TYPE O iginal Resea ch
PUBLISHED 13 June 2025
DOI 10.3389/ psyg.2025.1585199
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED BY
Síl ia Roque,
Uni e si y o E o a, Po ugal
REVIEWED BY
Isabel Ven u a,
Uni e sidade Abe a, Po ugal
Ma ia João Faus ino,
Uni e si y o Coimb a, Po ugal
*CORRESPONDENCE
Nahia Idoiaga-Mond agon
[email p o ec ed]
RECEIVED 18 Ma ch 2025
ACCEPTED 21 May 2025
PUBLISHED 13 June 2025
CITATION
Idoiaga-Mond agon N, Lego bu u
Fe nandez I, Picaza Go o xa egi M and
Alonso Saez I (2025) The ise o an i eminis
pe spec i es among u u e educa o s: a
g owing conce n?
F on . Psychol. 16:1585199.
doi: 10.3389/ psyg.2025.1585199
COPYRIGHT
©2025 Idoiaga-Mond agon, Lego bu u
Fe nandez, Picaza Go o xa egi and Alonso
Saez. This is an open-access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e
Commons A ibu ion License (CC BY). The
use, dis ibu ion o ep oduc ion in o he
o ums is pe mi ed, p o ided he o iginal
au ho (s) and he copy igh owne (s) a e
c edi ed and ha he o iginal publica ion in
his jou nal is ci ed, in acco dance wi h
accep ed academic p ac ice. No use,
dis ibu ion o ep oduc ion is pe mi ed
which does no comply wi h hese e ms.
The ise o an i eminis
pe spec i es among u u e
educa o s: a g owing conce n?
Nahia Idoiaga-Mond agon1*, Idoia Lego bu u Fe nandez2,
Mai ane Picaza Go o xa egi2and Is ael Alonso Saez2
1Depa men o E olu iona y and Educa ional Psychology, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y UPV/EHU,
Leioa, Spain, 2Depa men o Didac ics and School O ganiza ion, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y
UPV/EHU, Bilbao, Spain
In oduc ion: An i eminis discou ses ha e his o ically eme ged in esponse o
eminis ad ancemen s. In Spain, he pas decade has seen significan eminis
p og ess, ye an i eminis he o ic has simul aneously gained ac ion, pa icula ly
among younge popula ions. This s udy examines he an i eminis na a i es
p esen among uni e si y s uden s in educa ion p og ams, a c i ical demog aphic
as u u e educa o s play a key ole in shaping social a i udes.
Me hods: A ee associa ion exe cise was conduc ed wi h 252 s uden s
en olled in educa ion p og ams. The collec ed ex ual da a we e analyzed using
I amu eq so wa e, applying lexical analysis echniques o iden i y dominan
an i eminis discou ses.
Resul s: The findings indica e ha he mos p ominen an i eminis na a i es
among pa icipan s cen e on eminis p inciples, sala y aspi a ions, pe cei ed
dispa i ies in igh s, household cho es, and he alleged p o oca i e beha io
o women. No ably, equen ly ci ed s a emen s include “Feminism does no
seek equali y” and “They expec o be paid he same”, eflec ing common
misconcep ions abou eminism. Despi e exp essing suppo o gende equali y,
pa icipan s we e less likely o sel -iden i y as eminis s.
Discussion: These findings highligh he con adic ions wi hin young adul s’
pe cep ions o eminism and gende equali y. The pe sis ence o an i eminis
na a i es wi hin u u e educa o s unde sco es he need o add ess hese
discou ses in academic se ings. In eg a ing eminis pedagogies in o eache
aining p og ams is essen ial o os e ing a mo e equi able and in o med
educa ional en i onmen .
Conclusion: This s udy unde sco es he necessi y o ac i ely con on ing
an i eminis he o ic wi hin educa ional ins i u ions o ensu e ha u u e
educa o s con ibu e o gende equali y a he han pe pe ua e misconcep ions.
KEYWORDS
eminism, an i eminism, uni e si y s uden s, educa o s, gende pe spec i e
1 In oduc ion
1.1 Feminism: wa es and poli ical s ands
Feminism is one o he mos signi ican social mo emen s in ecen indus ialized
socie ies, spa king socie al deba e (Delma , 2018;Loke e al., 2017). This social and
poli ical mo emen is oo ed in he pu sui o equal igh s o women and men, alongside
he e adica ion o gende -based disc imina ion (A a , 2015;Bha acha jya e al., 2013;
F on ie s in Psychology 01 on ie sin.o g
Idoiaga-Mond agon e al. 10.3389/ psyg.2025.1585199
Pa isi, 2002;Zemba , 2017). I eme ged in esponse o he
sys ema ic inequali ies and opp essions ha women ha e aced
h oughou his o y (Connelly e al., 2000;Fe ee and Muelle ,
2004). O e ime, eminism has e ol ed h ough di e en wa es
and app oaches, ye i s undamen al objec i es emain consis en :
ad oca ing o gende equali y, women’s empowe men , and,
consequen ly, global jus ice (Co nwall and Ri as, 2015).
While o mal eminism eme ged in he la e eigh een h cen u y,
i is impo an o ecognize ha h oughou his o y, many women
ques ioned he socie al oles imposed upon hem and challenged
p e ailing con en ions. Howe e , hese women a e no ypically
ca ego ized wi hin any speci ic eminis wa e, as hei con ibu ions
we e o en indi idual and lacked he collec i e awa eness o igh ing
o a sha ed cause, as seen la e wi h he i s -wa e eminis s
(Rowbo ham, 2013).
I is uncommon o speak o a “wa e” o eminism in he
mode n sense du ing he eigh een h cen u y. Howe e , ha
pe iod wi nessed signi ican e en s and igu es ha helped lay he
ounda ions o he la e de elopmen o he eminis mo emen ,
especially du ing he Enligh enmen , when some hinke s began
o ques ion adi ional no ions o women’s in e io i y (Le ne ,
1993). The con ibu ions o igu es such as Olympe de Gouges
o Ma y Wolls onec a we e no able (C enn, 2019). Ne e heless,
he powe s ha be eac ed e y nega i ely o his i s enligh ened
eminis deba e, leading o he exclusion o women om poli ical
igh s (Spence , 2012).
While Anglo-Saxon eminis heo ies ha e la gely shaped
Wes e n academic discou se, i is essen ial o acknowledge o he
eminis adi ions ha ha e signi ican ly con ibu ed o he
s uggle o gende equali y. In he Ibe ian Peninsula, o ins ance,
he Enligh enmen pe iod wi nessed he eme gence o eminis
oices ha ques ioned he subo dina ion o women and ad oca ed
o hei access o educa ion, in ellec ual de elopmen , and ci ic
pa icipa ion (Smi h, 2006). These ea ly con ibu ions, o en
o e looked in mains eam na a i es, emind us o he impo ance
o si ua ing eminis mo emen s wi hin di e se his o ical and
geog aphical con ex s (Be múdez and Johnson, 2018).
