The Eu opean Jou nal o Psychology Applied o Legal Con ex 6 (2014) 53-61
The Eu opean Jou nal o Psychology
Applied o Legal Con ex
www.else ie .es/ejpal
Vol. 6, No. 2, July 2014
ISSN: 1889-1861
Edi o /Di ec o
Ramón A ce
Associa e Edi o s/Di ec o es Asociados
Gualbe o Buela-Casal
F ancisca Fa iña
Gün e Köhnken
Ronald Roesch
The Eu opean Jou nal
o Psychology Applied
o Legal Con ex
1889-1861/© 2014 Colegio O icial de Psicólogos de Mad id. P oduc ion by Else ie España, S.L. All igh s ese ed
Beha io al p oblems and dep essi e symp oma ology as p edic o s o child- o-
pa en iolence
Izaskun Ibabe*, Aina a A noso, and Edu ne Elgo iaga
Uni e sidad del País Vasco, Spain
ABSTRACT
The numbe o complain s iled by pa en s agains hei child en na ionwide has inc eased d ama ically,
pa icula ly since 2005. The aim o his s udy was o examine whe he young o ende s who had been
cha ged o iolence agains hei pa en s p esen ed di e en psychological p oblems om youngs e s
cha ged wi h o he ypes o o ence and non-o ende s. Da a om 231 adolescen s o bo h sexes aged 14 o
18 yea s and li ing in he Basque Coun y (Spain) we e analyzed. O hese, 106 we e o ende s and he es
we e om a communi y sample. Some o he o ende s had been cha ged wi h child- o-pa en iolence (n
= 59), while he es o hem had no (n = 47). O ende s who had assaul ed o abused hei pa en s
p esen ed mo e beha io p oblems ou side home and mo e cha ac e is ics associa ed wi h dep essi e
symp oma ology han o ende s o o he ypes o non-o ende s. Ce ain psychological p oblems in
adolescen s could p ecipi a e amily con lic si ua ions and lea e pa en s unable o con ol hei child en.
Findings highligh he need o o ende s cha ged wi h child- o-pa en iolence o ecei e indi idual
psychological he apy.
© 2014 Colegio O icial de Psicólogos de Mad id. P oduc ion by Else ie España, S.L. All igh s ese ed.
P oblemas conduc uales y sin oma ología dep esi a como p edic o es de la
iolencia ilio-pa en al
RESUMEN
El núme o de denuncias po mal a o p esen adas po los pad es con a sus hijos a ni el nacional se ha in-
c emen ado de o ma ala man e sob e odo a pa i del año 2005. El obje i o de es e es udio e a comp oba
si los meno es in ac o es denunciados po mal a o a sus p ogeni o es p esen an di e en es p oblemas
psicológicos que los in ac o es po o os deli os y los adolescen es no in ac o es. Pa a ello se analiza on
los da os de 231 adolescen es en e 14 y 18 años del País Vasco (España) de ambos sexos, de los cuales 106
e an in ac o es y el es o p ocedía de la población gene al. Algunos de los in ac o es enían deli os po
iolencia ilio-pa en al (n = 59) mien as que el es o enían deli os de o o ipo (n = 47). Los in ac o es que
ag eden a sus pad es se ca ac e izan po p esen a más p oblemas conduc uales ue a del hoga y ca ac e-
ís icas asociadas a la sin oma ología dep esi a que los in ac o es po o os deli os o los que no son in ac-
o es. De e minados p oblemas psicológicos de los hijos pod ían p ecipi a si uaciones de con lic o en el
seno amilia y los p ogeni o es e se incapaces de con ola los. Los esul ados ponen de elie e la necesi-
dad de que los in ac o es po iolencia ilio-pa en al eciban e apia psicológica indi idual.
© 2014 Colegio O icial de Psicólogos de Mad id. P oducido po Else ie España, S.L. Todos los de echos ese ados.
In ecen yea s, child- o-pa en iolence (CPV) has a ac ed
inc easing in e es a bo h he scien i ic and clinical le els. An
ex ensi e e iew by Gallaghe (2008) e ealed ha he p e alence
o CPV wo ldwide is es ima ed a be ween 10% and 18%, while in
he Uni ed S a es and Canada he p e alence igu es o CPV ange
om 5% o 29% (Bobic, 2004; Downey, 1997; Lau en & De y, 1999;
S aus & Gelles, 1990). In Eu ope, esea ch shows ha his p oblem
has been on he inc ease in he las ew yea s (Wilcox & Pooley,
2012). I is su p ising ha al hough he ic ims (pa en s) a e
socially and economically (and in some cases e en physically) mo e
powe ul han hei child en, i is s ill he child en who wield
con ol and powe o e hei pa en s (Pa e son, Lun z, Pe lesz, &
Co on, 2002). The majo i y o cu en de ini ions o child- o-
*Co espondence conce ning his a icle should be add essed o Izaskun Ibabe.
Depa amen o de Psicología Social y Me odología de las Ciencias del Compo amien o.
Facul ad de Psicología. Uni e sidad del País Vasco. A da. Tolosa, 70. 20018 Donos ia-
San Sebas ián. Spain. E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
Key wo ds:
Domes ic iolence
Child- o-pa en iolence
Young o ende
Adolescence
Beha io p oblems
Dep essi e symp oma ology
Palab as cla e:
Violencia domés ica
Violencia ilio-pa en al
Meno in ac o
Adolescencia
P oblemas conduc uales
Sin oma ología dep esi a
ARTICLE INFORMATION
Manusc ip ecei ed: 24/10/2013
Re ision ecei ed: 17/03/2014
Accep ed: 03/06/2014
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.ejpal.2014.06.004
54 I. Ibabe e al. / The Eu opean Jou nal o Psychology Applied o Legal Con ex 6 (2014) 53-61
pa en iolence a e based on Co ell (2001), who iden i ies as he
child en’s ul ima e objec i e ha o ob aining powe and con ol
o e hei pa en s. Howe e , esea ch on CPV does no e alua e he
child en’s in en ions (which a e e y di icul o s udy), bu a he
he di e en ypes o iolen beha io s (physical, psychological,
emo ional, and inancial).
