Fu u es 166 (2025) 103520
A ailable online 30 No embe 2024
0016-3287/© 2024 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie L d. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY license
(h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/).
A e we eady o be w ong? Ex ended pee communi y o quali y
science-ad ice in unce ain y
Min Hyung Kim
a,b
, Do o hy Jane Dankel
c,*
a
Uni e sidad de C´
o doba, Spain
b
Basque Cen e o Clima e Change (BC3), Spain
c
SINTEF Ocean, Clima e and Sus ainabili y, No way
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
Inclusi e decision-making
Epis emic injus ice
Epis emic di e si y
Epis emic au ho i y
Science-ad ice in unce ain y
Pos -no mal science
Ex ended pee communi y
Unce ain y
S akeholde engagemen
ICES
ABSTRACT
This pape del es in o he challenges o achie ing inclusion wi hin science-ad ice ins i u ions,
pa icula ly ocusing on he In e na ional Council o he Explo a ion o he Sea (ICES). I explo es
he no ma i e and p ac ical implica ions o b oadening he epis emic space o inco po a e di e se
ways o knowing in unce ain con ex s. T adi ional science-ad ice o en elies on s ic quan i-
ica ion and ins i u ionalized expe ise, limi ing he ecogni ion o al e na i e pe spec i es. The
s udy p oposes an al e na i e iew oo ed in pos -no mal science, ad oca ing o he adop ion o
an ex ended pee communi y model. Despi e ICES’s e o s o enhance s akeholde engagemen
h ough i s S akeholde Engagemen S a egy, gaps emain in e ec i ely aluing epis emic di-
e si y. By analyzing a his o ical case in ol ing he e ision o ishing quo as o No heas
A lan ic macke el, he pape illus a es he limi a ions o s ic quan i ica ion in add essing
complex and unce ain p oblems. I ecommends a pa icipa o y app oach in o med by pos -
no mal science p inciples and inco po a es he concep o “epis emic injus ice” in Mi anda
F icke ’s wo k (F icke , 2003, 2007) o he discussion o unde sco e he e hical impe a i e o
inclusi e decision-making. Ul ima ely, he pape ad oca es o pos -no mal science app oaches o
be e add ess con empo a y challenges in science-ad ice ins i u ions when he p oblem is deeply
unce ain and complex.
1. In oduc ion
Today humani y has a guably en e ed a space whe e unce ain ies in ou unde s anding o he na u al wo ld and clima e a e a he
hea o he p oblems. Fo example, he concu en global challenges o clima e change and biodi e si y loss p esen an unp eceden ed
and o midable con ex o con empo a y geopoli ical, economic, and en i onmen al a ai s. These in e linked c ises o m a complex,
mul i ace ed p edicamen o plane a y scale, signi ican ly in luencing in e na ional policy, esou ce managemen , and ecological
s abili y in ways we ha e no be o e expe ienced. How should socie ies cope wi h hese unce ain s a es o a ai s? Should unce ain ies
be educed o emb aced? Scoones and S i ling a gue ha we a e now in he sphe e o “poli ics o unce ain y” (Scoones & S i ling, 2020).
Scoones and S i ling (2020) w i e ha , “In oday’s complex, u bulen , in e connec ed, globalized wo ld, unce ain y mus be
emb aced as pe haps mo e cen al han e e " (Scoones & S i ling, 2020, p.2). The e is a need o acknowledging unce ain y and
pu ing i a “ he cen e o he able” (Dankel e al., 2012).
* Co espondence o: Tho møhlensga e 55, Be gen 5006, No way.
E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (D.J. Dankel).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Fu u es
jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/ u u es
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j. u u es.2024.103520
Recei ed 1 Ap il 2024; Recei ed in e ised o m 3 No embe 2024; Accep ed 28 No embe 2024
Fu u es 166 (2025) 103520
2
Es ablished scien i ic ins i u ions ypically p e e p ecise, measu able app oaches. Howe e , scien is s s uggle o adap hei
con en ional me hods when dealing wi h complex, unce ain issues. These me hods may no always be sui able o add essing
inhe en ly unce ain, in ica e and eal-wo ld p oblems.
In he mids o a u bulen ins i u ional ansi ion owa ds emb acing unce ain y, c i ical e lexi i y eme ges as a c ucial concep .
While i s meanings a e di e se, e lexi i y gene ally e e s o he p ac ice o c i ical e lec ion (D’C uz e al., 2007). Guima ˜
aes Pe ei a
and Sal elli (2017) sugges implemen ing his p ocess h ough collabo a i e eamwo k among esea che s, pa icula ly when applying
scien i ic knowledge o policy-making. This pape acknowledges c i ical e lexi i y as a means o iden i y, conside , and discuss al-
e na i es o es ablished conclusions and long-s anding epis emic dominance o ins i u ionalized knowledge, as well as explo e new
modes o engagemen a he science-policy in e ace. In con ex s o deep unce ain ies and complexi ies, he adi ional di ision be-
ween scien i ic and o he o ms o knowledge is no longe su icien o main ain ins i u ional c edibili y and ensu e quali y science
ad ice. Ins ead, ins i u ions and socie y mus c i ically e lec on how o genuinely inco po a e non-ins i u ional ways o knowing
when engaging s akeholde s. This need o b oaden he epis emic landscape o ms he key backg ound and cen al p oblem o ou
s udy.
One way o c i ically e lec on he dilemma o main aining c edibili y o ins i u ional science-ad ice based on s ic di ision
be ween science and socie y, while pu suing social inclusion in ackling deeply unce ain issues, can be done h ough he lens o “pos -
no mal science.” Pos -no mal science (Fun owicz & Ra e z, 1993; Fun owicz & Ra e z, 1994a, 1994b) p o ides a an age poin o
on ological and philosophical e lec ions on he con ex and posi ion o science and ins i u ional science-ad ice in go e nance. Ac-
co ding o Fun owicz and Ra e z (1994a), global en i onmen al p oblems ha e cha ac e is ics whe e “… ac s a e unce ain, alues
a e in dispu e, s akes a e high, and decisions u gen .” Fun owicz and Ra e z (1994b) a gue ha in his con ex , while adi ional
science is s ill aluable, he e is a need o ca e ul selec ion in how we app oach each p oblem. They w i e:
“… a simple, linea me hodology based on he example o a “pu e” science o labo a o y esea ch will no be likely o p o ide much
guidance o sol ing he complex issues in ol ed in such p oblems" (Fun owicz & Ra e z, 1994b, p. 1882).