The i s wa e o eminism, o en e e ed o as su agism,
eme ged in he mid-nine een h cen u y in he Uni ed S a es and
he Uni ed Kingdom. Du ing his phase, eminism ansi ioned
om a pu ely in ellec ual endea o o a mobilized social mo emen
(Sande s, 2004). Howe e , his wa e was no monoli hic (Rome
e al., 2019). In e nal deba es eme ged ega ding s a egies
(cons i u ionalism s. mili ancy), he inclusion o wo king-class
women and acial mino i ies, and di e ing p io i ies be ween
poli ical and social igh s (Mayhall, 2000). Su agism was p ima ily
led by whi e bou geois women. By he la e nine een h and ea ly
wen ie h cen u ies, women’s su age became a eali y (DuBois,
1998). Howe e , he no ion o g an ing legal and ci il igh s o
women, including he igh o o e, aced esis ance om a ious
on s o g oups, such as an i-su agis s, social conse a ism,
eligious opposi ion, and an i eminis mo emen s in he p ess
(Bush, 2007;S eu e , 1992). In Spain, women’s su age was g an ed
in 1931, du ing he Second Spanish Republic. Howe e , he F anco
dic a o ship ha ollowed he Ci il Wa ehemen ly opposed i ,
and Spanish women did no eclaim his igh un il he gene al
elec ions o June 1977, ollowing he demise o he F anco egime
(Aguado, 2012).
The second wa e o eminism, occu ing oughly in he
1960s and 1970s, ma ked an expansion and e olu ion o he
eminis mo emen . This phase was cha ac e ized by add essing
a b oade ange o issues ela ed o gende equali y and women’s
libe a ion, including wo kplace equali y, ep oduc i e igh s, an i-
disc imina ion e o s, challenging adi ional gende oles, and
aising awa eness o gende -based iolence (Tho nham, 2004).
Du ing his pe iod, eminism di e si ied in o mul iple s ands,
including adical eminism, which ocused on s uc u al pa ia chy;
libe al eminism, ad oca ing legal e o ms; socialis eminism,
add essing class and gende in e sec ions; and eco eminism,
linking en i onmen al and gende s uggles (della Po a and Bonu
Rosenk anz, 2025). These cu en s o en coexis ed in ension,
e lec ing he mo emen ’s he e ogenei y (Mann and Hu man,
2005). Like he i s wa e, he second wa e encoun e ed esis ance
and opposi ion om a ious sec o s o socie y (Whelehan, 1995).
Du ing his pe iod, conse a i e eminism con inued o gain
ac ion, gi ing ise o p o-li e g oups c i ical o ep oduc i e igh s
mo emen s, esis ance o changes in gende oles, and s ong
c i icism om conse a i e and eligious g oups agains sexual
libe a ion, among o he challenges (Bu dick, 2023;Foxwo h,
2018). The second wa e o eminism in Spain had a signi ican
impac in he 1970s and 1980s, coinciding wi h a pe iod o poli ical
and social ans o ma ion in he coun y (La ondo U e a, 2020).
The hi d wa e o eminism eme ged in he 1990s and ex ended
in o he i s decades o he wen y- i s cen u y (Snyde , 2008).
This wa e a ose in esponse o pe cep ions ha he s uggles and
achie emen s o second-wa e eminism did no adequa ely add ess
he di e se expe iences and challenges aced by women in a ious
con ex s (Heywood and D ake, 1997). These challenges included
in e sec ionali y, sexuali y and sexual empowe men , body image,
popula cul u e, ep oduc i e jus ice, gende -based iolence, sexual
ha assmen , leade ship and poli ical pa icipa ion, and he use
o social ne wo ks and he in e ne (Gillis e al., 2004;Snyde ,
2008,2010;Tiwa i, 2023). The hi d wa e also coincided wi h he
ise o pos - eminism, which e-signi ied eminis ideas h ough
neolibe al, indi idualis ic lenses, o en ocusing on pe sonal choice
and empowe men while sidelining collec i e and s uc u al
c i iques (Gill, 2007). This o e lap gene a ed ensions and deba es
abou he u u e di ec ions o eminism (Snyde , 2008).
F om his hi d wa e, ac i is s and academics ha e iden i ied
he eme gence o a ou h wa e o eminism in he second decade o
he wen y- i s cen u y. This wa e is cha ac e ized by i s heo e ical
ounda ions in comba ing iolence agains women (Ba iga, 2020;
Mun o, 2013;Ri e s, 2017). Mo eo e , i is s ongly linked o online
ac i ism and mo emen s such as #MeToo while also d awing om
in e sec ionali y, di e si y, and eco eminism (Tiwa i, 2023).
1.2 Feminism in Spain: achie emen s and
con o e sies
In Spain, eminis mo emen s ha e expe ienced signi ican
empowe men in he pas decade, no ably highligh ed by he
massi e demons a ions o he eminis s ikes on Ma ch 8, 2018,
and 2019 (Idoiaga Mond agon e al., 2022). Addi ionally, la ge-
scale p o es s and demons a ions ensued in esponse o he lenien
F on ie s in Psychology 02 on ie sin.o g
Idoiaga-Mond agon e al. 10.3389/ psyg.2025.1585199
sen encing o he pe pe a o s in he “La Manada” gang ape case
(Idoiaga Mond agon e al., 2020). Mo eo e , many ad ancemen s
championed and ealized by he Minis y o Equali y du ing he
14 h legisla u e, such as he “Only yes, is yes” law o he “T ans law,”
ha e u he bols e ed he eminis mo emen , ga ne ing suppo
e en wi hin eminis ci cles (Sanz, 2023).
The “Only Yes is Yes” law (O ganic Law on he Comp ehensi e
Gua an ee o Sexual F eedom), app o ed in 2022, ede ined sexual
consen in Spain, es ablishing ha consen mus be a i ma i e,
explici , and canno be assumed in ambiguous si ua ions. This
legisla i e change sough o add ess gaps in p e ious legal
amewo ks ha equi ed e idence o iolence o in imida ion o
quali y an ac as sexual assaul . Howe e , he law’s implemen a ion
led o signi ican con o e sy due o ce ain echnical aspec s o
he penal code e o m, which inad e en ly esul ed in sen ence
educ ions o some con ic ed o ende s. This spa ked a wa e o
c i icism om conse a i e poli ical sec o s, mains eam media,
and e en wi hin pa s o he judicia y (Asensi-Rod íguez and
Ma ínez-Rolán, 2024). The ensuing backlash ueled an i eminis
na a i es, aming he law as an example o ideological excess and
incompe ence, he eby ampli ying social pola iza ion ega ding
gende equali y policies (Ri as Venegas, 2021).
Simila ly, he app o al o he “T ans Law” (Law o he Real
and E ec i e Equali y o T ans People and Gua an ee o LGTBI
Righ s) in 2023, which acili a es gende sel -iden i ica ion, has
also been a sou ce o in ense public and poli ical deba e. Besides
opposi ion om conse a i e sec o s, his law has p o oked
in e nal ensions wi hin eminis mo emen s, pa icula ly
be ween ans-inclusi e pe spec i es and ans-exclusiona y
adical eminis posi ions (Pla e o, 2023). These deba es ha e
u he pola ized public discou se on gende and eminism in
Spain, con ibu ing o a e ile g ound o an i eminis na a i es
(Pé ez, 2024).