S udies ca ied ou so a on child- o-pa en iolence ha e yielded
no conclusi e esul s abou he psychological unc ioning o ju eniles
who assaul o abuse hei pa en s (Kennedy, Edmonds, Dann, &
Bu ne , 2010) o abou hei clinical p o ile. On he o he hand, he e
is some e idence ha ju eniles who ha e a eco d o CPV o ences
a e mo e likely o ha e psychological diso de s han hose p e iously
cha ged wi h o he ypes o o ence and p esen highe a es o
hospi aliza ion and psycho opic medica ion use (e.g., Ibabe &
Jau eguiza , 2012; Kennedy e al., 2010; Micucci, 1995). Acco ding o
some s udies, he mos common diagnos ic ca ego ies in his g oup,
ollowing he DSM-V classi ica ion (Ame ican Psychia ic Associa ion,
2013), would be Dis up i e, Impulse-Con ol and Conduc diso de s
and A en ion-De ici Hype ac i i y Diso de (ADHD) (González-
Ál a ez, Ges ei a, Fe nández-A ias, & Ga cía-Ve a, 2010; Ibabe &
Jau eguiza , 2012). In he s udy by Ibabe and Jau eguiza (2012), 77%
o he psychological diso de s in young o ende s we e ound in
hese diagnos ic ca ego ies.
The majo i y o expe esea che s in child de elopmen ag ee
wi h Achenbach and Edelb ock (1978) in classi ying beha io
p oblems in e ms o in e nalizing and ex e nalizing mani es a ions.
Ex e nalizing beha io p oblems – cha ac e ized by a lack o con ol
o e one’s emo ions – would include di icul ies in in e pe sonal
ela ions and ule b eaking, as well as i i abili y and agg essi eness.
As o in e nalizing beha io p oblems – cha ac e ized by excessi e
emo ional con ol – hese would include social isola ion, demand o
a en ion, and eelings o uselessness, in e io i y and/o dependence.
Some me a-analyses sugges ha boys show mo e ex e nalizing
beha io han gi ls (e.g., E ans, Da ies, & DiLillo, 2008), whe eas
he e a e no di e ences as ega ds in e nalizing symp oms
(Ki zmann, Gaylo d, Hol , & Kenny, 2003). Howe e , he e a e
con adic o y esul s on gende di e ences wi h ega d o
in e nalizing and ex e nalizing beha io s, he explana ion o which
is as ye unclea (DeJonghe, on Eye, Boga , & Le endosky, 2011). I
may be ha some disc epancies a e due o he in luence o he
child en’s age, gi en ha a p e ious s udy ound an in e ac ion
be ween age and sex o clinical maladjus men (Be na as,
Jau eguiza , So oa, Ibabe, & Cue as, 2013). As ega ds child- o-pa en
iolence (ex e nalizing symp om), highe a es o CPV ha e been
ound in sons in judicial and clinical con ex s: 2 o 3 imes highe
han he a es o daugh e s (Gallaghe , 2008; Ibabe & Jau eguiza ,
2010). Howe e , in s udies wi h he gene al popula ion no signi ican
di e ences we e ound be ween boys and gi ls o physical iolence
o he di e ences we e e y small (Cal e e e al., 2013; Ibabe &
Jau eguiza , 2011; Jau eguiza , Ibabe, & S aus, 2013). These esul s
a e in line wi h he Gallaghe ’s (2008) conclusions ha he mo e
se ious he adolescen ’s iolen beha io agains pa en s, he g ea e
he di e ences be ween boys and gi ls. On he o he hand, gi ls use
mo e e bal iolence agains hei pa en s han boys (E ans &
Wa en-Sohlbe g, 1988; Nock & Kazdin, 2002).
Ju eniles who a e iolen owa ds hei pa en s p esen
ex e nalizing symp oms in con ex s ou side he home, o en
displaying an isocial and delinquen beha io s (Jau eguiza e al.,
2013). As ega ds he socio-educa ional con ex , p e ious esea ch
sugges s ha child en who a e iolen agains hei pa en s a e
cha ac e ized by p esen ing a ange o p oblems ela ed o school
maladjus men (Co nell & Gelles, 1982; Ibabe & Jau eguiza , 2012;
K a coski, 1985) o low in e es in lea ning (Paulson e al., 1990).
Mo eo e , hese youngs e s end o associa e wi h pee g oups who
also p esen iolen beha io s in and ou side he home (Agnew &
Huguley, 1989). This iolen p o ile has been ound no only in
s udies wi h clinical o judicial samples; esea ch analyzing child- o-
pa en iolence in communi y samples has also e ealed ha young
people who a ack hei pa en s end o p esen mo e an isocial
beha io s and o he agg essi e beha io s ( owa ds eache s o
wi hin he pee g oup) han adolescen s who a e no iolen owa ds
hei pa en s (Cal e e, O ue, & Samped o, 2011; Jau eguiza e al.,
2013). As a as subs ance abuse is conce ned, mo e in-dep h s udy
is equi ed, bu he e is empi ical e idence o he ela ion be ween
alcohol and/o d ug use and child- o-pa en iolence (Cal e e, O ue
& Gámez-Guadix, 2013; Ibabe & Jau eguiza , 2011; Ibabe &
Jau eguiza , 2012; Pagani e al., 2009). E en so, i has been shown
ha agg ession by sons/daugh e s agains hei pa en s does no
usually occu unde he e ec (in he child en) o alcohol o o he
d ugs (E ans & Wa en-Sohlbe g, 1988; Walsh & K iene , 2007).
Al hough hese esul s may appea somewha con adic o y, hey a e
in ac cohe en : in he long- e m, subs ance use in adolescen s may
lead o si ua ions o amily con lic gi en he consequences o such
use (e.g., poo academic pe o mance, money p oblems o s aying
ou la e a nigh ).
Among he li le esea ch ha has demons a ed he exis ence
o in e nalizing symp oms in adolescen s who a e iolen owa ds
hei pa en s, i should be men ioned ha some ela ion has been
ound be ween iolen beha io and dep essi e symp oma ology
(Cal e e e al., 2013; Paulson, Coombs, & Lands e k, 1990) o
cha ac e is ics associa ed wi h dep essi e symp oma ology, such as
low sel -es eem (Ibabe & Jau eguiza , 2012). In line wi h such
indings, in a s udy ca ied ou in he Uni ed S a es, ju eniles who
had been cha ged wi h CPV p esen ed highe a es o suicide
a emp s and psychological s ess han hose wi h a eco d o o he
ypes o o ence (Kennedy e al., 2010). D ug use ends o be
p eceded by some ype o emo ional dis ess (Shedle & Block,
1990) and in u n, subs ance use can make people mo e ulne able
o dep essi e symp oms (Blanco & Si en , 2006). The e is also
e idence ha a nega i e amily clima e can lead o dep ession in
child en and adolescen s. Fo example, Tuisku e al. (2009) ound
ha he pe cep ion o lowe amily suppo on he pa o
adolescen s was associa ed wi h dep essi e symp oms. I u he
esea ch con i ms ha ju eniles epo ed o CPV p esen a di e en
clinical p o ile om hose cha ged wi h o ences ou side o he
home, he o me will need specialized in e en ion.
