Ci a ion: Da Cos a Du a, S.C.; O iol
G anado, X.; Paéz-Ro i a, D.; Díaz,
V.; Ca asco-Daje , C.; Izquie do, A.
Emo ion Regula ion S a egies in
Educa ional, Wo k and Spo
Con ex s: An App oach in Fi e
Coun ies. In . J. En i on. Res. Public
Heal h 2023,20, 6865. h ps://
doi.o g/10.3390/ije ph20196865
Academic Edi o : Ma a T emolada
Recei ed: 7 July 2023
Re ised: 29 Augus 2023
Accep ed: 20 Sep embe 2023
Published: 29 Sep embe 2023
Copy igh : © 2023 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
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4.0/).
In e na ional Jou nal o
En i onmen al Resea ch
and Public Heal h
A icle
Emo ion Regula ion S a egies in Educa ional, Wo k and Spo
Con ex s: An App oach in Fi e Coun ies
Sil ia C is ina Da Cos a Du a 1,* , Xa ie O iol G anado 2, Da ío Paéz-Ro i a 3, Vi ginia Díaz 4,
Claudia Ca asco-Daje 5and Alicia Izquie do 1
1Psychology and Sociology Depa men , Facul y o Social and Human Sciences, Uni e si y o Za agoza,
Te uel Campus, 44003 Te uel, Spain; aliciaig@uniza .es
2Psychology Depa men , Facul y o Educa ion and Psychology, Uni e si y o Gi ona,
17004 Ca alonia, Spain; xa ie [email p o ec ed]
3Facul y o Educa ion and Social Sciences, Uni e si y And es Bello, San iago 7590924, Chile;
[email p o ec ed]
4Social Psychology Depa men , Facul y o Psychology, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y,
20018 Donos ia/San Sebas ian, Spain; [email p o ec ed]
5Depa men o Nu sing Sciences, Facul y o Medicine, Ca holic Uni e si y o he Mos Holy Concep ion,
Concepción 4990541, Chile; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: sdacos a@uniza .es
Abs ac :
One o he g ea es challenges in he domain o emo ional egula ion is comp ehending
he unc ionali y o s a egies and hei u iliza ion in a ious social con ex s. In his sense, his s udy
analyzes di e ences in he use and e icacy o egula ion s a egies, pa icula ly o in e pe sonal
s a egies like al uism, social suppo , nego ia ion, media ion, egula ion, and i uals, in samples
o wo ke s (N= 687) and s uden s (N= 959) om B azil, Chile, Cuba, Spain, and U uguay, and
a hle es (N=144)
om Spain. Pa icipan s answe ed ques ions pe aining o measu es o a ec
o emo ional egula ion (MARS and ERQ sel - egula ion scales and EROS he e o egula ion), as
well as ques ions o a wellbeing scale (PHI) and ques ions ela ed o emo ional c ea i i y (ECI),
humo s yles (HSQ), and adjus men o s ess. A hle es epo ed less emo ional discha ge, use
o humo , and a ec ion, and g ea e con on a ion and use o i uals han s uden s and wo ke s.
A cong uen ela ionship was ound be ween he use o unc ional s a egies (like di ec coping,
dis ac ion, ee alua ion, and ac i e physiological egula ion) and adjus men o s ess, well-being,
and c ea i i y. Seeking social suppo , nego ia ion, and, o an ex en , al uism, con i med hei
p edic ed adap i e cha ac e . Media ion and delega ion did no con i m hei p edic ed adap i e
cha ac e . Rumina ion, social compa ison, i uals, con on a ion, and supp ession we e maladap i e
o wo ke s and s uden s, bu he i s ou s a egies we e unc ional o a hle es, who display a
highe sel -con ol and a mo e eam-o ien ed and compe i i e emo ional cul u e. Finally, he esul s
show ha adap i e egula ion s a egies media e he ela ionship be ween well-being and adjus men
o s ess.