Howe e , hese ad ancemen s ha e also spa ked an i eminis
mo emen s, p ima ily oo ed in he mos conse a i e poli ical
pa ies, which ha e epea edly opposed he eminis mo emen
(Be na dez-Rodal e al., 2022;Cabezas, 2022). Beyond he
poli ical sphe e, ce ain sec o s o he judicia y ha e demons a ed
esis ance o eminis legisla i e changes, especially e iden in
he judicial applica ion o he “Only Yes is Yes” law, whe e
con o e sial ulings eigni ed deba es abou ins i u ional sexism
and he ole o he judicia y in gende equali y policies (Rincón,
2022). Addi ionally, mains eam media ha e played a key ole
in ampli ying an i eminis na a i es, o en po aying eminis
policies as ideological imposi ions disconnec ed om socie al
needs, he eby os e ing he s igma iza ion o eminis mo emen s
in public opinion (Valdés, 2023).
1.3 Con empo a y an i eminis discou ses
Howe e , a ibu ing hese an i eminis mo emen s solely o
he ex eme igh would be inaccu a e. I is in e es ing o no e
he esea ch conduc ed on gene al popula ions, especially young
people, who ha e his o ically been closely associa ed wi h he
eminis mo emen . In pa icula , se e al s udies om he las
decade indica e a lack o engagemen wi h eminism among young
people in democ a ic socie ies (Elizalde and Ál a ez, 2021;Gómez-
Ramí ez and Reyes, 2008). Indeed, some schola s a gue ha many
young indi iduals may no iden i y as eminis s and e en dissocia e
hemsel es om eminism (McRobbie, 2004), pa ly due o he
s igma a ached o eminis mo emen s in ce ain sec o s o socie y
(A onson, 2003). Feminism has been c i icized and mis ep esen ed,
wi h eminis s being po ayed as e e se sexis s, un eminine
“ eminazis” (Ande son e al., 2009;McCabe, 2005), man-ha e s
(A onson, 2003;Hou ou as and Ca e , 2008), o as ad oca ing o
emale supe io i y o e men (Ramsey e al., 2007;Reid e al., 2018;
Tolle e al., 2004).
Simila ly, indings om ecen su eys shed ligh on p e ailing
a i udes owa d eminism in Spain. Acco ding o a su ey
conduc ed by he s a e Sociological Resea ch Cen e in Janua y
2024, 44.1% o men and 32.5% o women s ongly o somewha
ag ee ha he p og ess made in p omo ing women’s equali y has
led o disc imina ion agains men (CIS, 2024). Simila ly, a s udy
ocusing on uni e si y s uden s in he same egion e ealed ha
while he majo i y o s uden s acknowledge he posi i e impac o
he eminis mo emen and i s wo k, a signi ican po ion—one-
qua e o hem—pe cei e eminism as a adical social mo emen
ha is dis an om hei own belie s (Fe nandez e al., 2023).
In he cu en socio-poli ical con ex , eme ging gene a ions a e
g owing amids pe sis en ensions su ounding eminism,
an i eminism, and pos - eminism. Consequen ly, openly
p oclaiming onesel as a eminis in public en ails a mul i ace ed
p ocess o in ellec ual and emo ional nego ia ion (Adams e al.,
2007). Analyzing he pe cep ions o eminism o an i eminism
among younge gene a ions and explo ing hei iden i ica ion
wi h eminis ideals can p o ide aluable insigh s o de eloping
educa ional s a egies ha os e equali y alues among young
indi iduals (Jackson, 2018;Fe nández Ro ae xe e al., 2021).
Despi e e o s by a ious s akeholde s in he educa ional
sphe e, such as eache s, gende educa o s, and high school gende
o ice s, conce ns ha e been aised ega ding he ba ie s and
an i eminis discou ses eme ging om he s uden body in ecen
yea s (Luque, 2021;Sádaba e al., 2023). These newly eme ged
discu si e ideas o en e u e gende inequali y, asse ing ha
eminism exagge a es o ab ica es i and sugges ing ha we li e
in a jus socie y whe e he e is no longe a need o ad oca e
o women’s igh s (Elde e al., 2021). Mo eo e , hey ejec
he e m “ eminism,” iewing i as a mo emen exclusi ely o
women ha ails o acknowledge he challenges aced by men
(Ging and Siape a, 2019).
Howe e , despi e some ins i u ions ini ia ing speci ic
campaigns o add ess hese issues (see In e ed, 2024), he e
emains a lack o s udies ha ha e ho oughly analyzed he
p e ailing con ex , wi h e en ewe ocusing on solici ing he
pe spec i es o young people ega ding he an i eminis ideas hey
encoun e in hei daily li es. Wi hin his amewo k, ou esea ch
aims o examine an i eminis ideologies among educa ion s uden s.
1.4 Rele ance o he s udy and objec i es
The ele ance o his s udy lies in i s dual con ibu ion o
bo h highe educa ion and ins i u ions dedica ed o eminis
F on ie s in Psychology 03 on ie sin.o g
Idoiaga-Mond agon e al. 10.3389/ psyg.2025.1585199
aining in di e se ields, including seconda y educa ion, high
schools, and leisu e o ex acu icula ac i i ies. By ocusing on
he opinions, knowledge, and social ep esen a ions o uni e si y
s uden s in educa ion deg ees, his esea ch add esses a c i ical
dimension o eache aining s a egies. These s uden s, as u u e
educa o s, will soon play a pi o al ole in shaping he educa ional
expe iences o child en and adolescen s. Unde s anding hei
pe cep ions ega ding gende equali y and an i eminis discou ses
is, he e o e, o pa amoun impo ance o he de elopmen o
e ec i e educa ional in e en ions.
The po en ial bene i s o his s udy include p o iding an
empi ical ounda ion o he design o aining s a egies aimed
a p omo ing equali y and eminis alues, bo h wi hin uni e si y
cu icula and in b oade educa ional o ec ea ional con ex s. The
indings will o e a comp ehensi e o e iew o he cu en belie s
and ep esen a ions held by young s uden s ega ding an i eminis
ideologies, se ing as a diagnos ic ool o in o m u u e educa ional
policies and ini ia i es.
The p ima y objec i e o his esea ch is o iden i y he
p e ailing an i eminis ideologies among educa ion s uden s and o
assess he ex en o which hese discou ses a e endo sed o ejec ed.
By analyzing how hese u u e educa o s pe cei e and posi ion
hemsel es in ela ion o an i eminis na a i es, he s udy seeks o
gene a e aluable insigh s in o he challenges and oppo uni ies o
os e ing gende equali y wi hin eache aining p og ams.
In o de o achie e his o e a ching aim, he s udy will add ess
he ollowing speci ic objec i es:
•Speci ic Objec i e 1: To iden i y he an i eminis discou ses
p e alen among young people.
•Speci ic Objec i e 2: To analyze he deg ee o iden i ica ion
wi h hese discou ses among young people hemsel es, hei
iends, and you h in gene al.