Gi en ha he esea ch ca i ed ou o da e on child- o-pa en
iolence has sca cely add essed he s udy o he psychological and
clinical p o ile o he ju eniles in ol ed, he aim o he p esen s udy
was o analyze he ex e nalizing and in e nalizing p oblems o
child en and adolescen s epo ed o CPV, by compa ison wi h hose
who had commi ed o he o ences and adolescen s om he
communi y sample. This would p o ide key in o ma ion so ha he
ju eniles in ques ion can be diagnosed and ea ed mo e e ec i ely.
Secondly, we se ou o explo e he possible gende di e ences in
hese adolescen s’ mani es a ion o ce ain psychological p oblems,
as well as in he di e en ypes o child- o-pa en iolence. And
inally, we ied o iden i y he ex e nalizing and in e nalizing
symp oms ha bes p edic child- o-pa en iolence using S uc u al
Equa ion Modeling (SEM). The hypo heses we e as ollows:
a) Adolescen s ha ha e been epo ed by hei pa en s will
p esen highe a es o subs ance use and ex e nalizing symp oms
ou side he home han ju eniles cha ged wi h o he ypes o o ence
(Ibabe & Jau eguiza , 2012) o hose wi h no eco d o delinquency.
b) Gi ls will p esen highe le els o psychological and emo ional
child- o-pa en iolence (E ans & Wa en-Sohlbe g, 1988; Nock &
Kazdin, 2002), bu ewe beha io p oblems ou side he home (E ans
e al., 2008).
c) Beha io p oblems ou side he amily con ex will be be e
p edic o s o CPV han dep essi e symp oma ology, in acco dance
wi h he indings o p e ious s udies which indica e an impo an
ela ionship wi h beha io p oblems.
I. Ibabe e al. / The Eu opean Jou nal o Psychology Applied o Legal Con ex 6 (2014) 53-61 55
Me hod
Pa icipan s
The sample was made up o 231 adolescen s aged 14 o 18 (M =
16.46, SD = 1.15) om he Basque Coun y (Spain), o bo h sexes (66%
boys). O his o al, 106 we e o ende s (59 had been epo ed by
hei pa en s o being iolen owa ds hem, and 47 had commi ed
o ences ou side he home con ex ) and he es (n = 125) we e non-
o ende s. O he o ende s, 81% we e cu en ly se ing some kind o
sen ence. To ob ain a con ol g oup, we selec ed 125 adolescen s
om a la ge sample (n = 485), also om he Basque Coun y, aking
in o accoun he o ende s’ sex and age1. Boys accoun ed o 75% o
he CPV o ende s, 72% o he o he o ende s, and 60% o he non-
o ende s, while mean age o he pa icipan s in each g oup was,
espec i ely, 16.41, 16.77, and 16.37.
Ins umen s
In a- amily iolence (Ibabe & Jau eguiza , 2011). This 9-i em
ins umen was c ea ed o measu e iolence wi hin he amily, and
includes 3 subscales: in ima e pa ne iolence, iolence by pa en s
agains child en, and child- o-pa en iolence. In he p esen s udy we
used only he CPV subscale o e alua ing physical, psychological, and
emo ional iolence acco ding o Co ell’s (2001) de ini ions. Response
o ma was a 5-poin Like - ype scale ( om 1 = ne e o 5 = many imes)
and esponden s indica ed whe he he beha io was di ec ed owa d
he a he o he mo he (e.g., “I insul o h ea en my a he when I ge
ang y o any eason”). The di e ence be ween psychological and
emo ional iolence is heo e ically suppo ed by nume ous scien i ic
a icles (e.g., Co ell, 2001; Howa d & Ro em, 2009; Kennai & Mello ,
2007) and empi ically by he esul s o explo a o y and con i ma o y
ac o analysis (Ibabe & Jau eguiza , 2011). We ca ied ou a p incipal
componen s analysis and used he Va imax o a ion me hod. Acco ding
o he s anda d c i e ion (ini ial eigen alues highe han 1), we de ined
3 ac o s ha explained 88.85% o he o al a iance. The i s e e s o
physical iolence, was de ined by 2 i ems and explained 50% o he
a iance. The second ac o , made up o 2 i ems, explained 20% o he
a iance and e e ed o psychological CPV. The hi d ac o was made
up o 2 i ems, explained 18% o he a iance, and e e ed o emo ional
CPV. In he p esen s udy he in e nal consis ency o he CPV scale (α =
.80) was good, as well as ha o he h ee ypes o iolence (physical, α
= .85; psychological, α = .88; emo ional, α = .87). An i em was added o
he o iginal scale o assessing “ inancial iolence” (“I s eal money o
hings om my pa en s”).
Mul i- ac o Sel -Assessmen Child Adjus men Tes [Tes
Au oe alua i o Mul i ac o ial de Adap ación In an il – TAMAI]
(He nández, 2004). This es is sel -applied by child en and adolescen s
aged 8 o 18, indi idually o in g oups. I a es pe sonal maladjus men
(e.g., soma iza ion, a ec i e dep ession, cognipuni i eness [dis o ed
iew o onesel and o eali y ha leads bu dening on onesel he
ension o s ess one is expe iencing] o in opuni i eness [nega i e
sel -es eem, sel -ha e, and sel -punishmen ]), school maladjus men
(e.g., school indiscipline, a e sion o he eache , hypomo i a ion o
hypo-e o ), and social maladjus men (e.g., social sel -maladjus men
includes social agg essi eness and dysnomia [ endency o non-
obse a ion o ules o ebellion agains hem]). This ins umen also
includes wo subscales e e ing o amily ela ions ( amily
dissa is ac ion and dissa is ac ion among siblings). Fo all o hese
dimensions he e we e 115 s a emen s wi h yes/no esponse. An i em
example o he case o school maladjus men would be “I beha e e y
badly in class”. C onbach’s alpha coe icien o he subscales anged
om .70 o .92 (He nández, 2004). In he p esen s udy he pe sonal
maladjus men (α = .83) and school maladjus men (α = .75) subscales
showed accep able le els o in e nal consis ency, bu ha o social
maladjus men (α = .46) yielded a less han desi able alue (α < .70).