The no ma i e aspec s o pos -no mal p oblems in science-ad ice include e hics. Th ough a e iew o pos -no mal science li e -
a u e, Kønig e al. (2017) iden i ied i e main enan s ( o ming he ac onym “TRUST”) cha ac e is ically sui ed o e hically add ess
pos -no mal p oblems as below:
T anspa ency: he science-based ad ice is a well-de ined p ocess, wi h open access o da a and me hods and deep unce ain ies a e
acknowledged and pu up on
Re lexi i y: he pa icipan s in he science-based p ocess should ca e ime and space o c i ically e lec on subjec i e decisions
and he choice o me hods and wha knowledge is no “in he oom”
Unce ain y managemen : inhe en unce ain y o complex p oblems needs o be communica ed and managed
Sus ainabili y: he co e alue o pos -no mal science, as scien i ic knowledge needs o con ibu e o sus ainable de elopmen , as
well as sus ainable ins i u ional p ac ices o wo king wi h science
T ansdisciplina i y: an acknowledgemen o complexi y and he ole o disciplined and non-disciplined ways o knowing (Kønig
e al., 2017)
Pos -no mal science is inc easingly ecognized and applied in si ua ions whe e adi ional scien i ic me hods a e insu icien due o
high le els o complexi y, unce ain y and s akeholde in ol emen (Dankel e al., 2017). The pos -no mal science app oach is
pa icula ly ele an in add essing con empo a y global challenges such as clima e change (Ra e z, 2011) and adap a ion (B eme ,
2017) and biodi e si y and na u e conse a ion (F ancis & Goodman, 2010), o name only a ew examples. Howe e logical he enen s
o pos -no mal science may be, pos -no mal science is also “uncom o able science” ha challenges scien i ic ins i u ions and scien i ic
hegemony in he ace o high sys ems unce ain y, high s akes and u gen decisions (Sal elli, 2023). I can also ackle sho comings o
e idence-based policy, discussed by Sal elli and Giampie o (2017).
Conside ing ha he complex, global p oblems we a e aced which con inue o g ow, while no amoun o da a o models can
p o ide any eady-made no accu a e single solu ion, i is imely o c i ically e lec on wha is e hical in he way we (o we decide o)
know oge he o handle he unce ain and complex issues ha equi e u gen decisions.
1.1. Ins i u ionalized epis emic au ho i y: Simpli ica ion o complexi y by quan i ica ion
O e alloca ion o epis emic au ho i y o a pa icula way o knowing aises bo h e hical and p ac ical conce ns. Fi s , he mode n
scien i ic knowledge may possess he hegemonic powe in he epis emic space h ough di e en p ocesses o ins i u ionaliza ions as
B own (1993) a gues. In si ua ions whe e ins i u ionalized knowledge akes a dominan posi ion, o example in he o m o ad ice
om a scien i ic ins i u ion, engaging di e se ac o s’ oice can be sys ema ically di icul . I can c ea e unbalanced powe ela ions,
ha ma ginalize o silence o he modes and languages o knowing. Second, his con inuous endency o hea ily ely on he ins i u-
ionalized knowledge would mean isking poo policy op ions o decisions. B eme (2017) a gues ha in he case o clima e change
adap a ion, elying hea ily on he scien i ic way o unde s anding can be oo na ow o issues ha also equi e di e se meanings and
in e p e a ions o be conside ed as well (B eme , 2017, p. 73).
Epis emic au ho i y has been o en in o m o quan i ica ion g an ed o he ins i u ion’s scien is s and expe s o science-ad ice;
and quan i ica ion o complex and unce ain issues equi e e hical conside a ions (Sal elli, 2020). Quan i ica ion can d as ically
simpli y a complex eali y wi h deep unce ain ies. Mau (2019) in his book The Me ic Socie y: On he Quan i ica ion o he Social w i es:
“Quan i ica ion educes a complex and con using wo ld o he s anda dized language o numbe s, in which he e a e clea p opo ional
ela ions be ween la ge and small (o mo e and less). … Numbe s, in sho , a e associa ed wi h p ecision, one- o-one co espondence,
simpli ica ion, e i iabili y and neu ali y.” (Mau, 2019, p. 13) In add essing complex policy issues ha all unde ’pos -no mal
M.H. Kim and D.J. Dankel
Fu u es 166 (2025) 103520
3
science,’ we need o c i ically econside ou app oach. The common p ac ice o seeking a single, de ini i e answe , o en exp essed
h ough excessi ely p ecise nume ical alues, may no be app op ia e o e ec i e.
Con e sely, expanding he epis emic space o include di e se oices is deemed app op ia e and necessa y o pos -no mal science
p oblems. S akeholde engagemen holds signi ican alue in os e ing delibe a ion and inco po a ing a di e se ange o knowledge
pe spec i es, which en iches epis emic di e si y. This becomes especially c ucial when dealing wi h inhe en ly unce ain and complex
scien i ic p oblems ha de y linea solu ions, an inhe en phenomenon o na u al enewable esou ce managemen . We a gue ha
elying solely on p ecise nume ical da a can es ic he app ecia ion o epis emic di e si y by c ea ing a igid amewo k ha limi s
he explo a ion o al e na i e iewpoin s, in he con ex s o pos -no mal science condi ions. By ixa ing on nume ical alues, he e’s a
isk o se ing p ede ined bounda ies wi hin he epis emic space, pa icula ly when engaging s akeholde s.
In his pape , we exempli y many o he a o emen ioned phenomena, he p oblema ic o quan i a i e ad ice o manage exploi a ion
o enewable esou ces wi h s akeholde engagemen , h ough a case om a well-known and well-es ablished la ge science-ad ice
ins i u ion in Eu ope.
1.2. The ins i u ional con ex o ICES
The In e na ional Council o he Explo a ion o he Sea (ICES) is esponsible o annually assessing he size o ish s ocks and
p o iding scien i ic ad ice on sus ainable ishing p ac ices. Es ablished in 1902, ICES is he wo ld’s oldes in e -go e nmen al science
ins i u ion. Th ough decades o collabo a ion, ICES has ea ned a epu a ion o scien i ic excellence and expe ise in da a collec ion
and analysis spanning om he ocean loo o he sea su ace (Rozwadowski, 2002). I ope a es wi h expe wo king g oups and
employs a ound 80 s a a i s Sec e a ia in Copenhagen. ICES’s 20 membe coun ies suppo i s wo k inancially and con ibu e
na ional expe s o ele an wo king g oups, emphasizing a science-based app oach o ishe ies managemen .