•Speci ic Objec i e 3: To assess whe he he ep esen a ion o
an i eminis discou ses a ies acco ding o pa icipan s’ sel -
iden i ica ion as eminis s o he impo ance hey a ach o
gende equali y.
•Speci ic Objec i e 4: To in es iga e whe he he ep esen a ion
o an i eminis discou ses di e s based on pa icipan s’ age
o gende .
Gi en he explo a o y na u e o his esea ch, no a p io i
hypo heses ha e been es ablished.
2 Me hodology
To achie e he objec i es p oposed o his p ojec , quali a i e
and quan i a i e da a ha e been collec ed h ough online
ques ionnai es speci ically designed o his pu pose. These
su eys include open-ended and closed-ended ques ions o ga he
comp ehensi e esponses om pa icipan s.
2.1 Sample
The sample comp ised 252 educa ion s uden s om he
XXXXXX. The mean age o he pa icipan s was 21 yea s (sd =
5.64). Rega ding gende dis ibu ion, mos o he sample iden i ied
as women, accoun ing o 72.6%, while 27.4% iden i ied as men.
Rega ding he dis ibu ion by deg ee, he la ges p opo ion
o s uden s was pu suing deg ees in P ima y Educa ion (38.89%),
ollowed by Ea ly Childhood Educa ion (28.17%), and he
Mas e in Teache T aining o Compulso y Seconda y Educa ion
and Baccalau ea e, Voca ional T aining, and Language Teaching
(21.8%). A smalle pe cen age o s uden s we e en olled in deg ees
o Social Educa ion (9.13%) and Pedagogy (2.38%). Rega ding
academic yea , he dis ibu ion was as ollows: 30.15% we e i s -
yea s uden s, 28.17% we e second-yea s uden s, 11.90% we e
hi d-yea s uden s, 7.94% we e ou h-yea s uden s, and 21.83%
we e mas e ’s deg ee s uden s.
When asked o a e hei sel -ca ego iza ion as eminis s on a
scale o 1–5, he pa icipan s ob ained an a e age sco e o 3.96 (sd =
0.97). Pa icipan s we e also asked o a e hei suppo o gende
equali y on he same scale. On a e age, hey epo ed a sco e o 4.83
(sd =0.48).
2.2 Compliance wi h e hical s anda ds
The s udy sample was ec ui ed om he Facul ies o Educa ion
a he Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y. Be o e da a collec ion,
app o al was ob ained om he Uni e si y E hics Commi ee
[Re .:M10/2023/141]. All pa icipan s olun ee ed o pa icipa e
in he s udy and we e p o ided wi h de ailed in o ma ion abou
he esea ch p ocedu es. They p o ided in o med consen be o e
pa icipa ing. Rec ui men was conduc ed using non-p obabilis ic
snowball sampling. A ques ionnai e was c ea ed and dissemina ed
h ough a ious channels, including i ual pla o ms, social
ne wo ks, and uni e si y emails sen ou by he esea che s.
2.3 Ins umen
The ques ionnai es we e s uc u ed in o wo pa s. Fi s ly,
pa icipan s we e eques ed o p o ide speci ic socio-demog aphic
in o ma ion ailo ed o his s udy. This included age, gende (wi h
op ions o Male, Female, o Non-bina y), educa ional ield o
s udy, cu en cou se o academic yea , and sel - epo ed le els
o eminis sel -iden i ica ion and suppo o gende equali y.
These wo aspec s we e assessed using Like scale ques ions, wi h
esponden s asked o a e hei iden i ica ion as eminis s and hei
suppo o gende equali y on a scale o 1–5.
Subsequen ly, a ee-associa ion exe cise was adminis e ed
based on he G id Elabo a ion Me hod (GEM) o analyze
pa icipan s’ social ep esen a ions o an i eminis ideas (Jo e
and Elsey, 2014). This me hodology, p e iously employed in
s udies explo ing he sha ed ep esen a ions o young people
on a ious eminism- ela ed opics (Fe nández Ro ae xe e al.,
2021;Fe nandez e al., 2023), was chosen o i s e ec i eness
in elici ing spon aneous esponses. Speci ically, pa icipan s we e
asked o w i e down he i s ou an i eminis wo ds o ideas
ha came o hei minds. Each wo d o idea was hen eco ded
in a sepa a e box, wi h pa icipan s asked o ill in he ou
emp y boxes p o ided. Following his, pa icipan s we e p omp ed
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o explain hei chosen wo ds o ideas p ecisely, cla i ying hei
meanings in de ail. These explana ions o med he basis o
subsequen analysis. Finally, in addi ion o p o iding explana ions,
pa icipan s we e asked o a e hei pe sonal ag eemen wi h
each an i eminis idea on a scale o 1–5 (To wha deg ee do
you ag ee wi h ha X idea you jus men ioned?) as well as hei
pe cep ions o hei iends’ ag eemen (To wha deg ee do you
iends ag ee wi h ha X idea you jus men ioned?) and ag eemen
o he b oade collec i e wi h he an i eminis idea (To wha
deg ee do young people in gene al ag ee wi h ha X idea you
jus men ioned?).
2.4 Analysis
To examine he collec ion o open-ended esponses, we
employed he I amu eq so wa e o conduc a lexical analysis
(Ma chand and Ra inaud, 2012). Two dis inc analyses we e
conduc ed using his so wa e. The ini ial analysis ollowed he
Reine me hod, while he second in ol ed a lexical simila i y
assessmen o each iden i ied idea.
The p ima y analysis o quali a i e a iables in ol ed he
applica ion o he Reine me hod (Reine , 1983,1990) using he
I amu eq so wa e. This me hod is widely ecognized and u ilized
in he examina ion o open-ended ques ions ac oss a ious ields
(Lego bu u e al., 2022;Idoiaga Mond agon e al., 2022;Souza e al.,
2018) and has demons a ed e ec i eness in add essing eliabili y
and alidi y conce ns in ex analysis as e idenced by p e ious
s udies (Klein and Lica a, 2003).
The Reine me hod ollows a op-down hie a chical clus e
analysis app oach, ex ac ing classes and s a is ical indica o s
such as ypical wo ds and ex segmen s (Idoiaga and Belasko,
2019). Speci ically, he I amu eq so wa e iden i ies wo ds and
ex segmen s wi h he highes Chi-squa e alues, signi ying
hose ha bes ep esen each class o idea equen ly men ioned
by pa icipan s.
Consis en wi h p e ious applica ions o he Reine me hod
(Cama go and Bous ield, 2009), he aw da a we e en e ed in o
he I amu eq so wa e. Signi ican ocabula y i ems in each class
we e selec ed based on h ee c i e ia: (1) an expec ed wo d alue
exceeding 3; (2) Chi-squa e s a is ical e idence o associa ion wi h
he class (χ²≥3.89, p=0.05, d =1); and (3) he wo d
p edominan ly appea ing in ha class wi h a equency o 50%
o mo e. The I amu eq so wa e also iden i ied ex segmen s
associa ed wi h each class, anking hem acco ding o hei chi-
squa e alues. This s udy ga he ed ex segmen s wi h he mos
signi ican chi-squa es in each class.