Beha io Assessmen Sys em o Child en (BASC, Reynolds &
Kamphaus, 1992). This ins umen comp ises 12 subscales o
assessing bo h posi i e dimensions (4 adap i e subscales) and
nega i e dimensions (8 clinical subscales). In he p esen s udy we
applied 5 subscales: 1 posi i e (sel -es eem) and 4 clinical (sensa ion-
seeking, social s ess, anxie y, and ex e nal locus o con ol), wi h a
o al o 50 ue/ alse i ems. An example o social s ess would be “I
eel ou o place when I’m wi h people”. Alpha coe icien s o he
scales used anged om .73 o .83.
Millon Adolescen Clinical In en o y (MACI, Millon, 2004). This
ins umen was designed o assess pe sonali y ai s and clinical
synd omes in adolescen s and comp ises 27 subscales. In his s udy
was adminis e ed only he Subs ance Abuse P oneness subscale. The
MACI is deemed sui able only o adolescen s om clinical
popula ion, and o his eason we applied he TAMAI and some
subscales o he BASC (bo h ins umen s ha can be applied o he
gene al popula ion), which pe mi ed compa ison o he h ee
g oups. The Subs ance Abuse P oneness subscale comp ises 10 i ems
wi h ue/ alse esponse op ions. An example o an i em would be “I
go used o ying ou ha d d ugs o see wha e ec hey had”.
C onbach’s alpha coe icien o he subscale o his s udy was .73.
Apa om his, pa icipan s we e asked a speci ic ques ion abou
he equency o illegal subs ance use: “I ha e used illegal subs ances
(hashish/ma ijuana, ecs asy/designe d ugs, cocaine, speed/
amphe amines, o o he s) in he pas yea ”. Response o ma was a
5-poin Like - ype scale ( om 1 = ne e o 5 = many imes).
Magallanes Scale o Iden i ica ion o A en ion De ici [Escala
Magallanes de Iden i icación de Dé ici de A ención en Adolescen es
– ESMIDA-J] (Ga cía-Pé ez & Magaz, 2006). This is a sel -applied es
o adolescen s aged 14 o 18 and se es o iden i y beha io al
ma ke s o A en ion-De ici Hype ac i i y Diso de (ADHD) and
A en ion-De ici Diso de wi hou Hype ac i i y (ADD). I consis s
o 20 i ems wi h 4-poin Like - ype esponse o ma ( om 1 = e e
o almos ne e o 4 = e y a ely). An i em example would be “I eel
es less, ne ous o uneasy when I’m no doing any hing”. The
subscale associa ed wi h ADHD yielded a C onbach’s alpha o .78,
while he alpha alue o he subscale associa ed wi h ADD was .63.
P ocedu e
Once he necessa y au ho iza ions had been ob ained om he
ins i u ions in ol ed, he young o ende s we e assessed indi idually
a he Ju enile Cou o Vizcaya (Spain) by he psychosocial eam o
a one o he Basque Coun y’s e o m schools ( he e a e 15 o hem)
by he you h wo ke esponsible, in acco dance wi h he
co esponding da a-collec ion p o ocol. This p o ocol se down
he ins uc ions o hose esponsible o he schools and he
psychosocial eam in ela ion o he in o med consen om pa en s
and he co ec applica ion o he assessmen ins umen s desc ibed.
The sample o non-o ende adolescen s was ob ained h ough
schools and he ins umen s we e adminis e ed in class oom g oups
and in he p esence o a membe o he esea ch eam.
Selec ion o he o iginal sample o non-o ende adolescen s (n =
485) was ca ied ou by means o non- andom sampling, depending
on he disposi ion o he schools in ol ed, whose pa icipa ion was
olun a y. In his selec ion p ocess we ook in o accoun ype o
school (public s. p i a e), language model (Spanish and Basque s.
Basque only) and school yea o he adolescen s, wi h a iew o
ob aining a balanced and ep esen a i e sample. This sample came
om 9 schools in he Basque Coun y, and o o m a g oup o non-
o ende s (n = 125) he selec ion was made a andom, aking as a
e e ence he sex and age o hose in he o ende g oup. Pa icipa ing
s uden s handed in he in o med consen o m signed by hei
pa en s o hei class u o s. Applica ion o he ques ionnai es and
assessmen ins umen s ook be ween 45 and 90 minu es, depending
on he pa icipan s’ school yea
56 I. Ibabe e al. / The Eu opean Jou nal o Psychology Applied o Legal Con ex 6 (2014) 53-61
Da a analysis
The uni a ia e s a is ical analyses we e ca ied ou wi h he SPSS
20 p og am. Fi s ly, one- ac o a iance analyses we e ca ied ou
wi h he g oup ac o (CPV o ende s, o he o ende s, and non-
o ende s) and he dependen a iables ca ego ized as child- o-
pa en iolence, p oblems associa ed wi h dep essi e
symp oma ology (pe sonal maladjus men , cognipuni i eness, and
ex e nal locus o con ol) and beha io p oblems ou side he amily
con ex (school and social maladjus men ), and p oblems o o he
ypes ( amily dissa is ac ion). Some o he men ioned a iables
encompassed mo e speci ic a iables, and his was aken in o
accoun on d awing up Table 1. Subsequen ly, Games-Howell pos -
hoc analyses o mul iple compa isons we e ca ied ou . Secondly,
he co ela ion ma ix be ween obse ed a iables was ob ained.
The aim was o c ea e a simple s uc u al model wi h ew a iables
and ha made heo e ical sense, was easily in e p e able wi h good
i o he model da a, and showed good p edic i e capaci y (Ba is a-
Fogue & Coende , 2000); hence, i was necessa y o exclude om
he model some a iables o he Table 1. The EQS 6.1 S uc u al
Equa ion P og am was used o assessing whe he he p oposed
model was app op ia e. The ini ial con i ma o y ac o analysis (CFA)
assessed he adequacy o he measu emen model and he ela ion
be ween he la en a iables. The i s -o de la en a iables included
in he CFA we e: dep essi e symp oma ology (indica o s:
soma iza ion, in opuni i eness, and dep ession), ex e nalizing
symp oms (indica o s: hype ac i i y, school indiscipline, dysnomia,
and social agg essi eness), subs ance use (indica o s: endency o
abuse d ugs, use o illegal subs ances), and child- o-pa en iolence
(indica o s: physical, psychological, emo ional, and inancial
iolence). Mo eo e , a second-o de la en a iable was included,
beha io p oblems ou side he home (la en a iables: ex e nalizing
symp oms and subs ance use).