1
ICES is based on he alues and aims o p o iding “c edible science” as men ioned in he P inciple 7 o he Ten P inciples o ICES
ad ice (Balles e os & Dickey-Collas, 2021, p.13). In he p ocess o knowledge p oduc ion and applica ion o i s social ole o gi ing
science ad ice, he e a e wo impo an bodies in he ins i u ion: he Science Commi ee (SCICOM) and he Ad iso y Commi ee
(ACOM). ACOM is he ad iso y b anch o ICES ha p oduces and deli e s he scien i ic ad ice, usually in ish s ock quo as, o ICES
clien s. The mo e han 100 wo king g oups in SCICOM p oduce scien i ic knowledge o ICES clien s, bu do no o mally p o ide
policy ad ice. The bounda y is d awn be ween he science and policy, and his bounda y is ins i u ionalized on he a ional o being
c edible (Balles e os & Dickey-Collas, 2021). In sum, c edibili y o i s ad ice is o e all an essen ial ac o o he ICES’s aison d’ˆ
e e,
while i s ad ice has o be applicable o he use s.
The wo k unde aken by ICES e lec s he cha ac e is ics o oday’s complex wo ld: in e connec edness, high-s akes decision-
making, and inhe en unce ain ies ela ed o he na u al wo ld and clima e. The e is g owing li e a u e ha s esses he impo ance o
no minimizing o o e looking unce ain ies bu a he aluing hem and in eg a ing hem in o discussions. Fo example, Scoones and
S i ling (2020) a gue con incingly o emb acing unce ain y as a undamen al aspec o na iga ing his in ica e landscape. Simila ly,
Dankel e al. (2012) ad oca e o acknowledging unce ain y and making i a cen al ocus.
As socie ies g ow mo e awa e o he complexi ies and unce ain ies su ounding en i onmen al issues, hey inc easingly ecognize
he impo ance o inclusi e decision-making p ocesses. This has led o a g ea e emphasis on inco po a ing di e se pe spec i es in bo h
policy decisions and ad iso y p ocesses. Howe e , his shi p esen s i s own challenges. T adi ionally, he e has been a hea y eliance
on ad ice om es ablished scien i ic ins i u ions. Now, he e’s a mo e owa ds b oadening he scope o knowledge conside ed,
including insigh s om a wide ange o scien i ic disciplines as well as non-scien i ic communi ies. This ansi ion, while po en ially
bene icial, is no wi hou i s di icul ies. The challenge lies in e ec i ely in eg a ing hese a ied knowledge sou ces – om adi ional
scien i ic expe ise o local and indigenous knowledge – in o cohe en and ac ionable ad ice. This expanded “epis emic space” o e s
iche insigh s bu also equi es new app oaches o knowledge syn hesis and decision-making.
C i ical e lexi i y on hese issues is i al o ensu ing he c edibili y o ins i u ional science ad ice. This e lexi i y se es as he
p ima y mo i a ion o ou s udy, as we aim o in es iga e he complexi ies su ounding unce ain y, s akeholde engagemen , and he
p o ision o science ad ice.
1.3. Pos -no mal science as an e hical lens
We base ou discussion in his pape on he ways and he pe spec i es ha pos -no mal science can p o ide on how o e-examine
wha quali y and c edible science-ad ice is on ques ions whe e science and echnical expe ise selec ed by he ins i u ion alone canno
p o ide he ull pic u e no an answe . We b ing a cen al heme o pos -no mal science, he Ex ended Pee Communi y. We aim o
illus a e how cu en ICES science-ad ice case can lea n om he ex ended pee communi y o wo easons 1) quali y o knowledge;
2) e hical and no ma i e easons, o discuss he e hics o knowing in deep unce ain ies on en i onmen al challenges.
He e, ou ini ial e hical ques ions eme ge: To wha ex en a e we eady o accep and c edibly alue he epis emic di e si y in ou cu en
ins i u ions and sys ems? As go e nmen al he o ic communica es mo e inclusi eness and public engagemen in decision-making, a e
we eady o alue non-expe delibe a ions and pa icipa ion o he ulles ? I so, i we know a he ime o decision making ha he
numbe can possibly be w ong, a e we hen eady o be w ong? A e scien is s and go e ning ins i u ions willingly placing he au ho i y
1
h ps://www.ices.dk/abou -ICES/who-we-a e/Pages/Who-we-a e.aspx
M.H. Kim and D.J. Dankel
Fu u es 166 (2025) 103520
4
and powe o an annual p ecise numbe o he sake o managing a ishe y, and in doing so, a oiding chaos and complexi y? And wha
does his mean om he e hical pe spec i e o o e -simpli y known ecological complexi ies as single numbe s wi h p ecision on which
no single expe and non-expe knowledge can know p ecisely?
“A e we eady o be w ong?” is no a he o ical ques ion on ou pa . We in end his ques ion as an e hical one, wi h no ma i e
consequences. We d aw inspi a ion om he concep o being “w ong” om he amous quo e a ibu ed o s a is ician Geo ge Box “All
models a e w ong, some a e use ul.” u he exempli ied in Sal elli and Fun owicz (2014).
2. The science and ad ice behind ishing quo as
Fo many yea s, especially in he la e pa o he wen ie h cen u y, scien is s wo ldwide ha e been wo king o assess ish s ocks.
This is because i ’s c ucial o manage ishing in a sus ainable way. Coun ies in he No h A lan ic, wi h access o as compu ing and
ad anced sona echnology on esea ch essels, ha e played a signi ican ole in his e o .
To assess ish s ocks, scien is s use bo h independen da a collec ed di ec ly by scien i ic essels a sea and da a om ishing essels
hemsel es. They analyze in o ma ion like he amoun and ypes o ish caugh , along wi h hei sizes and ages, o unde s and he
heal h o speci ic ish popula ions.
This p ocess is akin keeping a de ailed eco d o a small pa o a cons an ly changing ocean ecosys em. The assessmen s look back
in ime o es ima e he size o ish s ocks, while also making p edic ions abou u u e ca ch quo as. These assessmen s a e done annually
o he mos impo an ish s ocks, and hei ecommenda ions a e eage ly awai ed by ishing s akeholde s in Eu ope and No h
Ame ica.
Thus, he annual ad ice o ishe ies ep esen s a classic pos -no mal science example o high sys ems unce ain y, high decision
s akes, and high u gency (Fun owicz & Ra e z, 1993).