Following he iden i ica ion o hese “lexical uni e ses,” hey
we e linked o “passi e” a iables (independen a iables). In
his s udy, he passi e a iables we e gende , academic yea ,
eminis iden i ica ion, iden i ica ion wi h gende equali y,
pe sonal ag eemen , close g oup ( iends) ag eemen , and
collec i e ag eemen .
Consequen ly, he analys de i es a se ies o classes comp ising
ypical wo ds and ex segmen s (quo es) wi h he highes chi-
squa e alues, o ming he basis o in e p e ing he classes as
lexical wo lds.
The Reine me hod yields s a is ical, anspa en , and
ep oducible da a up o he poin o in e p e a ion, whe e he
analys assigns labels. In he inal phase, esea che s assigned
i les o he se s o wo ds and ex segmen s g ouped by
he so wa e, ollowing a sys ema ic p ocess. Two esea che s
independen ly named each class based on associa ed wo ds and
quo es, wi h a hi d esea che c ea ing a inal label app o ed by
all h ee esea che s.
3 Resul s
The Reine me hod, u ilizing a descending hie a chical
analysis, was employed o iden i y he p ima y an i eminis
ideas a icula ed by he pa icipan s. Each issue o concep is
encapsula ed by a collec ion o cha ac e is ic wo ds and ex
segmen s e e ed o as a class. The analysis segmen ed he
co pus in o 998 sec ions, yielding i e dis inc classes, as illus a ed
in Figu e 1. These classes will be examined indi idually in he
subsequen sec ions o his a icle.
3.1 Women should ake ca e o household
cho es
The i s idea men ioned by he pa icipan s, wi h a weigh o
11.47%, is he belie ha women should ake ca e o household
cho es. Howe e , i should be no ed ha nei he he pa icipan s (p
<0.01) no hei iends (p<0.01) o young people in gene al (p
<0.05) ag ee wi h his s a emen . The e o e, i can be ega ded as
an idea p e alen in socie y bu no ep esen a i e o young people.
The mos signi ican ph ases used by he pa icipan s o explain
his idea we e:
•Women ha e o be housekeepe s and, he e o e, ake ca e o he
child en and do household cho es (X2=720.50).
•Women ha e an inna e abili y o ake ca e o child en and do
housewo k, unlike men (X2=705.14).
•Women should s ay a home doing housewo k (X2=554.91).
•Bo h housewo k and childca e should be done by women
(X2=548.71).
•....
3.2 Women ha e mo e legal igh s and
benefi s
The second idea men ioned by he pa icipan s, wi h a weigh
o 16.20%, conce ns social and legal igh s. The pa icipan s asse
ha women ha e mo e social and legal igh s han men and
ha hey o en ake ad an age o hem. Howe e , he pa icipan s
hemsel es (p<0.0001) and hei iends (p<0.01) disag ee wi h
his s a emen . In e es ingly, young people (p<0.05) mode a ely
ag ee wi h his s a emen (sco ing 3 on a scale om 1 o 5).
The mos signi ican ph ases used by he pa icipan s o explain
his idea we e:
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Class 1: (11.47%)
Women should ake ca e
o household cho es
Class 2: (16.20%)
Women ha e mo e
legal igh s and
bene i s
Class 3: (9.04%)
Women p o oke men
(and hei sel -
ic imiza ion)
Class 4: (31.87%)
Feminism does no
seek equali y
Class 5: (31.42%)
They expec o be paid
he same, e en i hey do
no dese e i
3:
*Pa icipan s_no p<0.01
WORDS
X
2
Home
314.51
Ca e
149.93
Task
117.81
Clean
116.63
Child
101.22
Labo
93.91
Child
69.95
Help
69.23
Family
54.46
S ay
54.29
Home
46.63
Posi ion
45.96
Se ing
41.23
Cooking
39.37
Mom
38.81
Mo he
38.3
Dedica e
36.51
Ca e
30.72
Woman
24.98
Fa he
14.49
*F iends_no p<0.01
*Young people_no p<0.01
WORDS
X
2
Woman
86.61
Male
47.21
Same
41.67
Wo k
40.13
Mo e
35.87
Pay
27.63
Less
23.74
Always
20.22
Same
17.29
Police
15.65
Di e ence
12.79
Socce
11.13
G ea
10.56
Sala y
10.0
Fo ce
9.52
Easy
8.88
Sala y
7.76
Le el
5.78
Pay
5.7
Ea n
5.53
Bonbe o
5.53
WORDS
X
2
Women
75.52
Men
38.25
Repo
27.15
Violence
13,38
Ne e
13.38
Physical
12.79
Su e ing
12.25
Abo ion
8.88
W ong
8.37
P oblem
8.37
Cou
7.76
Sex
7.76
Sexis
6.64
Disc imina ion
6.55
Complain
6.22
Couple
6.13
Jus i y
5.78
Legal
5.53
Lying
5.15
Li e
5.15
WORDS
X
2
P o oke
142.57
D ess
132.83
S ee
103.4
Go o
101.31
Complimen
99.72
Clo hing
70.54
Complain
54.97
P e y
50.47
Look
40.44
Mu de
30.3
Say
28.9
Pass
22.12
Fea
12.16
Rape
12.16
D ess
12.16
Feeling
12.16
B eak
12.16
P o es
12.16
Blame
12.16
A en ion
12.16
Rapis
5.86
WORDS
X
2
Feminismo
294.4
Igualdad
176.96
Sexismo
81.8
Busca
77.96
Feminazis
64.69
Mo imien o
50.52
Odia
46.53
Supe io idad
28.22
Exis i
26.02
Radical
25.95
Que e
21.63
Supe io
17.27
Con a io
16.11
Feminazi
14.85
Con a o
13.71
Techo
10.75
Hemb ismo
9.43
De ende
9.43
España
8.59
Lucha
7.37
P opaganda
6.44
*Pa icipan s_no p<0.01
*Pa icipan s_no p<0.0001
*Pa icipan s_no p<0.005 *Pa icipan s_yes medium p<0.01
*F iends_no p<0.01
*F iends_no p<0.01
*F iends_yes_medium p<0.05
*F iends_yes high p<0.01
*Young people_no p<0.05
*Young people_yes medium p<0.05
*Young people_yes medium p<0.05
*Young people_yes high p<0.01
*Fou h cou se p<0.001
*Fi s cou se p<0.01
*Feminis p<0.05
FIGURE 1
The hie a chical clus e ing dend og am showing he mos equen wo ds and hose wi h he g ea es associa ion χ2
(1),p<0.001 ex ac ed by he
Reine me hod.
•Women oday ha e mo e igh s han men jus because hey a e
emale, and he e o e, in a lawsui , hey will win e en i he man
is igh (X2=245.41).
•Men su e he same amoun o iolence as women o mo e
(X2=206.65)
•An i eminis ph ases ha people say he mos a e: “Men and
women ha e he same igh s”, “ eminism p omo es adical
eminism”, and “many women ile alse accusa ions”. Howe e ,
hese cases a e ac ually e y a e and o en do no go o wa d
(X2=205,65).
•The e a e a lo o alse allega ions nowadays. Women can do his
wi h o al impuni y and ha m innocen people (X2=204.75).