Keywo ds: adjus men ; a ec ; emo ion; egula ion; well-being
1. A ec , Mood, and Emo ions
A ec is de ined as he subjec i e expe ience o he gene al emo ional s a e, which can
be posi i e/pleasan o nega i e/unpleasan [
1
]. Emo ional episodes ypically esul in a
mix u e o emo ions, while also ein o cing, c ea ing, o elying on mood s a es [
2
]. Emo-
ions shape indi iduals’ subjec i i y h ough he p ocess o symbolic in e ac ion be ween
iden i y, no ms, and social alues [
3
], and in luence he beha io s ha can be obse ed
in di e en social con ex s. Despi e emo ions being concei ed by esea che s om e y
di e en pe spec i es, he e appea o be some key simila i ies among expe s [
4
]. Fi s ,
emo ions in ol e mode a ely ela ed changes in domains such as subjec i e expe ience,
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2023,20, 6865. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ije ph20196865 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ije ph
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2023,20, 6865 2 o 24
beha io , and physiological aspec s. Second, hey de elop o e ime [
5
]. In his sense, he
P ocess Model o Emo ion Regula ion p oposed by [
4
] p o ides a amewo k o unde -
s anding how emo ions a e gene a ed and egula ed, and how di e en componen s o
emo ional esponses in e ac wi h each o he . Acco ding o his model, he sequence begins
wi h he app aisal o a psychologically ele an si ua ion. The app aisal p ocess de e mines
whe he he si ua ion is pe cei ed as posi i e o nega i e, and whe he i is ele an o
he indi idual.
Whe he o one kind o ano he , hese si ua ions a e e e alua ed in e ms o wha
hey mean o he indi idual based on hei goals [
6
]. Finally, he model sugges s ha
emo ions a e impo an because o hei ela ionship wi h p ominen social belie s [
7
] and
e hical decisions [
8
,
9
]. Cu en esea ch concludes ha emo ions and cogni i e p ocesses
mu ually in luence each o he and a e co-de e mined by sociocul u al p ocesses [
10
–
12
]. In
his sense, he e is an impo an consensus ha emo ions a e no jus indi idual, in e nal
expe iences bu a e shaped by cul u al no ms, social con ex s, and his o ical and poli ical
ci cums ances [13].
2. A ec i e Regula ion
Emo ional egula ion is a p ocess conside ed necessa y o op imal pe sonal and
social adap a ion [
14
]. Indi iduals who possess well-de eloped emo ional compe encies
o egula e hei a ec i i y epo ha ing mo e posi i e ela ionships wi h o he s, exhibi
ewe an isocial beha io s, and a e less p one o psychological diso de s compa ed o hose
who exhibi lowe le els o lack such compe encies [
15
]. While a ec egula ion e e s o
he modi ica ion o moods, emo ional egula ion e e s o indi iduals’ capaci y o modi y
componen s o hei emo ional expe ience.
Acco ding o he P ocess Model o Emo ion Regula ion in [
4
], emo ional egula ion be-
gins when a pe son chooses be ween possible si ua ions based on hei p obable emo ional
impac . The model sugges s ha once an emo ion is gene a ed, i can be egula ed h ough
a ious cogni i e and beha io al s a egies which modi y he app aisal, physiological
a ousal, and exp ession componen s o he emo ional esponse. These s a egies include
he ollowing: (1) he modi ica ion o he si ua ion, which in ol es al e ing he si ua ion o
modi y i s emo ional impac ; (2) a en ional deploymen , which in ol es ocusing a en ion
on one aspec o he si ua ion; (3) cogni i e change, which in ol es modi ying he meaning
a ibu ed o he si ua ion, acco ding o which he po en ial emo ional meanings would lead
o a new decision, esul ing in he expe ience, beha io s, and physiological esponse en-
dencies ha de ine he emo ion; and, inally, (4) modula ion o a ec i e esponse e e s o
di ec ly in luencing he expe ience, beha io , o physiological componen s o he emo ional
esponse a e he emo ion has been gene a ed.
2.1. Goals o A ec Regula ion
Regula ion is conside ed unc ional i adap i e goals a e achie ed [
16
]. Di e en
mo i a ions o goals o emo ional egula ion a e impo an . Fi s , a ousal egula ion
(which inc eases when people a e bo ed o dec eases when hey a e upse ) and, second,
hedonic egula ion, usually ela ed o a dec eased nega i e a ec and imp o ed posi i e
a ec , a e wo basic goals ela ed o a ec alence and ac i a ion. Thi d, ins umen al
o p oblem solu ion goals o ask- ela ed (o achie emen ou comes) goals a e impo an .
Fou h, goals o social in eg a ion o goals wi h belonging-o ien ed ou comes a e ele an
in gene al and especially in he wo kplace. O he goals o mo i es a e impo an , like
main aining a posi i e sel -image and de ending sel -es eem and cogni i e mo i es, o
unde s anding emo ions and a ec [
17
,
18
]. B ie ly, a ec egula ion can be cha ac e ized by
he inclina ion o imp o e eelings and a ousal, sol e asks success ully, de end sel -es eem,
and unde s and and con ol expe ience, as well as o main ain o imp o e social in eg a ion.