2.1. The p oblem: he scien i ic ad ice o he ishing quo a o No heas A lan ic macke el
We now exempli y a pos -no mal p oblem and shed ligh on he in iguing issue su ounding he c edibili y and impa iali y o
knowledge p o ided by he ICES h ough i s science ad ice conce ning No heas A lan ic macke el. This species holds signi ican
economic alue in Eu ope and plays a cen al ole in he No heas A lan ic ecosys em. Annually, scien is s analyze da a collec ed on
he macke el s ock o assess i s size and condi ion, in o ming ecommenda ions o se ing o al allowable ca ches. This p ocess aligns
wi h he EU Common Fishe ies Policy,
2
which manda es managing ish s ocks a maximum sus ainable yield.
The science behind assessing A lan ic macke el is challenged by epis emic unce ain y due o he ish s ock’s la ge size and dynamic
dis ibu ion, making i di icul o comp ehensi ely su ey.
3
In Sep embe 2018, ICES ad ised a ca ch quo a o 318,403 onnes o
No heas A lan ic macke el in 2019, leading o signi ican conce ns wi hin he Eu opean ca ch and p oduc ion indus ies. No wegian
ishe s’ associa ions eques ed a hal o he ad ice,
4
ci ing unce ain ies in s ock es ima es, pa icula ly ega ding he in luence o ag
da a:
“The indus y is awa e o he g ea unce ain y in his yea ’s s ock es ima e, and sees i as pa icula ly se ious ha he ag da a se ies
has such a la ge e ec on he s ock assessmen , wi hou ICES being able o explain wha is he cause
5
”.
Despi e indus y objec ions o mula ed in a le e o he Ins i u e o Ma ine Resea ch, ICES dissemina ed he ad ice, which ep-
esen ed a 42 % educ ion om he p e ious yea . Responding o indus y and go e nmen al conce ns, ICES conduc ed a o mal
scien i ic e iew, leading o a e ision o he ad ice in May 2019 o 770,358 onnes (ICES, 2019a), a d as ic inc ease o 140 % wi hin
eigh mon hs. This case highligh s he challenges and unce ain ies inhe en in scien i ic ad ice o ishe ies managemen .
To add ess s akeholde conce ns abou he declining us in macke el s ock assessmen and ad ice, ICES o ganized a wo kshop
wi h manage s, indus y ep esen a i es, and scien is s. The wo kshop aimed o de elop a esea ch oadmap o enhance he e idence
base o ICES ad ice on managing ishe ies in he No heas A lan ic. Among he se en key ecommenda ions p oduced, six o hem
ela e di ec ly o s eng hening he “no mal science” pa adigm o quan i a i e modelling, bu one ecommenda ion s ands ou as
po en ially opening he doo o a pos -no mal e hical lens (emphasis added): “6. Build mechanisms o inco po a e indus y sampling o
biological in o ma ion in o he o mal s ock assessmen p ocess and de elop app oaches o o malizing he low o indus y pe cep ions o
2
h ps://oceans-and- ishe ies.ec.eu opa.eu/policy/common- ishe ies-policy-c p_en
3
h ps://www.ices.dk/news-and-e en s/news-a chi e/news/Pages/No heas -A lan ic-macke el.aspx
4
“Fiskebå , No ges Fiska lag, Pelagisk Fo ening, and Sjømanns o bunde a e eques ing ha he quo a ad ice o macke el in 2019 be hal ed. The
indus y is awa e o he signi ican unce ain y in his yea ’s s ock es ima e and conside s i pa icula ly se ious ha he agging da a se ies has such
a la ge impac on he s ock assessmen , wi hou ICES being able o explain he cause. In a le e o he Ins i u e o Ma ine Resea ch, he o ganiza ions
he e o e eques ha he quo a ad ice be hal ed. The le e poin s ou ha ICES does no ha e a su icien basis o p o ide ad ice o macke el in
2019.” O iginal: «Fiskebå , No ges Fiska lag, Pelagisk Fo ening, og Sjømanns o bunde be om a k o e åde på mak ell o 2019 s anses. Næ ingen e kjen
med den s o e usikke he en i å e s bes andses ima , og se de som spesiel al o lig a me keda ase ien ha så s o e ek på bes ands u de ingen, u en a ICES
e i s and il å o kla e h a som e å saken. I e b e il Ha o skningsins i u e be de o o ganisasjonene om a k o e åde s anses. I b e e bli de is il a
ICES ikke ha e god nok g unnlag o å gi åd o mak ell i 2019.» h ps://www. acebook.com/No gesFiska lag/pho os/a.336633879715609/
1952882824757365/? ype=3
5
T ansla ed om he o iginal No wegian: «Næ ingen e kjen med den s o e usikke he en i å e s bes andses ima , og se de som spesiel al o lig a
me keda ase ien ha så s o e ek på bes ands u de ingen, u en a ICES e i s and il å o kla e h a som e å saken» . h ps://www. iske iblade .no/
nyhe e /-denne-usikke he en-kan- i-ikke-le e-me -med/8–1-62542
M.H. Kim and D.J. Dankel
Fu u es 166 (2025) 103520
5
he s ock’s s a e in o he assessmen p ocess” (ICES, 2019b).
2.2. ICES epis emological challenge: inclusion while p ese ing c edibili y o scien i ic knowledge
In ligh o inc easing challenges he o ganiza ion has unde gone ins i u ional e o ms o enhance s akeholde in ol emen ,
ecognizing ha he legi imacy o ICES ad ice is c ucial (Balles e os & Dickey-Collas, 2021, 2023). In 2021, he ICES Wo kshop on
S akeholde Engagemen S a egy (WKSHOES, ICES, 2021) acknowledged he c i ical impo ance o s akeholde engagemen in
add essing en i onmen al challenges and unde s anding human impac s and alues. Subsequen ly, in Janua y 2023, he i s e sion
o “ICES S akeholde Engagemen S a egy. ICES Guidelines and Policies” (ICES, 2023) was published. This documen ou lines he
mission, s a egy, goals, scope, ac o s and hei oles as well as key aspec s o he p ocedu es o he engagemen (ICES, 2023). ICES now
conside s s akeholde engagemen essen ial in add essing e ol ing common challenges.
Ne e heless, ICES (2023) also acknowledges a alid conce n on how o main ain he c edibili y o i s science ad ice:
“ICES ecognizes he essen ial na u e o s akeholde engagemen o add essing en i onmen al challenges and unde s anding
human impac s and alues. None heless, he e a e alid conce ns ha i s akeholde engagemen is done inco ec ly, i could
comp omise he ac ual o pe cei ed objec i i y o ICES science and i s independence” (ICES, 2023, p.2).
