ic ions o
p ocu ing ag inpu s; main ain go e nmen suppo o
in es men in ag inpu s (Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion
o he Uni ed Na ions, 2020g). Some coun ies ha e heeded
his ad ice. In India, he na ional elie package includes he
p o ision o 300 billion upees ($4.5 billion) o addi ional
eme gency wo king capi al unding o small and ma ginal
a me s o mee pos -ha es sp ing (Rabi) and cu en
au umn (Kha i ) equi emen s. Se e al coun ies, including
Angola, Hai i, Ky gyzs an, Libe ia and Senegal, a e p o iding
simila financial assis ance, suppo ed in pa by agencies like he
Wo ld Bank o add ess he educ ion in access o finance among
a me s (Wo ld Bank, 2020b).
Suppo o De elop Local Supply Chains
T anspo p oblems ha e caused delays o he p o ision o inpu s
and mig an labou has become less accessible. These anspo
p oblems we e caused by lockdowns and COVID-19 ela ed
a el es ic ions which impac ed he ee mo emen o
ehicles.
17
In esponse, communi ies a e de eloping local
supply chains wi h some suppo om go e nmen s. In India,
he Mayu bhanj Dis ic Adminis a ion launched he “Mayu
esh on wheels”ini ia i e, wi h small ans deli e ing ege ables
o people’s houses wi h he slogan “S ay a home, ea sa e”. The
ini ia i e cu s ou in e media ies by p omo ing a m- o-doo
deli e y. India has also implemen ed he Fa me s’P oduce
T ade and Comme ce (P omo ion and Facili a ion) O dinance
2020, which will p omo e ba ie - ee ade and comme ce
be ween and inside s a es o a m p oduce ou side he physical
p emises o o ficial ma ke s.
In o he coun ies, local ini ia i es a e suppo ing di ec
ma ke linkages be ween selle s and consume s. Fo example,
ege able supply bases a ound ci ies in China a e ensu ing
smoo h supplies o p oduce despi e lockdowns (Food and
Ag icul u e O ganiza ion o he Uni ed Na ions, 2020b). In
Kenya, he Wo ld Bank is p o iding $1 billion h ough a
de elopmen policy financing acili y ha will suppo
significan e o ms and de egula ion in he ag icul u al sec o .
This includes acili ies o allow a me s o buy inpu s such as
e ilize s and seeds elec onically using ouche s on hei mobile
phones. Howe e , he scheme has been c i icized by ad oca es o
local ood sys ems o p omo ing he seeds and e ilize s o
mul ina ional companies a he expense o local supply chains.
18
F ee Mo emen o T ade
These measu es a e in addi ion o o he s ha seek o ensu e
global supply chains emain open and unc ion e ficien ly. Ne
ood impo e s ace dange ous supply isks (Gio dano and O iz
de Mendí il, 2020). A defici in i s domes ic maize supply had led
Kenya o impo maize om Uganda. Howe e , since Ap il,
manda o y co ona i us es s o d i e s a he bo de be ween
he wo s a es ha e seen queues o lo ies s e ching up o
30 km.
19
A e some coun ies mo ed o es ic expo s o
ood p oduc s,
20
a powe ul conso ium o WTO membe
s a es (including he Uni ed S a es, China and he Eu opean
Union) issued a join s a emen on Ap il 22, 2020
discou aging expo es ic ions and no ing ha hey could
lead o ood insecu i y. I s signa o ies commi ed no o
impose expo es ic ions and o suppo ing WTO esea ch
and dialogue o ensu e he unc ion o ag i- ood supply chains
(Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion o he Uni ed Na ions,
2020a).
Cash Suppo P og ammes o In o mal Wo ke s
As many as 84 coun ies ha e in oduced o adap ed social
p o ec ion p og ammes; his includes 97 a ge ed cash ans e
schemes, hough only 10 coun ies, mainly in La in Ame ica,
specifically a ge ed in o mal wo ke s. The amoun s anged om
$39 in Colombia o $153 in Thailand. They we e mos ly one-o
paymen s, excep in B azil wi h a mon hly paymen o h ee
mon hs (Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion o he Uni ed
Na ions, 2020b).