•Wi h he new law, many men belie e ha i is almos
impossible o alk o women because hey will be epo ed a
he sligh es oppo uni y, and he e will be se ious consequences
(X2=198.45).
•Women lie and ile alse epo s abou gende iolence because
he law p o ec s hem (X2=194.65).
•The e is no male iolence in ou socie y, only iolence; he
man who abuses a woman does so because he has speci ic
psychological p oblems ha ha e no hing o do wi h male
chau inism (X2=192.45).
•Women ake ad an age o he image o weakness ha socie y
gi es hem o make alse epo s ega ding gende iolence
(X2=165.54).
•Men ne e ge cus ody o hei child en, and he e is, he e o e,
disc imina ion agains men (X2=160.43).
•...
3.3 Women p o oke men (and hei
sel - ic imiza ion)
The hi d idea men ioned by he pa icipan s, accoun ing
o 9.04% o he weigh , pe ains o he no ion ha women
should be mind ul o hei beha io in public spaces, as
hey may p o oke men and hen become o ended when
men espond. In e es ingly, his idea was mo e equen ly
men ioned by ou h-g ade pa icipan s (p<0.001), and hose
who iden i ied as eminis s epo ed encoun e ing i mo e
o en (p<0.05). Despi e exp essing disag eemen wi h his
s a emen hemsel es (p<0.005), pa icipan s belie e ha
bo h hei iends (p<0.05) and young people in gene al
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(p<0.05) mode a ely ag ee wi h i (sco ing 3 on a scale
o 1–5).
The mos signi ican ph ases used by he pa icipan s o explain
his idea we e:
•Depending on how we a e d essed, we a e asking o o causing
ce ain inexcusable hings o happen o us (X2=522.86).
•I a woman in a disco heque dances in a ce ain way o d esses in
a ce ain way, i means she does i because she wan s o p o oke
(X2=429.79).
•I you p o oke o go o dange ous places, hen i is no mal ha
hings happen o you (X2=406.32).
•A woman is sexualized by he way she d esses and blamed o i
because she is p o oca i e (X2=396.57).
•Women lo e o be complimen ed and shou ed a when we walk
down he s ee (X2=304.15).
•I ha e hea d ha some apes a e p o oked by women because o
he way hey d ess (X2=299.65).
•...
3.4 Feminism does no seek equali y
The ou h and mos equen ly men ioned idea, wi h a weigh
o 31.87%, is ha eminism does no aim o equali y bu a he
seeks he supe io i y o women o e men. This idea is mo e
commonly men ioned by younge s uden s, ha is, hose in hei
i s yea (p<0.01). Al hough pa icipan s exp ess disag eemen
wi h his s a emen hemsel es (p<0.005), hey belie e ha bo h
hei iends (p<0.05) and young people in gene al (p<0.05)
mode a ely ag ee wi h i (sco ing 3 on a scale o 1–5).
The mos signi ican ph ases used by he pa icipan s o explain
his idea we e:
•Today’s eminis s do no seek equali y, many belie e ha
eminism is now a ashion and ha wha people seek is no
equali y bu adical eminism (X2=658.46).
•The mos an i eminis idea I ha e hea d is ha eminism does
no seek equali y be ween men and women bu a he he
supe io i y o he emale sex (X2=643.87).
•The e a e people who say ha nei he machismo no eminism,
bu a he equali y, is sough , and his implies ha eminism
does no seek equali y (X2=630.07).
•Feminism seeks he des uc ion o men, nei he machismo no
eminism. I belie e in equali y (X2=617.45)
•Cu en eminism does no seek equali y bu he supe io i y
o women, gene ally by diminishing men o making hem eel
in e io in a ague a emp o p opel women owa d equali y.
They a e eminazis (X2=572.50).
•...
3.5 They expec o be paid he same, e en i
hey do no dese e i
The i h idea, comp ising 31.42% o he o al weigh and he
second mos men ioned by pa icipan s, is associa ed wi h he
ealm o wo k. Pa icipan s exp ess he belie ha women ecei e
posi i e disc imina ion in he wo kplace, ecei ing highe pay o
equal pay despi e no being able o pe o m all asks as men do.
Addi ionally, hey pe cei e women as ha ing ad an ages in ce ain
sec o s o wo k.
This idea is mo e equen ly men ioned by s uden s who
conside hemsel es eminis s o a mode a e ex en (sco ing 3 on a
scale o 1–5). Mo eo e , pa icipan s hemsel es exp ess mode a e
suppo o his idea (sco ing 3 on a scale om 1 o 5). Howe e ,
hey belie e ha bo h hei iends (p<0.05) and young people in
gene al (p<0.005) s ongly suppo i (sco ing 4 o 5 on a scale
om 1 o 5).
The mos signi ican ph ases used by he pa icipan s o explain
his idea we e:
•Women who play socce and ge paid mo e han wha hey
gene a e doing he exac same job a e o e paid (X2=295.24).
•The idea ha women oday a e paid less han men o he same
job is a lie (X2=281.41).
•The en ance examina ions o he s a e secu i y and p o ec ion
co ps o i e igh e s a e easie o women, and echnically, hey
mus pe o m he same job since hey a e expec ed o ecei e he
same sala y (X2=266.04).
•Women should no be paid he same as men when joining
he police o i e se ice because hei physical es s a e less
demanding (X2=265.44).
•Women do no dese e he same money as men o exac ly he
same wo k and e o because, in spo s, you ea n wha you
gene a e (X2=259.37).
•Men gene a e mo e e enue, so women canno be paid he same
(X2=217.58).
•...
3.6 O he a iables o analysis
Fi s , we would like o e-analyze he dis inc ion be ween
eminis sel -ca ego iza ion and being in a o o equali y. When
pa icipan s we e asked o a e hei deg ee o sel -iden i ica ion
as eminis s on a scale o 1–5, he mean was 3.96 (sd =0.97). In
con as , when asked abou hei deg ee o suppo o equali y
be ween women and men on he same scale, he a e age esponse
was 4.83 (sd =0.48). Fu he mo e, pa icipan s we e asked o a e
hei ag eemen wi h each o he ideas hey men ioned on a scale o
1–5, whe e 1 ep esen s no ag eemen , and 5 ep esen s comple e
ag eemen . On a e age, hey epo ed an ag eemen le el o 1.38 (sd
=0.72) wi h hei own ideas. Rega ding hei pe cep ions o hei
iends’ ag eemen wi h he men ioned ideas, pa icipan s epo ed
an a e age o 2.06 (sd =0.80). Las ly, when asked abou hei
belie s ega ding he ag eemen o young people in gene al wi h
he men ioned ideas, pa icipan s epo ed an a e age sco e o 3.36
(sd =0.80).
4 Discussion
This s udy aimed o iden i y he p e ailing an i eminis
ideologies among young educa ion s uden s and assess hei le el
o endo semen o ejec ion o hese ideologies. The indings,
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de i ed om he pe spec i es o hese young indi iduals, iden i ied
i e p ima y an i eminis ideas: (1) Feminism does no pu sue
equali y; (2) Women expec equal pay ega dless o me i ; (3)
Women possess g ea e legal igh s and p i ileges; (4) Women a e
esponsible o household cho es; and (5) Women p o oke men
(and hei sel - ic imiza ion).