This pu sui o objec i i y has been c ucial in es ablishing and main aining i s epu a ion as a leading au ho i y on ma ine science
and ad ice. In o he wo ds, while ICES alues inpu om a ious s akeholde s, i ’s awa e o he need o balance his engagemen wi h
p ese ing i s long-s anding epu a ion o impa ial, expe science ad ice (Balles e os & Dickey-Collas, 2023).
On he cu en s a e o s akeholde engagemen in ICES, Balles e os and Dickey-Collas w i e:
“The s akeholde s’ willingness o in luence he p ocess is he common g ound, ye hei in luence and
decision-making in he p ocess a y g ea ly” (Balles e os & Dickey-Collas, 2023, p.8).
This is because ICES emains as he ga e-keepe and holde o powe in deciding who is able o engage in ICES science and ad ice.
Goals o inco po a ing a wide ange o knowledge and ensu ing independence o ad ice a e ou lined in he ICES Ad iso y Plan
(ICES, 2019a), emphasizing s akeholde engagemen o de elop cu en and u u e ad ice p oduc s. Despi e hese e o s, he con-
en ional de ini ion o c edibili y emains a co e a ibu e o ICES’s pe cei ed quali y science-ad ice, leading o some pa s o he
ad ice p ocess s ill being closed o s akeholde s.
In acing he complexi ies o ‘how’ o engage he di e se ac o s, he s akeholde engagemen s a egy o ICES in he epo (ICES,
2023) highligh s he impo ance o p ede e mined di e en posi ions scien is s and o he ac o s ha e; he scien is s a e conside ed a
pa icula ype o s akeholde (ICES, 2023).
The epo s a es:
“ICES de ines s akeholde s as hose who a ec o a e a ec ed by a decision, p ocess, o ac ion o ICES, including scien is s and
knowledge p o ide s ope a ing wi hin ICES ne wo k. Because o he cen al ole ha scien is s in he ne wo k play in aming and
conduc ing he wo k o ICES, scien is s ha e a unique ole as “in e nal s akeholde s” om wi hin he o ganiza ion, and his s a egy
gene ally ese es he wo d “s akeholde s” o deno e all o he s akeholde s” (ICES, 2023, p.1).
The ICES S akeholde Engagemen S a egy aims o ensu e clea oles and esponsibili ies wi hin he ICES ne wo k, while also
s i ing o inc ease oppo uni ies o di e se esou ce use s and ci izens o engage. A oiding implici bias and p omo ing di e si y and
inclusion a e c ucial conside a ions in his p ocess (ICES, 2023).
3. Discussion
Lea ning om he s o y o he ICES macke el s ock ad ice and obse ing he ins i u ional p og ess o de eloping an ini ial
s akeholde engagemen s a egy e iewed in he p e ious sec ion, we iden i y key challenges and dilemmas ha ins i u ions o science
ad ice ace oday. In he case, on one hand, ICES pu sues he c edibili y o science o i s science ad ice o i s clien s (Balles e os &
Dickey-Collas, 2021). On he o he hand, ICES pu sues inclusi eness and knowledge co-p oduc ion h ough s akeholde engagemen
(ICES, 2023). How can hese wo pu sui s be achie ed concu en ly when con inually aced wi h pos -no mal p oblems o deep un-
ce ain y? And o whom is ICES science and ad ice c edible, legi ima e, and salien ?
Th ough he case-speci ic s o yline we p o ide in his pape , we asse ha he p ecise numbe s monopolizing he ‘ igh o know’
o science ad ice o decision-making on complica ed and deeply unce ain p oblems conce ning bo h socie y and na u e, can pose
isks in many ways. Quan i ica ion, especially h ough unwa an ed hype -p ecision, o deeply unce ain sys ems can h ea en he
quali y o knowledge (Hauge, 2011). Quan i ica ion h ough highly echnical models, as used in he macke el s ock assessmen and
ad ice, can (in en ionally o unin en ionally) close doo s o o he po en ially aluable knowledge o be conside ed. I could also mean
oppo uni ies los o be e unde s anding and aming o he p oblem om di e se angles. In he case, i could be on di e se ac o s o
conside be o e assessing he s ock, o how he quo a should be decided, o should no decided a all, a ha speci ic ime.
Mos impo an ly, i can cause a low accep ance le el om he s akeholde s and socie ies o he ad ice p o ided o he ele an
decisions made. The macke el ad ice, like all ish s ock ad ice p o ided by ICES, is de ac o a well-de ined echnoc a ic p ocedu e.
Technoc a ic pa h-dependency (Cla ke & Flanne y, 2020) can concei ably damage he social us and ins i u ional epu a ion as a
c edible knowledge p o ide unde unce ain y and complexi y. Due o hese possibili ies, we con end ha i is c i ical o ha e an open
go e nance and ins i u ional e lec ion based on he u u e o ins i u ional ad ice’s c edibili y.
I ICES as an ins i u ion is eady o ini ia e a discussion on how o deal wi h unce ain y and s akeholde engagemen concu en ly,
we s ongly ad oca e o a pos -no mal e hical lens. We cha ac e ize he annual quo a-se ing p ocess as a pos -no mal p oblem o
se e al easons as ollows. Fi s , ish s ock assessmen inhe en ly in ol es signi ican unce ain y, in luenced by mul iple eedback
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loops encompassing known knowns, known unknowns, and unknown unknowns (high sys ems unce ain y). Second, he li elihoods o
housands o ishe men and ishing companies hinge on hese quo as, c ea ing high-s akes decisions ha demand u gen esolu ion.
Thi d, he heal h and sus ainabili y o ma ine ecosys ems ely on main aining obus ish s ocks, ampli ying he signi icance o hese
decisions amids he backd op o high sys ems unce ain y and s akes. I a c i ical mass o scien is s and leade ship wi hin ICES
ecognizes his backd op, a c i ical i s s ep is ex ending he pee communi y o mee he collec i e challenge o pos -no mal science.
3.1. Ex ended Pee Communi y in an ICES con ex
To deal wi h pos -no mal condi ions, Fun owicz and Ra e z pu o wa d he concep o he Ex ended Pee Communi y (Fun owicz
& Ra e z, 1993). Pos -no mal science ad oca es o e hics o knowing, as ou lined by Fun owicz and Ra e z in hei concep o
ex ended pee communi ies (Fun owicz & Ra e z, 1993), u he expanded upon by Healy (Healy, 1999). Acco ding o Fun owicz and
Ra e z (1997), beyond he e hical alues he ex ended pee communi y aims o e ine he scien i ic s udies and adap hem o local
con ex s (Fun owicz & Ra e z, 1997).