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2023,20, 6865 3 o 24
2.2. Rela ional and Social Regula ion Fo ms
Fo ms o egula ion a e impo an o all goals, bu also pa icula ly o social in eg a-
ion goals, which a e hose ha a e ca ied ou h ough in e ac ions wi h o he s. He e, no
only he sea ch o social suppo , widely s udied, bu also o ms o egula ion ha in ol e
mobilizing changes in social ela ionships can be in eg a ed, like al uism, nego ia ion,
media ion, delega ion, and public i uals.
As o ms o egula ion based on social ela ionships, seeking and gi ing social suppo ,
as well as nego ia ion, ha e been s udied. In pa icula , p osocial beha io o al uism
ha inc eases well-being [
19
]. Nego ia ion is aimed a making a deal and p oposing
a comp omise wi h o he s, in o de o educe s ess. P e ious s udies ha e iden i ied
nego ia ion and al uism as equen ly chosen egula ion s a egies ha a e associa ed wi h
adjus men [20].
Media ion and delega ion a e o ms o egula ion also linked o he use o social
ela ionships. Media ion seeks he in e en ion o hi d pa ies as in e media ies, while
delega ion in ol es ica ious and indi ec con ol h ough igu es o highe s a us and
expe ise, in which he ins umen al esolu ion o he si ua ion is delega ed (e.g., o a
doc o , a eache , o a mo e knowledgeable colleague). Media ion and delega ion as indi ec
o ms o changing he si ua ion h ough social ela ionships we e mo e e ec i e han di ec
coping in si ua ions wi h limi ed con ollabili y [
21
]. Howe e , he in ol emen o hi d
pa ies as media o s and delega ion we e a ely used in p e ious samples, and he la e
was no adap i e in he wo kplace [20].
P i a e and public i uals, as well as pa icipa ion in social mo emen s o social
pa icipa ion, cons i u e o ms o egula ion ha in ol e he use o social ins umen s. Bo h
p i a e and public i uals ha e been associa ed wi h well-being in coping wi h collec i e
s ess ul e en s [
22
]. In he wo k en i onmen , i was iden i ied he use o collec i e o
public i uals as a egula ion s a egy [
23
] and he e is e idence o hei posi i e e ec s
in o he a eas [
18
,
24
]. Finally, pa icipa ion in social mo emen s, al hough i is a less
equen o m o coping, and is only applicable in si ua ions o collec i e p oblems, can be
an adap i e way o he egula ion o s ess [25].
3. The Use o Humo as an E ec i e Regula ion S a egy
Ano he o m o egula ion ha ela es o social ela ionships is he use o humo .
S yles o humou e e o how a pe son in e ac s wi h o he s using un in in e pe sonal
communica ions [
26
]. Humo mi iga es nega i e a ec , and oge he wi h he exp ession o
a ec ion o, cons i u es a way o egula ing eelings. Humo would aid in egula ion h ough
physiological eac ions, p oducing elie h ough he p oduc ion o endo phins, simila ly o
wha occu s du ing physical ac i i y [
27
]. S udies ha e shown ha he ac i a ion o opposi e
emo ions ha in luences he use o a ec ion and humo di ec ly helps o inc ease posi i e
emo ions and educe nega i e ones [
28
]. Fu he mo e, humo can help o ein e p e
and eac o s esso s in a mo e posi i e way, educing hei impac and symp oms o
anxie y [
27
]. Resea ch has also shown ha humo ein o ces adap i e egula ion o ms such
as ee alua ion o de-d ama iza ion and he sea ch o social suppo h ough a ilia i e
humo [
20
]. Finally, he e is a posi i e associa ion be ween sense o humo , asse i eness,
and c ea i i y [28].
4. Emo ional Regula ion and C ea i i y
As men ioned ea lie , posi i e o ms o egula ion such as humo a e associa ed
wi h c ea i i y. In gene al, c ea i i y can be de ined as he abili y o gene a e no el,
o iginal, in equen , and use ul o adap i e esponses o a p oblem o si ua ion. In he
a ec i e domain, c ea i i y acili a es adap i e egula ion. A pe sonali y ai linked o
his opic is called emo ional c ea i i y (EC). I is he abili y o a end o and expe ience
complex emo ions— a e o no el ones—in an au hen ic and adap i e way [
29
,
30
]. EC has
been associa ed wi h well-being and co ela ed wi h a highe adjus men a e an in ense
emo ional expe ience. I has also been shown in uni e si y s uden s o be a p edic o
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2023,20, 6865 4 o 24
o in insic mo i a ion and academic commi men [
31
]. This ai is ela ed o di e gen
hinking, he abili y o be c ea i e and o iginal in emo ional expe iences, and emo ional
egula ion, speci ically ein o cing adap i e eapp aisal. Finally, mo ional c ea i i y is
linked o c ea i e pe o mance [32].