Food Suppo P og ammes
Some coun ies ha e also p o ided specific suppo in he o m o
ee o subsidized ood and some public bodies a e p oac i ely
15
h ps://www.im .o g/en/Topics/im -and-co id19/Policy-Responses- o-
COVID-19
16
h ps://www.im .o g/en/Topics/im -and-co id19/Policy-Responses- o-
COVID-19
17
h ps://www.iea.o g/a icles/changes-in- anspo -beha iou -du ing- he-co id-
19-c isis
18
h ps://www.oaklandins i u e.o g/blog/wo ld-bank-co id-19-assis ance-kenya-
benefi s-mul ina ional-ag ibusiness-ag ochemical
19
h ps://www.one.o g/a ica/abou /policy-analysis/co id-19- acke /coun y-
deep-di es/
20
h ps://public. ableau.com/p ofile/labo de6680#!/ izhome/
Expo Res ic ionsT acke /FoodExpo Res ic ionsT acke
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Ma kandya e al. COVID and Food Sys ems
wo king om home will need o be complemen ed wi h o he s o
imp o e access o he in as uc u e ha makes his possible. A
second policy ha could educe GHG emissions is buying locally,
a oiding long-dis ance anspo . While such a policy has he
po en ial o educe anspo emissions, i could p o e
de as a ing o de eloping coun ies ha expo esh p oduce,
such as ui , flowe s and li es ock p oduc s. Mo eo e , when all
li e-cycle emissions a e aken in o accoun , i may no ac ually
educe emissions. As such, ood sys em in es men s should
ollow he esul s o li e cycle assessmen s and economic
impac analyses. Thi d, in ligh o he significan labou supply
shock caused by he pandemic, i is impo an o no e ha g een
indus ies will no be able o hi e unemployed wo ke s unless
he e is a s ong p og amme o e aining and eloca ion.
The measu es desc ibed he e add up o a subs an ial p og am o
ac ion, also wi h a la ge budge . Al hough he cos s o hese measu es
ha e no been wo ked ou in de ail, one compa ison o he figu es
sugges s ha he cos o p e en ing u he pandemics o e he nex
decade by p o ec ing wildli e and o es s would be jus 2 pe cen o
he es ima ed financial damage caused by COVID-19, p oo ha
p e en ion is be e han cu e (Dobson e al., 2020).
CONCLUSION
The global sus ainable de elopmen agenda has a i s co e
p omo ing he esilience and sus ainabili y o ood sys ems ia
a amewo k o policies and measu es. S a egies o achie e he
2030 agenda ha e o be designed so as o: i) accoun o
en i onmen al h esholds and ade-o s; ii) p omo e ood
secu i y and heal hy die s; iii) enhance and p o ec u al
li elihoods; and i ) add ess he inequali ies and injus ices ha
ha e eme ged du ing he c ises and ha will con inue o p e ail
du ing he pos -pandemic ansi ion. To be su e, his is
challenging, as h esholds a e di ficul o es ablish and
comp omises on ade-o s a e ha d o each, bu i can be
made easie h ough be e e idence.
Suppo will mos ce ainly be needed om he In e na ional
communi y, including he Uni ed Na ions agencies o ensu e
e ec i e implemen a ion o his amewo k. One way o doing
his will be o p o ide suppo o coun ies o moni o he
en i onmen al impac s o COVID-19. The e ec i eness o
eco e y and s imulus packages should be measu ed agains
indica o s o p og ess on he SDGs. Addi ionally, a Uni ed
Na ions agency could also ake he lead in expanding he
en i onmen al dimensions o he One Heal h app oach o
imp o e he unde s anding o linkages and impac s when i
comes o zoono ic diseases.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
AM was he coo dina ing Lead Au ho o he pape . He e iewed
he li e a u e, con ibu ed o w i ing i and esponded o in e nal
commen s. JS con ibu ed o he w i ing o he pape , e iew o
he li e a u e and esponse o in e nal commen s. SH coo dina ed
he p ojec om which his s udy has been ex ac ed. He also
con ibu ed o edi ing he pape . AM was he p ojec di ec o . He
p o ided a lo o he ma e ials and e iewed d a s o he pape .
ST con ibu ed ma e ials o he pape , especially om India and
e iewed d a s.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This pape is he p oduc o a UNEP p ojec o in es iga e he
links be ween COVID, he ag i- ood sys em and he
en i onmen . The au ho s acknowledge he con ibu ion o all
hose wo king o unde s and he amifica ions o his pandemic
and hei e o s o de e mine solu ions o he wel a e o ou
communi ies and en i onmen . Special hanks a e ex ended o
commen s and sugges ions p o ided by: Do een L. Robinson,
Chie o Wildli e, UNEP Ecosys ems Di ision; Si ini Wi hana,
Economic and T ade Policy Uni , UNEP Economy Di ision;
James Lomax, Food Sys ems and Ag icul u e Ad ise , UNEP
Ecosys ems Di ision; Susan Mu ebi-Richa ds, Gende Re iewe ,
Gende and Sa egua ds Uni , Policy and P og amme Di ision;
Jian Liu, Chie Scien is and Di ec o , UNEP Science Di ision;
Edwa d Ba bie , Uni e si y Dis inguished P o esso in he
Depa men o Economics, Colo ado S a e Uni e si y, Senio
Schola in he School o Global En i onmen al Sus ainabili y;
Pe e May, P o esso i ula CPDA/UFRRJ. Thanks a e also due
o h ee e e ees om he jou nal who made many sugges ions
ha imp o ed he pape .
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