Nex , we d ew up he SEM model o examining he p edic i e
capaci y o he adolescen s’ dep essi e symp oma ology and
beha io p oblems ou side he amily con ex o child- o-pa en
iolence. We did no ule ou he possibili y ha socio-demog aphic
a iables could p edic iolence agains pa en s. The e o e, we
examined he esul s o he Lag ange mul iplie es (Chou & Ben le ,
1990) wi h he aim o assessing whe he o he pa ame e s should be
included in he model so as o imp o e he i and he le el o
explana ion.
Table 1
Compa ison o means o he s udy a iables by g oup
CPV (n = 59) OO (n = 47) NO (n = 125) Fp
CHILD-TO-PARENT VIOLENCE
Physical iolence 1.83a (73%) 1.42 (29%) 1.24a (16%) 8.43 .000
Psychological iolence 2.20a (84%)1.69 (42%) 1.52a (33%) 6.27 .002
Emo ional iolence 2.16 (67%) 2.30 (65%) 1.91 (48%) 1.09 .340
Financial iolence 1.82a,b (53%) 1.28a (21%) 1.30b (21%) 6.54 .002
EMOTIONAL PROBLEMS
Pe sonal maladjus men 12.73a,b 9.59a9.54b7.62 .001
Dep essi e symp oma ology
- Cognipuni i eness 8.40a,b 6.13a6.63b8.01 .000
• Soma iza ion 3.57a2.85 2.61a3.56 .028
• In opuni i eness 5.25a,b 4.04a4.12b8.50 .000
• Dep ession 1.61a,b 0.87a0.84b11.27 .000
- Ex e nal locus o con ol 5.59a4.31 3.21a14.13 .000
BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS
School maladjus men 19.08a,b 15.22a13.67b13.62 .000
- A e sion o he eache 16.53a,b 13.78a12.33b10.83 .007
• School hypomo i a ion 6.58a5.26 4.76a6.78 .001
• School hypo-e o 6.58a,b 5.26a4.76b9.76 .000
- School indiscipline 2.56a,b 1.43a1.33b13.45 .002
- Hype ac i i y 7.08a7.07b4.62ab 11.43 .000
- A en ion de ici 1.86 1.34 1.17 3.64 .003
Social maladjus men 13.85a,b 11.26a10.26b13.70 .000
- Social sel -maladjus men 6.02a4.54 3.45a17.26 .000
• Social agg essi eness 1.24a,b 0.74ac 0.38bc 18.04 .000
• Dysnomia 4.78a3.80b3.07ab 11.21 .000
- D ug use
• Subs ance use p oneness 3.54a3.52b1.04a,b 25.59 .000
• Illegal subs ance use 3.78a3.14b1.80a,b 28.71 .000
OTHER TYPES OF PROBLEMS
Family dissa is ac ion 2.16a,b 1.64a0.22b17.44 .000
No e. CPV = ju eniles wi h CPV cha ges, OO = ju eniles cha ged wi h o he o ences, NO = non-o ende s, illegal subs ance use = use o illegal subs ances in he las yea . In
i alics he global dimensions o he TAMAIa,b,c, whe e he Games-Howell pos -hoc mul iple compa isons a e signi ican p < .05. The a iables no included in his able we e no
signi ican in he ANOVAs.
I. Ibabe e al. / The Eu opean Jou nal o Psychology Applied o Legal Con ex 6 (2014) 53-61 57
A se ies o i indexes we e calcula ed, including: (a) gene al χ2,
(b) compa a i e i index (CFI), (c) Ben le -Bonne non-no ma i e i
index (NNFI), (d) he Bollen inc emen al i index (IFI), and (e) Roo
mean squa e e o o app oxima ion (RMSEA). The Chi-squa ed (χ2)
s a is ical ma ke was used o assess he di e ence be ween he
p oposed models and he sa u a ed models. The p ac ical i indexes
used we e he IFI, CFI, and NNFI and alues o o e .90 we e expec ed
o hese ma ke s (Ben le , 2006). The RMSEA index was used o
measu ing he easonable e o o app oxima ion in e ms o
goodness o i and he alues o he RMSEA index (.01, .05 and .08)
indica e excellen , good, and medioc e i , espec i ely (MacCallum,
B owne, & Sugawa a, 1996).
The analyses we e ca ied ou wi h he comple e in o ma ion
using he maximum likelihood me hod (e.g., A buckle, 1996;
Jamshidian & Ben le , 1998). The no malized Yuan, Lambe , and
Fouladi (2004) ku osis coe icien was low (6.52). In some uni a ia e
dis ibu ions a lack o no mali y was de ec ed: physical child- o-
pa en iolence (asymme y = 2.12, ku osis = 2.66) and inancial
child- o-pa en iolence (asymme y = 2.22, ku osis = 4.95).
Resul s
Physical and inancial iolence agains pa en s is a he oo o
many cases in which he pa en s epo hei child o he police o
o he au ho i ies. A o al o 73% o CPV o ende s s a ed ha hey
ha e used physical iolence agains hei pa en s a some ime, bu
his is also he case o 29% o o he o ende s and 16% o adolescen
non-o ende s. Mo eo e , 53% o CPV o ende s epo ed ha ing
pe pe a ed so-called “ inancial iolence”, as well as 21% o o he
o ende s and 21% o adolescen non-o ende s.
Compa isons o Means by G oup
Table 1 shows he compa isons o means o he s udy a iables by
g oup. Ju eniles epo ed by hei pa en s o CPV p esen mo e
physical, psychological and inancial iolence han non-o ende s.