An Ex ended Pee Communi y in p ac ice is a g oup o indi iduals who a e commi ed o sha e hei knowledge and hei ways o
knowing in pa icipa o y discussions in a pos -no mal con ex . In o he disciplina y adi ions, his can be simila o he cha ac e -
iza ion o “Mode 2 science” (Nowo ny e al., 2003) he goals o “g oup model building” (Vennix, 1999) and ansdisciplina y wo k (see
Ca ew & Wickson, 2010). Bu cen al o pos -no mal science a e he e hical no ms (and uni e sal alues) o anspa ency, obus ness,
unce ain y managemen , sus ainabili y, and ansdisciplina i y (Kønig e al., 2017), a ocus on he quali y o knowledge (Sluijs e al.,
2008), and an epis emic acknowledgemen o he acu e limi s o science (Sal elli & Fun owicz, 2014). Fun owicz and Ra e z (1997,
p.175) elucida e ha he ex ended pee communi y plays a c ucial ole in ensu ing he quali y o knowledge and ad ice in pos -no mal
science en i onmen al issues. They cla i y ha ad oca ing o he ex ension o pee communi ies is no me ely d i en by a gene alized
desi e o inc eased democ acy in socie y. Ins ead, hei epis emological analysis o pos -no mal science, g ounded in he p ac ical
impe a i e o quali y assu ance, e eals he necessi y o expanding pee communi ies and ac s. This expansion is deemed essen ial o
enhancing he e ec i eness o science in add essing he no el challenges posed by complex en i onmen al p oblems (Fun owicz &
Ra e z, 1997).
Fu he mo e, he ex ended pee communi y can help he scien i ic esea ch o be e unde s and he aci knowledge and hus
achie e “ex ended ac s” (Fun owicz & Ra e z, 1997, p.174). In his p ocess, hey explain:
“I may be a gued ha hey lack heo e ical knowledge and a e biased by sel -in e es ; bu i can equally well be a gued ha he
expe s lack p ac ical knowledge and ha e hei own unsel conscious o ms o bias" (Fun owicz & Ra e z, 1997, p.174).
A no able example is he p e iously in oduced 2018 No heas A lan ic macke el scien i ic ishing quo a ad ice, which unde wen
e ision in 2019 a e s akeholde c i icism. The p ocess o gene a ing a p ecise bu incomp ehensible accu acy o he six-digi numbe ,
despi e s akeholde conce ns, highligh s a disconnec be ween scien i ic expe ise and s akeholde engagemen . In such con ex s,
ins i u ionalized science and quan i a i e modeling can esul in monopolizing epis emic space, sidelining s akeholde inpu and aci
knowledge. This was co obo a ed by a s akeholde pa icipa ing in he ICES Wo kshop on a Resea ch Roadmap o Macke el (2019)
who s a ed he e is: “… a need o hea he oices om he sea.” (ICES, 2019a, 2019b)
Expe iences wi h e en s such as he eplacemen o he scien i ic ad ice o No heas A lan ic macke el ou lined abo e, unde line
he need o ICES o c i ically e lec and spell ou in simple e ms how s akeholde engagemen should occu in p ac ice. In Janua y
2023, when ICES eleased he “ICES S akeholde Engagemen S a egy”, i was he i s o i s kind o his ins i u ion, and designed o
suppo he inc easing need o s akeholde pa icipa ion in complex ma ine esea ch (ICES, 2023). ICES ecognizes speci ic goals o
ex ending he pee communi y i) o inc ease legi imacy, owne ship, and accoun abili y o he c ea ion o knowledge; and ii) o
acili a e knowledge exchange and collabo a ion when add essing ope a ional, ac ical, and s a egic challenges, hus enhancing
inno a ion and social lea ning (ICES, 2023). The documen lays ou he di e en a ionale, p inciples, oles and du ies o socie al
s akeholde s and ma ine esea che s, bu does no go in o de ails ha could be help ul o he speci ic quan i a i e case o scien i ic
ad ice on ish quo as.
I is impo an o cla i y he di e en s ages o science and ad ice p oduc ion o ICES and dissemina ion o unde s and he
complexi y o he ole o science a he science-policy in e ace. The e a e h ee main s eps: 1) ICES gene a es knowledge, 2) ICES gi es
ad ice, and 3) ICES ad ice is used by i s membe coun ies. One could a gue ha , conside ing ishe ies science and managemen as a
pos -no mal p oblem, s akeholde engagemen wi hin an Ex ended Pee Communi y should occu in each o hese s eps. In p ac ice, we
see hese h ee s eps as inhe en ly in e wined. Cau ion is needed o p e en he s i ling o s akeholde engagemen by he echnoc a ic
managemen sys em o he complex s a is ical modelling. Ins ead i ha equi es in e disciplina y scien i ic delibe a ion and ac i ely
engaging di e se ways o knowing h ough he p ocess.
The Ex ended Pee Communi y ep esen s a legi ima e epis emological and no ma i e oppo uni y o c i ically e lec on ‘how’ o
engage in he age o inclusi eness on issues o pos -no mal science. This is in-line wi h he global call o jus ansi ions o sus-
ainabili y only i i is allowed o challenge and p o ide al e na i es o he s a us quo.
3.2. Epis emic jus ice and i s ela ion o ex ended pee communi ies
Mi anda F icke in oduced he e m “epis emic injus ice,” and i poin s o how p ejudices can lead o injus ice in how hea e s
pe cei e wha speake s say in es imonial si ua ions (F icke , 2003). The au ho w i es: “Ei he he p ejudice esul s in he speake ’s
ecei ing mo e c edibili y han she a ionali y dese es – c edibili y excess – o i esul s in he ecei ing less c edibili y han she
a ionally dese es – c edibili y de ici " (F icke , 2003, p. 164). F icke (2003) hus looks a he s a e o epis emic injus ice, in con ex s
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Fu u es 166 (2025) 103520
7
whe e i is po en ially in inged by undesi able amoun o c edibili y alloca ed o a pa icula pe son’s es imonial speeches om he
hea e ’s pe spec i es due o a socialized p ejudices.