Ne e heless, he deg ee o a achmen o each idea a ies.
The concep wi h which pa icipan s show he leas a achmen
is ha women should be esponsible o household cho es
(11.47%). Pa icipan s indica ed skep icism owa d his idea, as
nei he hey no hei pee s we e pe cei ed o ag ee wi h i .
This pe spec i e is pe cei ed as an iqua ed and disconnec ed
om con empo a y you h (Bake , 2012). While mo emen s such
as #T adwi es a e eme ging in some coun ies (Lo e, 2020),
his discou se appea s ou da ed and eminiscen o his o ical
an i eminis he o ic (Fo es e , 2022). Howe e , i is no ewo hy
ha eminis s we e among he p ima y p oponen s o his
discou se, possibly due o i s his o ical signi icance in an i eminis
discou se (Das Gup a, 2008).
This pe cep ion o household cho es as an ou da ed and
socially o e come issue may e lec he pa icipan s’ immedia e
en i onmen , whe e mo e egali a ian p ac ices a e no malized.
Ne e heless, when examining b oade socie al da a, a pe sis en
gende gap becomes e iden . Acco ding o Spain’s Na ional
S a is ics Ins i u e [Ins i u o Nacional de Es adís ica (INE), 2023],
women s ill dedica e wice as much ime as men o household
asks, e ealing ha gende ed expec a ions ega ding domes ic
esponsibili ies emain deeply ing ained in e e yday li e. This
con as be ween pe sonal pe cep ions and s uc u al eali ies
unde sco es he complexi y o social change p ocesses.
I is impo an o cla i y ha gende equali y policies a e no
designed o g an “p i ileges” o women, bu a he o add ess
s uc u al inequali ies and sys emic disc imina ion. Ins i u ions
such as he Eu opean Ins i u e o Gende Equali y (EIGE—
Eu opean Ins i u e o Gende Equali y, 2023) emphasize ha
measu es like posi i e ac ion o gende quo as a e co ec i e
ools aimed a ensu ing equal oppo uni ies, pa icula ly in ields
whe e his o ical imbalances pe sis . F aming hese ini ia i es as
“un ai ad an ages” e lec s a misin e p e a ion o hei pu pose
and socie al necessi y.
Beyond his speci ic belie , a b oade phenomenon eme ges:
he disconnec ion be ween he gene al suppo o gende equali y
and he eluc ance o iden i y wi h eminism. This end is no
exclusi e o ou pa icipan s. Fo ins ance, he 2023 You h and
Gende Ba ome e (Fundación FAD Ju en ud, 2023) e ealed ha
while 78% o young people in Spain suppo gende equali y,
only 42% sel -iden i y as eminis s. Ou own indings mi o
his pa e n: pa icipan s epo ed s ong suppo o equali y
alues, ye hei le el o eminis sel -iden i ica ion was no iceably
lowe . This disc epancy illus a es how an i eminis na a i es ha e
success ully dis o ed he meaning o eminism, po aying i as
an ex emis o di isi e ideology a he han as a mo emen
ad oca ing o human igh s and social jus ice.
In he legal domain, he “Men’s igh s” mo emen ocuses
on wo p ima y a eas o conce n. Fi s ly, i add esses allega ions
o a sexual na u e, including discussions on alse allega ions
and consen (Go ell and Du on, 2016). This discou se gained
signi ican ac ion in Spain du ing he enac men o he In eg al
Gua an ee o Sexual F eedom Law, colloquially known as he “Only
yes is yes” law in Spain in 2022. C i ics o hese mo emen s
accused he legisla ion o iola ing he p esump ion o innocence
and equali y be o e he law (Valdés, 2022).
The belie ha alse allega ions o sexual iolence a e equen
emains a pe sis en na a i e wi hin an i eminis discou ses.
Howe e , empi ical s udies consis en ly indica e ha such cases
ep esen a small mino i y o epo ed inciden s. Resea ch has
shown ha he p e alence o alse epo s ypically anges be ween
2% and 10% (Lisak e al., 2010;Rape C isis Sco land, 2022).
Speci ically in Spain, he Public P osecu o ’s O ice (Fiscalía
Gene al del Es ado, 2023) epo ed ha alse accusa ions in
gende -based iolence cases ep esen ed only 0.0096% o o al
complain s. This negligible pe cen age aligns wi h global es ima es
and di ec ly challenges he widesp ead belie ha alse allega ions
a e common. Pe sis ing in his misconcep ion con ibu es o a
clima e o suspicion and blaming owa d ic ims, unde mining
bo h social and ins i u ional e o s o comba gende -based
iolence (Abdelaziz, 2025).
Mo eo e , he esul s also hin a indi iduals ad oca ing o
“ a he ’s igh s,” albei wi h less p ominence, likely in luenced by
he age dis ibu ion o he pa icipan s. These indi iduals ypically
comp ise di o ced o sepa a ed a he s om ma i al unions
who oice g ie ances ega ding legal impedimen s hinde ing
hei pa en al igh s (Flood, 2012). No ably, ce ain ac ions
wi hin hese a he ’s igh s g oups espouse an i eminis sen imen s,
asse ing hei ad ocacy as a means o sa egua d child en who a e
pu po edly “ ic ims o eminis ideology” (Beh e, 2015).
Sligh ly mo e p e alen is he no ion ha women a e
p o oca i e since he pa icipan s hemsel es exp ess disag eemen ,
ye hei iends and young people, in gene al, end o endo se
his idea o a mode a e ex en . This idea is clea ly oo ed in
ape cul u e, a socie al phenomenon whe e sexual assaul and
ape a e no malized, i ialized, o excused (Johnson and Johnson,
2021). Vic im-blaming, a signi ican aspec o ape cul u e, in ol es
holding women accoun able o any u u e agg essions hey may
su e based on hei beha io o , as obse ed in his case, hei
a i e, a he han placing esponsibili y on hei pe pe a o s
(S ubbs-Richa dson e al., 2018).
I should be no ed ha beyond he a gumen s desc ibed so
a , he mos ecu en idea was ha eminism does no pu sue
equali y. Despi e pa icipan s’ disag eemen wi h his no ion, hey
belie e ha i is endo sed by hei iends and young people in
gene al. Pa icula ly s iking is he p e alence o his belie among
he younges pa icipan s. Mo eo e , a signi ican dispa i y eme ges
be ween pa icipan s’ pe cep ions o eminism and hei s ance
on gende equali y. While hey s ongly suppo gende equali y
(wi h a mean a ing o 4.83 on a 1–5 scale), hei sel -iden i ica ion
as eminis s alls almos one poin lowe (3.96). This disc epancy
sugges s a pa ial dissocia ion be ween he concep s o eminism
and he pu sui o gende equali y among he pa icipan s; hese
concep s a e no pe cei ed as en i ely synonymous.