Also, conside ing he pe cen ages, CPV o ende s, by compa ison wi h
o he young o ende s, p esen ed highe a es o physical, χ2(1, N = 89)
= 10.46, p = .001, φ = .44; psychological, χ2(1, N = 89) = 10.66, p = .001,
φ = .44; and inancial iolence, χ2(1, N = 96) = 7.07, p = .008, φ = .33. The
h ee o iginal g oups we e o med in acco dance wi h hei pa en s’
epo s o CPV. The cases epo ed no mally in ol e se ious assaul o
abuse and epea ed iolen beha io by child en agains hei pa en s
o e a numbe o yea s. Howe e , in he p esen s udy we also ook
in o accoun spo adic iolen beha io agains pa en s and mild
physical iolence. The e o e, he esul s ob ained in he compa ison o
means o CPV by g oup need no be conside ed incompa ible.
Fu he mo e, he CPV g oup adolescen s sco e highe in a iables
ela ed o dep essi e symp oma ology (cognipuni i eness,
in opuni i eness, and dep ession) and pe sonal maladjus men
han hose in he o he g oups. On he o he hand, he CPV g oup
sha es wi h he “o he o ences” g oup ce ain emo ional p oblems
(ex e nal locus o con ol, hypomo i a ion, and soma iza ion), in
con as o he non-o ende g oup.
As ega ds beha io p oblems, he CPV g oup shows highe le els
o school maladjus men (a e sion o he eache and school
indiscipline) and social maladjus men (social agg essi eness) han
he o he wo g oups. Finally, he wo o ende g oups p esen
g ea e le el o hype ac i i y, dysnomia, and d ug use han he non-
o ende g oup.
Mean sco es o pe sonal, school, and social maladjus men o he
CPV g oup we e a a “medium-high” le el ( om pe cen ile 61 o
pe cen ile 80). Howe e , he non-o ende g oup p esen ed a
“medium” le el ( om pe cen ile 41 o pe cen ile 60) o he h ee
ypes o maladjus men (pe sonal, school, and social).
Co ela ion Ma ix be ween he Obse ed Va iables
As can be seen in Table 2, physical CPV co ela ed abo e all wi h
a ious ex e nalizing symp oms (hype ac i i y, social agg essi eness,
Table 2
Co ela ion ma ix o he obse ed a iables o he s uc u al model
MDT 12345678910111213
Child- o-pa en iolence
1. CPV cha ges126% - -
2. Physical CPV 1.38 .72 .30** -
3. Psychological CPV 1.68 .99 .26** .34** -
4. Emo ional CPV 2.03 1.20 .05 .33** .26** -
5. Financial CPV 1.41 .80 .26** .30** .31** .23** -
Dep essi e symp oma ology
6. Soma iza ion 2.90 2.26 .17** .07 .11 .18* .22** -
7. In opuni i eness 4.39 1.87 .27** .13 .17* .19* .20** .52** -
8. Dep ession 1.04 1.08 .31** .17* .21** .19* .20** .61** .52** -
Beha io p oblems ou side he home
Ex e nalizing symp oms
9. Hype ac i i y 5.49 3.54 .22** .29** .18* .32** .24** .37** .24** .31** -
10. Indiscipline 1.67 1.62 .33** .05 .01 .16* .17* .21** .22** .23** .41** -
11. Social agg essi eness 0.67 .97 .34** .22** .35** .20* .17* .28** .22** .35** .41** .41** -
12. Dysnomia 3.67 2.38 .28** .20** .20* .20* .21** .26** .35** .33** .42** .62** .46** -
D ug use
13. Subs ance abuse p oneness .88 2.51 .32** .22** .04 .13 .29** .21** .21** .31** .40** .40** .33** .33**
14. Illegal subs ance use 2.41 1.63 .37** .25** .12 .10 .26** .17* .18* .25** .36** .41** .32** .33** .78**
No e. Illegal subs ance use = use o illegal subs ances in he las yea , 1CPV cha ges (CPV o ende s = 1 s. o he o ende s and non-o ende s = 0).
*p < .05, **p < .01.
58 I. Ibabe e al. / The Eu opean Jou nal o Psychology Applied o Legal Con ex 6 (2014) 53-61
dysnomia), d ug use, and dep ession. Emo ional iolence and
inancial iolence we e posi i ely associa ed wi h all he a iables
ca ego ized as dep essi e symp oma ology, as well as wi h he
a iables designa ed as ex e nalizing symp oms (hype ac i i y,
indiscipline, social agg essi eness, and dysnomia), while subs ance
use (subs ance abuse p oneness and illegal subs ance use) co ela ed
signi ican ly wi h physical and inancial iolence. The signi ican
co ela ions we e o mode a e o low in ensi y (Cohen, 1988)
Con i ma o y Fac o Analysis
An ini ial con i ma o y ac o analysis demons a ed he
pe inence o he measu emen model p oposed and he associa ions
be ween he la en a iables and an obse ed a iable. All he ac o
loadings and he associa ions be ween he la en a iables we e
signi ican (p < .001). Table 3 shows he co ela ions be ween he
la en a iables and sex. In e ms o he Cohen (1988) e ec size,
child- o-pa en iolence was mode a ely associa ed wi h dep essi e
symp oma ology ( = .39, p < .001) and wi h beha io p oblems ( =
.55, p < .001); on he o he hand, dep essi e symp oma ology and
beha io p oblems ou side he home we e signi ican ly ela ed ( =
.56, p < .001). Howe e , being a gi l was only in e sely associa ed
wi h beha io p oblems ( = -.19, p < .001). The i indexes o he CFA
model we e adequa e: ML, χ2(70, N = 231) = 111.87, CFI = .99, NNFI =
.98, IFI = .98, RMSEA =. 051; Yuan-Ben le , χ2(70, N = 231) = 106.42,
CFI = .99, NNFI = .99, IFI = .99, RMSEA = .048.
S uc u al Model
The i indexes o his model we e accep able wi h he maximum
likelihood me hod: ML, χ2 (71, N = 231) = 110.65, p < .001, CFI = .99,
NNFI = .98, IFI = .98, RMSEA =. 049, while wi h he Yuan-Ben le
(2000) obus me hod he i o he da a o he model imp o ed
sligh ly, χ2(71, N = 231) = 105.03, CFI = .99, NNFI = .99, IFI = .99, RMSEA
= .046 (see Figu e 1). In acco dance wi h he obus s anda d e o s,
all he ac o loadings we e signi ican o p < .001. The s uc u al
model explained 30% o he a iance o child- o-pa en iolence. The
beha io p oblems ac o signi ican ly p edic ed CPV (β = .47, p <
.001), while dep essi e symp oma ology did no (β = .13, p > .05).