We ques ion wha his can mean o he e hical conside a ion om bo h he no ma i e pe spec i e o inclusi e go e nance and
om he epis emic jus ice pe spec i e (F icke , 2007). We a gue ha he concep o “epis emic jus ice” (F icke , 2003, 2007) can
e ec i ely b idge he ex ended pee communi y and he case s udy’s challenge o o e -alloca ion o epis emic au ho i y o he
quan i ied ins i u ionalized knowledge h ough e hical and jus ice pe spec i e.
Building on F icke (2003)’s logic wi hin he ealm o pos -no mal science and e hics, he au ho ’s concep ualiza ion o “epis emic
injus ice” can p o ide a concep ual amewo k o being e lexi e abou how di e en ways o knowing - pa icula ly ega ding who is
speaking o in o ming, can lead o “c edibili y excess” o “c edibili y de ici ” du ing s akeholde engagemen p ocesses in en i on-
men al decision-making. This is especially c i ical o he de elopmen and implemen a ion o s akeholde engagemen s a egies by
ins i u ions such as ICES. Wi h a long his o y and iden i y as a objec i e knowledge p o ide , ICES aces g owing challenges when
handling issues ha a e inhe en ly unce ain, impossible o be accu a ely p edic ed and complex due o di e se social s akes in ol ed.
F icke ’s e m “epis emic injus ice” (F icke , 2003) helps o c i ically e lec on sys ema ic "c edibili y excess" gi en o ins i u-
ionalized knowledge o en in numbe s. Epis emic au ho i y ha is gi en au oma ically o he 6-digi s numbe in he case o macke el
ishe y quo a se ing example should be b ough o examina ion o whe he hey dese e o monopolize he igh o be he only
c edible knowledge o de ine wha should be he ins i u ional ad ice. Due o he c edibili y excess, o i s dominance o epis emic space, a
sys ema ic c edibili y de ici can esul in a ma ginaliza ion o o he ways o knowing. In a pos -no mal si ua ion, he epe cussions o
ma ginaliza ion and exclusion o al e na i e o ms o knowledge can cause a high cos bo h on e hical e ms ( ai ness) and quali y o
knowledge (Meisch, 2024). These al e na i e pe spec i es, which may no con o m o he amewo k o ins i u ionalized nume ical
da a, a e o en o e looked when con on ed wi h seemingly p ecise and objec i e language.
Re e ing back o F icke ’s concep o “epis emic injus ice” (F icke , 2003) in es imonial cases, we can e-imagine epis emic
injus ice in an ins i u ional se ing. In such con ex , ce ain scien i ic and ins i u ionalized knowledge ends o au oma ically gain an
epis emic au ho i y, hanks o pas p ac ices o knowledge p oduc ion and applica ion.
In es imonial cases, he e a e p ejudices conce ned wi h he indi idual who speaks depending on he gende , ace and accen s
among many ha de e mine how hea e s pe cei e wha speake s say epis emically (F icke , 2003). In he con ex o pos -no mal
science, whe e no one pe son can assu e one single o m o in o ma ion o knowledge o be he co ec answe o sol e he p ob-
lem, he e is a endency o il owa ds he exis ing ins i u ionalized knowledge o en in o m o quan i ica ion epo ed o deli e ed by
a g oup o expe s o ins i u ion(s) ha al eady has he name- alue o gene al c edibili y o pu suing objec i i y.
ICES and i s expe g oups ha e exac ly his b and. Fo ICES, he deli e y o he scien i ic ad ice o en spa ks con en ious deba es
among s akeholde s pu ing he c edibili y and legi imacy o ICES science and ad ice a s ake. Fishe s equen ly hold di e gen iews
on he s a e o ish s ocks compa ed o scien is s, leading o disag eemen s ega ding he alidi y o he ad ice. This dispa i y is
unde sco ed by he li ed expe iences o ishe men a sea, which may di e om scien i ic assessmen s (Hauge, 2011; Lane, 1999),
he eby po en ially deg ading hei us in ICES. And in he example o he model b eakdown o he No heas A lan ic macke el
ad ice in 2018 and e ision in 2019, ishe men’s ep esen a i es oci e ously a gued ha he model did no cap u e he s akeholde s’
pe cep ion o he s a e o he s ock
6,7
. He e we could label he ICES’s model and s ic quan i ica ion as ha ing a "c edibili y excess"
while he ishe men as ha ing a "c edibili y de ici " using F icke (2003)’s concep s.
Due o he high s akes o ishe ies managemen , ishe s ha e a high es ed in e es in he ou come o s ock assessmen s om ICES,
which a e he basis o he quo a ad ice ha di ec ly a ec s hei business. The c edibili y and quali y o an Ex ended Pee Communi y
would also be dependen on balancing he es ed in e es s and knowledge biases. Fo his, NUSAP (Nume al, Uni , Sp ead, Assessmen ,
Pedig ee) in pos -no mal science se es as a obus amewo k o balance es ed in e es s while p omo ing inclusi i y o di e se
knowledge holde s (Dankel e al., 2012; Fun owicz & Ra e z, 1990; Van De Sluijs e al., 2005). This app oach p o ides a s uc u ed
me hod o e alua ing and communica ing he quali y o scien i ic in o ma ion, pa icula ly in complex, high-s akes si ua ions whe e
adi ional scien i ic me hods may be insu icien . By b eaking down in o ma ion in o i s cons i uen pa s (numbe s, uni s, sp ead o
unce ain y, quali a i e assessmen s, and he pedig ee o lineage o he in o ma ion), NUSAP allows o a mo e anspa en and
comp ehensi e e alua ion o knowledge claims.
Science alone canno “know” o su e and “be igh ” on how many ish a e in he sea and how many should be ha es ed. Thus, as a
pos -no mal p oblem, he only c edible, legi ima e and salien engagemen ou side o he science ins i u ion is h ough he applica ion
o an Ex ended Pee Communi y whe e di e en knowledge holde s ha e legi ima e ways o engage and c i ically e lec on he
knowledge and e idence. In he example o ishe y quo a o macke el exempli ied in p e ious sec ion, an Ex ended Pee communi y in
p ac ice will equi e in ol ing he ishing indus y mo e closely in he assessmen p ocess, bu also in a communal c i ical e lec ion o
he s a e o he a wi h a consequence o sc apping old s ock assessmen models wi h new ones o e en new pa adigms o ishe ies
managemen . This p ocess could build us and unde s anding be ween all pa ies in ol ed in ishe ies managemen . F icke (2003,
2007)’s concep o "epis emic jus ice" can help explain and be mo e e lexi e abou he e hical alue and on ‘how’ o engage s ake-
holde s when pu ing ex ended pee communi y in o p ac ice, beyond i s p agma ic alue in achie ing quali y and ac ual ai ness o
knowledge in pos -no mal science con ex s, as also desc ibed by Meisch (2024).