This idea is connec ed o he disc edi ing o he eminis
mo emen by a ious poli ical ac o s, o me igh -wing, ul a-
conse a i e, eligious g oups, and he a o emen ioned Men’s
Righ s Mo emen (Unal Abaday, 2021). Thei claims esona e wi h
F on ie s in Psychology 08 on ie sin.o g
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he no ion ha “women ha e gone oo a ” by disc imina ing
agains hem (Elde e al., 2021). They c i ique women and hei
ad ancemen s, a guing ha hey a e s ipping powe away om
men and hus equen ly oppose ce ain emale ad ancemen s and
cu en equali y ini ia i es (Fa ci and Righe i, 2019). Much o
hei ocus is di ec ed owa d c i iquing eminism, which hey
de oga o ily label as “ eminazism” o mis ep esen as “ adical
eminism,” dis o ing i s o iginal heo e ical ounda ions o po ay
i as an an i-male cul u al h ea (Bou-F anch and Bli ich, 2014).
O ganiza ions such as FREE o NCFM in he USA ep esen his
cu en , wi h some o hei leade s being o me an i-sexis s o he
1970s (Bonino, 2002). In Eu ope (Pa e no e and Kuha , 2018) and
Spain, hese ideas ha e gained ac ion in ecen yea s, wi h media
ou le s c i icizing and ques ioning equali y plans (Be na dez-Rodal
e al., 2022). Fu he mo e, i appea s ha hese mo emen s ha e
in luenced Spanish socie y, as e idenced by he a o emen ioned CIS
su ey, which indica es ha 44.1% o men and 32.5% o women
s ongly o somewha ag ee wi h his idea in Spain (CIS, 2024).
Finally, he idea ha esona es mos s ongly wi h ou
pa icipan s is ha women, o a leas some o hem, expec o
ecei e equal pay o hei wo k, e en i hey do no dese e i .
I is wo h no ing ha pa icipan s a e mode a ely suppo i e o
his no ion, belie ing ha bo h hei iends and young people
in gene al a e la gely in ag eemen . Wi hin his discou se, hey
con end ha i is un ue ha women a e cu en ly paid less han
men o he same wo k and ci e se e al p o essions whe e men
possess “g ea e skills” and hus should be compensa ed mo e (such
as in spo s like socce o o icial capaci ies such as i e igh e s o
police) (Eppa d and Blau, 2020). Howe e , empi ical da a e u es
his pe cep ion. Acco ding o Eu os a (2023), he gende pay gap
in Spain s ands a 10.4%, e en a e adjus ing o ac o s such as
occupa ion, wo king hou s, and expe ience. This indica es ha
s uc u al inequali ies, a he han di e ences in me i , pe sis in
he labo ma ke . Fu he mo e, he Global Gende Gap Repo
2024 (Wo ld Economic Fo um, 2024) highligh s ha Spain has
made p og ess in educing gende dispa i ies bu s ill anks 17 h
globally in economic pa icipa ion and oppo uni y o women.
These indings unde sco e ha he wage gap emains a angible and
documen ed issue, con a y o he pa icipan s’ belie s.
I is in e es ing o obse e ha socce is epea edly men ioned,
as he spo s indus y in gene al, and socce speci ically, exhibi s
signi ican wage dispa i ies (Wicke e al., 2023). Simila ly, he o he
sec o e e enced, ha o go e nmen al bodies, emains hea ily
male-domina ed (Pe o , 2016). In essence, bo h a e ields whe e
eminis ad ocacy s ill has conside able g ound o co e , and his
ype o ideology ep esen s a majo s umbling block in hese e o s
o gende equali y (Reid e al., 2018).
Finally, i is wo h no ing he di e ences in a achmen hey
show, on a e age, wi h an i eminis ideas. While hey pe cei e hese
ideas as qui e dis an om hei own belie s, hey also pe cei e
hem as being u he emo ed om hei own belie s compa ed
o hose o hei iends o young people in gene al (Calde -Dawe
and Ga ey, 2016;Swi sky and Angelone, 2016). This pa e n has
also been obse ed in p e ious s udies on eminism, whe e social
desi abili y biases lead pa icipan s o espond in a way hey eel
is “poli ically co ec ,” p ojec ing hei hough s on o he oices o
o he s (Elde e al., 2021).
4.1 P ac ical implica ions and
ecommenda ions
The indings o his s udy e eal ha an i eminis ideas a e
s ill p esen among young people pu suing educa ion deg ees,
add essing a a ie y o issues ha wa an a en ion. Despi e being
a popula ion expec ed o be mo e sensi i e o gende equali y, hese
u u e educa o s show a ying deg ees o a achmen o discou ses
ha con adic eminis p inciples.
These esul s unde sco e he necessi y o educa ional
ins i u ions o ake an ac i e ole in debunking an i eminis my hs,
p omo ing c i ical hinking, and os e ing eminis pe spec i es
wi hin eache aining p og ams. De eloping a eminis iden i y
is closely linked o he ins i u ional en i onmen s ha nu u e
and suppo such iewpoin s (A onson, 2003). The e o e,
uni e si ies and educa ional p og ams should in eg a e eminis
pe spec i es in o hei cu icula, o ganize deba e o ums o add ess
an i eminis discou ses wi h empi ical e idence, and es ablish
gende equali y commi ees aimed a p omo ing equi y and
di e si y in educa ional se ings.
Fu he mo e, add essing hese misconcep ions is
no me ely an academic challenge bu aligns wi h he
Uni ed Na ions’ Sus ainable De elopmen Goal 5 (Gende
Equali y). Fu u e educa o s play a pi o al ole in shaping
egali a ian alues and p e en ing he pe pe ua ion o gende
s e eo ypes in schools. Hence, a ge ed in e en ions a he
uni e si y le el a e c ucial o equip hese s uden s wi h
he necessa y ools o os e inclusi e and gende -equal
lea ning en i onmen s.
4.2 Limi a ions and u u e esea ch
This s udy has se e al limi a ions ha should be acknowledged.
Fi s , he s udy u ilized a non-p obabilis ic sample and employed a
c oss-sec ional design wi hin a speci ic se ing— he no he n
egion o Spain. Consequen ly, he indings d awn om
his s udy may no be gene alizable o o he socie ies o
con ex s. Addi ionally, he academic disciplines chosen by
ou pa icipan s displayed a no iceable gende imbalance, which
could in luence he gene alizabili y o he esul s. Explo ing
s uden s in ields wi h a mo e equi able male- o- emale
a io could o e aluable insigh s in o how con ex ual ac o s
in luence hem.
Mo eo e , p io esea ch has indica ed ha s uden s in
uni e si y educa ion p og ams a e mo e likely o iden i y wi h
eminism han young people in o he con ex s (Fe nandez e al.,
2023). The e o e, u u e esea ch should aim o explo e hese
an i eminis discou ses ac oss di e se educa ional ields and
sociocul u al con ex s, including longi udinal s udies ha assess
how hese pe cep ions e ol e o e ime.
Finally, i would be bene icial o u he in es iga e he
mechanisms h ough which an i eminis na a i es a e socialized
among young people, pa icula ly in digi al and pee en i onmen s.
Unde s anding hese dynamics is essen ial o de eloping e ec i e
educa ional s a egies o coun e ac misin o ma ion and os e
F on ie s in Psychology 09 on ie sin.o g