Mo eo e , he e was a posi i e and signi ican ela ion be ween
dep essi e symp oma ology and beha io p oblems in adolescen
sons and daugh e s ( = .61, p < .001). Being emale eme ged as a
signi ican p edic o o emo ional CPV (β = .17, p < .001) and o
beha io p oblems (β = -.22, p < .001). Acco ding o hese esul s,
gi ls pe pe a e mo e emo ional iolence agains pa en s han boys,
bu p esen ewe beha io p oblems ou side he home.
Finally, we es ed an al e na i e model inco po a ing he obse ed
a iable CPV G oup (CPV o ende s = 1 s. o he o ende s and non-
o ende s = 0) as a p edic o o he la en a iables. The esul s
indica e accep able i : ML, χ2(83, N = 231) = 154.45, p < .001, CFI =.96,
NNFI = .95, IFI = .96, RMSEA =. 06; Yuan-Ben le , χ2 = 147.54, CFI = .97,
NNFI = .96, IFI = .97, RMSEA = .06. In his model, o ende s epo ed
o CPV we e signi ican ly associa ed wi h highe le els o child- o-
pa en iolence (β = .47, p < .001), mo e dep essi e symp oma ology
(β = .34, p < .001), and mo e beha io p oblems ou side he home
(β = .47, p < .001).
Discussion
The p esen s udy compa ed samples om di e en con ex s
(judicial and communi y) wi h a iew o ob aining he clinical
p o ile o ju eniles who assaul hei pa en s. Young o ende s
cha ged wi h child- o-pa en iolence show a di e en
psychological p o ile om hose o o he o ende s and non-
Table 3
Co ela ions be ween he la en a iables and he obse ed a iable
123
1. Child- o-pa en iolence -
2. Dep essi e symp oma ology .39** -
3. Beha io p oblems .55** .56** -
4. Female .06 .10 -.19*
*p < .01, **p < .001
SUBSTANCE
USE
PR
O
NENE
SS
.47
.17
.13
.76
.80
.67
.62
.76
.90
.60
.53
.65
.73
.55
.51
.94
.61
.87
.65
-.22
.53
.54
.51
.55
EXTERNALIZING
SYMPTOMS
DEPRESSIVE
SYMPTOMATOLOGY
CHILD-TO-PARENT
VIOLENCE
R2 = .30
SOMATIZATION
INTROPUNITIVE
-NESS
DEPRESSION
DYSNOMIA
AGRESSIVE-
NESS
PHYSICAL
PSYCHOLOGICAL
FEMALE
EMOTIONAL
FINANCIAL
INDISCIPLINE
HYPERACTIVITY
DRUG
USE
ILLEGAL
SUBSTANCES
BEHAVIOR
PROBLEMS OUTSIDE
HOME
Figu e 1. S uc u al model o he p edic o s o child- o-pa en iolence.
No e. Goodness o i N = 231; ML, χ2(71) = 110.65, CFI = .99, NNFI = .98, IFI = .99 RMSEA = .049. All he s anda dized coe icien s a e signi ican (p < .001), excep ha o dep essi-
e symp oma ology (p > .05).
I. Ibabe e al. / The Eu opean Jou nal o Psychology Applied o Legal Con ex 6 (2014) 53-61 59
o ende s, wi h mo e beha io p oblems ou side he home and
emo ional p oblems. I was hypo hesized ha adolescen s who had
been epo ed by hei pa en s would p esen mo e beha io
p oblems ou side he home han hose cha ged wi h o he ypes o
o ence (Ibabe & Jau eguiza , 2012) o non-o ende s. This
hypo hesis was con i med on ou inding ha he CPV g oup
showed highe a es o school maladjus men (school indiscipline,
a e sion o he eache ) and social maladjus men (social
agg essi eness) han he o he wo g oups. These esul s would be
in he line o hose om o he s udies, since he p o ile o
adolescen s who assaul hei pa en s includes school adjus men
p oblems (Ibabe e al., 2009) and iolen beha io s ou side he
amily en i onmen (Agnew & Huguley, 1989; Jau eguiza e al.,
2013). On he o he hand, and p edic ably, he wo o ende g oups
sha ed high sco es in a ange o beha io p oblems cha ac e is ic o
young o ende s in gene al (subs ance abuse p oneness, use o
illegal subs ances, hype ac i i y, a en ion de ici , dysnomia, and
social sel -maladjus men ).
P e ious s udies had ound ha alcohol and/o d ug use
p edic ed child- o-pa en iolence (Cal e e e al, 2013; Ibabe &
Jau eguiza , 2011; Ibabe & Jau eguiza , 2012). The esul s o he
p esen s udy p o ide a new pic u e, since he o ende s’ p o ile is
clea : subs ance abuse p oneness and use o illegal subs ances a e
much highe in he wo o ende g oups han in he non-o ende
g oup. The no el y o he p esen s udy’s indings esides, howe e ,
in he ac ha ju eniles epo ed o iolence agains hei pa en s
p esen highe le els o pe sonal maladjus men , wi h a no able
incidence o symp oms associa ed wi h dep essed s a e
(cognipuni i eness – a ec i e dep ession and in opuni i eness –
and poo school pe o mance) by compa ison wi h o he young
o ende s and non-o ende s. Al hough ew s udies ha e ocused on
he analysis o emo ional p oblems, i is impo an o no e ha
hese adolescen s had al eady been iden i ied wi h a p o ile
showing mo e dep essi e symp oma ology and mo e psychological
s ess, compa ed o hose who we e no iolen owa ds hei
pa en s (e.g., Cal e e e al., 2013; Ibabe & Jau eguiza , 2012;
Kennedy e al., 2010). In he ligh o his empi ical e idence i can
be s a ed ha child- o-pa en iolence is no solely he esul o
dys unc ional amily ela ions, bu is also ela ed o beha io
diso de s (Kennedy e al., 2010) and emo ional diso de s in he
ju eniles in ol ed. On he o he hand, i should be no ed ha no
signi ican di e ences we e ound be ween he h ee g oups o
sel -es eem, despi e he indings o some p e ious esea ch ha
young o ende s who assaul ed hei pa en s had lowe sel -es eem
han o ende s who did no commi iolence agains hei pa en s
(Ibabe & Jau eguiza , 2012). Howe e , i should also be poin ed ou
ha in opuni i eness, which encompasses nega i e sel -es eem,
sel -ha e and sel -punishmen is ela ed o CPV.