6
h ps://www.sea oodsou ce.com/news/supply- ade/i ish- ishe s-c i icize-scien i ic-ad ice-as-eu-no way-and- a oes-ag ee- o-slash-2019-
macke el-ca ch
7
h ps:// iske o um.com/ag eemen -on-macke el- o -2019/
M.H. Kim and D.J. Dankel
Fu u es 166 (2025) 103520
8
4. Conclusions
In ou pape , we del e in o he complex challenge aced by ins i u ions like ICES, asked wi h p o iding c edible and impa ial
science ad ice while e ec i ely engaging s akeholde s and he public. D awing om he e hical pe spec i e o pos -no mal science, we
highligh he limi a ions and social consequences o he adi ional science ad ice p ac ices, using he example o s ock assessmen and
quo a ad ice o No heas A lan ic macke el. Gi en he pe asi e unce ain y inhe en in quan i ied science ad ice, we suppo ICES’s
new S akeholde Engagemen S a egy (ICES, 2023).
We p opose an ins i u ional discussion wi hin ICES oo ed in pos -no mal science, leading o he eme gence o Ex ended Pee
Communi ies. These communi ies would p o ide a pla o m o di e se o ms o knowledge o in e ac and be emb aced. Fo his o be
implemen ed in p ac ice, F icke (2003)’s concep o epis emic injus ice will be a concep ual guidance in ‘how’ o engage, aiming a
uly inclusi e epis emic. While his app oach may pose challenges, i aims o enhance social us and bols e he c edibili y o
ins i u ional ad ice amid p o ound unce ain y.
The Ex ended Pee Communi y se es as bo h an e hical lens and a p ac ical ool o imp o ing s akeholde engagemen p ocesses.
By aluing di e se ways o knowing, i aims o ele a e he c edibili y o ins i u ional science ad ice. D awing upon concep s o
epis emic jus ice p oposed by Mi anda F icke (2003, 2007), we emphasize he impo ance o ein o cing he quali y assu ance o
ex ended pee communi y p ac ices and upholding e hical alues and jus ice.
Fu he mo e, adop ing a pos -no mal science e hical iewpoin can o e p ac ical bene i s in add essing epis emological and
on ological ques ions aced by science-ad ice ins i u ions amids deep unce ain y. Unlike pas mode nis p oblem-sol ing me hods,
his app oach encou ages an e hos o anspa ency, e lexi i y, unce ain y managemen , sus ainabili y and ansdisciplina i y (Kønig
e al., 2017), and p omo es a nuanced unde s anding o quali y science ad ice in unce ain con ex s.
Ou pape ecommends, in case o ICES, ede ining and expanding he no ion o i s “ins i u ional ad ice” p o ided o include inpu
om di e se s akeholde s h oughou he knowledge p oduc ion p ocess. To implemen his app oach, we sugges conside ing ac o s
such as he scope and openness o s akeholde engagemen p ocesses, ensu ing epis emic jus ice h ough dialogue and nego ia ion ha
allow c i ical e lexi i y, and e-e alua ing he pa h-dependen epis emic au ho i y o os e inclusi i y.
By emb acing he concep o he Ex ended Pee Communi y wi h ools like NUSAP, ins i u ions can be e na iga e he ension
be ween s akeholde engagemen and main aining he quali y o knowledge p oduc ion, hus p omo ing democ a ic ideals and
e ec i ely add essing unce ain ies in ecological and na u al esou ces managemen (Fun owicz & Ra e z, 1997; Van De Sluijs e al.,
2005). To ackle hese obs acles, we p opose a ho ough examina ion wi hin ins i u ions o de elop new, ai , and p ac ical me hods
o engaging s akeholde s, emphasizing ex ended pee communi ies, especially in na iga ing pos -no mal condi ions. Ou goal is o
p omo e epis emic jus ice and main ain he in eg i y o knowledge p oduc ion and communica ion p ocesses, g ounded in ealizing
epis emic jus ice (F icke , 2003), which p io i ize ai ness and inclusi i y in knowledge dis ibu ion and decision-making.
In o de o gi e pos -no mal science ad ice, we p opose o engage s akeholde s h ough he ex ended pee communi y in hese
s ages:
a) p oblem de ining, aming and scoping p ocess;
b) me hod and delibe a ion;
c) ad ice moni o ing.
Ce ainly, legi imizing a plu ali y o ways o knowing can pose challenges, pa icula ly when decisions mus be made u gen ly and
unce ain ies and s akes a e high. Howe e , amids his complexi y, he e lies a unique oppo uni y o collabo a i e and syne gis ic
app oaches o knowing by espec ing he epis emic di e si y. Pos -no mal p oblems could po en ially be add essed wi hin an ins i-
u ional amewo k ha p omo es he accep ance o unce ain y and alues he di e se o ms o knowledge a ailable. This en ails
acili a ing democ a ic pa icipa ion and engaging di e se ac o s in he ealm o unde s anding wha canno be ully known. Only by
doing so can we genuinely emb ace he no ion o being “ eady o be w ong” in ou ques owa ds c edible decision-making p ocesses
acing deep unce ain ies and complexi ies.
CRediT au ho ship con ibu ion s a emen
Min Hyung Kim: W i ing – e iew & edi ing, W i ing – o iginal d a , Me hodology, In es iga ion, Fo mal analysis, Concep u-
aliza ion. Do o hy Jane Dankel: W i ing – e iew & edi ing, W i ing – o iginal d a , Valida ion, Supe ision, P ojec adminis a ion,
Me hodology, In es iga ion, Fo mal analysis, Concep ualiza ion.
Decla a ion o Compe ing In e es
None
Acknowledgemen s
We hank membe s o he ICES communi y o sha ing insigh s ha imp o ed his manusc ip . MHK’s wo k was suppo ed by
PRE2022-103053 unded by MICIU/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and by FSE+; and by he Ma ía de Maez u Excellence Uni 2023-
2027 Re . CEX2021-001201-M, unded by MICIU/AEI/10.13039/501100011033. DJD ecei ed unding om Resea ch Council o
No way p ojec n . 295088 and No dFo sk P ojec n . 104492.
M.H. Kim and D.J. Dankel
Fu u es 166 (2025) 103520
9
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