Secondly, and in ela ion o gende di e ences in he iolence
pe pe a ed, we expec ed o ind highe le els o psychological and
emo ional iolence agains pa en s in daugh e s (E ans & Wa en-
Sohlbe g, 1988; Kennai & Mello , 2007; Nock & Kazdin, 2002) and
lowe a es o beha io p oblems. Ou hypo hesis was con i med
o emo ional iolence and o beha io p oblems, bu he e we e
no di e ences be ween boys and gi ls as ega ds psychological
abuse. T adi ionally, i has been conside ed ha males a e mo e
agg essi e han emales, bo h in si ua ions o domes ic iolence
and in hose o pee iolence (A che , 2004; Paulson e al., 1990).
Acco ding o he s uc u al model, he a e o beha io p oblems
ou side he amily con ex was lowe in gi ls, bu he e we e no
signi ican di e ences wi h ega d o emo ional symp oms. Simila
indings ha e been epo ed elsewhe e (E ans e al., 2008; Ki zmann
e al., 2003).
As a as he p edic ion o child- o-pa en iolence is conce ned,
i should be highligh ed ha beha io p oblems (hype ac i i y,
indiscipline, social agg essi eness, and subs ance use) ou side o he
home a e be e p edic o s o CPV han emo ional p oblems e ol ing
basically a ound dep essi e symp oma ology. In a p e ious s udy,
Cal e e e al. (2013) also ound ha wo beha io al cha ac e is ics o
sons and daugh e s (d ug use and p oac i e iolence) p edic ed CPV.
The inding ela ed o subs ance use is also cohe en wi h hose o
di e se p e ious s udies on CPV (e.g., Ibabe & Jau eguiza , 2011;
Pagani e al., 2009). The e is a well-known ela ionship be ween
subs ance use and inc eased agg essi eness in in e pe sonal and
amily ela ions (e.g., B ook, B ook, Rosen, De la Rosa, Mon oya, &
Whi man, 2003). On he o he hand, esea ch has indica ed ha in
adolescence, dep essi e symp oma ology may p ecede he abuse o
a ious chemical subs ances (Ho ens, Can well, & Ki iakos, 1994),
and in u n such abuse leads o symp oms associa ed wi h dep ession
(Blanco & Si en , 2006).
The ela ion be ween CPV and p oac i e iolence suppo s claims
abou he ins umen al use o iolence by adolescen s agains hei
pa en s (Cal e e e al., 2013). The ac ha CPV o ende s p esen
mo e beha io p oblems han o he young o ende s and non-
o ende s leads one o hink ha ce ain psychological p oblems in
adolescen s can p ecipi a e si ua ions o con lic in he amily con ex
o ice e sa. This di e ence ound in CPV o ende s may be due o
hese p oblems no ha ing been diagnosed and adequa ely ea ed
om he psychological poin o iew and because o he pa en s’
di icul y o con olling hei child en’s inapp op ia e beha io s
(e.g., dep essi e symp oma ology o d ug abuse).
The ela ion be ween mul i-le el maladjus men (pe sonal,
school, and social) and an isocial and delinquen beha io s is well
documen ed (e.g., A ce, Fa iña, & Vázquez, 2011; Lösel & Bende ,
2003). Maladjus men was g ea e in CPV o ende s han in he o he
wo g oups, and he a es yielded can be classed as qui e high. The
clinical cha ac e is ics ound in he CPV g oup, some o which a e
sha ed wi h he o he young o ende s g oup, a e compa ible wi h
hose in he a en ion de ici diso de s g oup and he dis up i e
beha io s g oup (including a en ion-de ici hype ac i i y diso de ,
dissocial diso de , and opposi ional de ian diso de ), and his
inding is in line wi h hose o a p e ious s udy (Ibabe & Jau eguiza ,
2012). Rega dless o he psychological diso de s in hese youngs e s,
iolen beha io by child en agains hei pa en s indica es a ailu e
o high- isk adolescen s o lea n he app op ia e social and emo ional
skills o p ope ly egula ing hei beha io s and emo ions. The
esul s o he p esen s udy con i m he need o child en in hese
si ua ions o ecei e indi idual psychological he apies. The
cogni i e-beha io al pe spec i e has shown i sel o be he mos
e ec i e in nume ous beha io diso de s (Yen e al., 2013). Such
echniques could help o achie e changes in hese youngs e s as
ega ds bo h he way hey beha e and he way hey hink ( alues,
belie s, and a i udes).
In his s udy i has been shown ha child en and adolescen s who
assaul hei pa en s a e cha ac e ized by p esen ing a ious ypes o
maladjus men , emo ional imbalance associa ed wi h dep essed
s a e, and amily dissa is ac ion – cha ac e is ics adi ionally
associa ed wi h pa en al dep i a ion (e.g., Bengoechea, 1996) — and
mo e ecen ly wi h pe missi e-neglec ul o indi e en pa en ing
s yles (Co ell & Monk, 2004); his issue should be add essed in
u u e esea ch.
Limi a ions
The p incipal limi a ion o he p esen s udy would be ha , as
occu s in c oss-sec ional esea ch, we canno es ablish causal
ela ionships be ween emo ional o beha io p oblems and child- o-
pa en iolence, bu only ea hem as p edic o s (no causes) o his
phenomenon. Ano he limi a ion would be ela ed o he da a-
collec ion me hodology, as he e could be p oblems o da a alidi y:
i is likely ha some adolescen s, e en when esponding o
ques ionnai es anonymously and con iden ially, ail o admi ha ing
60 I. Ibabe e al. / The Eu opean Jou nal o Psychology Applied o Legal Con ex 6 (2014) 53-61
assaul ed hei pa en s, ei he ou o shame o ea o social ejec ion,
so ha he p e alence o CPV is unde es ima ed. E en so, his
p oblem has been esol ed, in pa , h ough he in o ma ion ob ained
on epo ed cases o CPV and o he in o ma ion p o ided by he
Ju enile Cou s.
Con lic o In e es
The au ho s o his a icle decla e no con lic o in e es .
No e
1The non-o ende g oup is somewha la ge han he o he wo g oups, so as o a oid
p oblems in he s a is ical analyses a ising om he small numbe o pa icipan s and
missing alues. Ne e heless, i was con i med ha he e we e no signi ican
di e ences be ween he h ee g oups by sex, χ2(2, N = 231) = 4.99, p = .08, o age, χ2(8,
N = 231) = 10.68, p = .22.
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