In addi ion o his pe sonali y ai , o ms o egula ion such as humo , ac i e physio-
logical egula ion, egula ed emo ional exp ession, g a i ude and sel - ewa d, hank ulness,
and eapp aisal acili a e c ea i i y. The use o humo in ol es dis ancing, c ea i e and
posi i e e o mula ion o e en s. P obably h ough a ec i e and cogni i e pa hways, i
s eng hens c ea i i y o he gene a ion o inno a i e esponses [
26
]. Ac i e physiological
egula ion, which in ol es some kind o physical ac i i y, inc eases posi i e a ec and,
h ough i , c ea i i y [
33
]. Regula ed emo ional exp ession inc eases c ea i i y, p obably
because i is ela ed o g ea e abili ies o analyze and delay he esponse, which allows
o e coming habi ual esponses [
34
]. Sel - ewa d and hank ulness a e associa ed wi h
c ea i i y because hey in ol e he in e p e a ion o eali y in an inno a i e way, whe e he
sea ch o al e na i e posi i e s imuli helps o elabo a e c ea i e esponses. Reapp aisal as
dis ancing and changing pe spec i e also ein o ces c ea i i y [35].
5. Wellbeing and Emo ional Regula ion
Resea ch has shown ha people who use mo e unc ional egula ion s a egies expe i-
ence high psychological well-being [
4
,
36
]. The e o e, well-being measu es a e also impo -
an o e i y he unc ionali y o emo ional egula ion s a egies in di e en
si ua ions [37]
.
Speci ically, some s udies ha e ocused on s udying he ela ionship be ween egula ion
s a egies and psychological o eudaimonic well-being (which e e s o he ex en o which
indi iduals pe cei e hei li es o be meaning ul, pu pose ul, and ul illing), while o he s
ha e also ela ed hem o measu es o hedonic well-being (which e e s o he subjec i e
expe ience o pleasu e, happiness, and li e sa is ac ion) [38].
Fo example, in a s udy conduc ed by [
39
] wi h 470 adul s, posi i e eapp aisal and
e ocusing on planning we e posi i ely co ela ed wi h subjec i e and psychological well-
being. Addi ionally, umina ion, ca as ophizing, and sel -blame we e linked o poo e
well-being. In ano he s udy low supp ession, low sel -c i ical use o humo , and a ilia i e
humo we e linked o highe le els o psychological well-being. Simila ly, sel -enhancing
humo and low supp ession we e associa ed wi h highe le els o happiness [40].
Mo e ecen ly, a s udy conduc ed by [
18
] analyzed di e en s a egies o emo ional
egula ion [
4
] and i s associa ion wi h hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. The esul s
showed ha maladap i e coping s a egies, such as wi hd awal and social isola ion, and
supp ession we e associa ed wi h highe le els o nega i e a ec o low hedonic well being.
Con e sely, coping s a egies such as social suppo , g a i ude and sel - ewa d, eapp aisal,
as well as en ing and egula ed exp ession we e ound o be signi ican ly associa ed
wi h highe le els o posi i e a ec . Simila esul s we e ound in he ela ionship o
s a egies wi h psychological well-being. Speci ically, supp ession, social isola ion and
wi hd awal we e associa ed wi h low psychological well-being., A he opposi e, s a egies
such as p oblem-di ec ed ac ion and planning, a en ional deploymen h ough dis ac ion,
seeking social suppo , cogni i e change by eapp aisal, esponse modula ion by ac i e
physiological egula ion, as well as en ing and egula ed exp ession, accep ance and
g a i ude/sel - ewa d, ha e been ound o be posi i ely co ela ed wi h psychological well-
being. Howe e , as obse ed in p e ious s udies, he unc ionali y o emo ional egula ion
s a egies and hei ela ionship wi h well-being a ies depending on he si ua ions and
in e ac ions ha occu wi h o he s [
37
]. The e o e, i is essen ial o conduc mo e s udies ha
allow us o e i y he unc ionali y o emo ional egula ion s a egies and hei ela ionship
wi h well-being in di e en con ex s.
6. P esen S udy
Based on he e iewed li e a u e, he objec i es and hypo heses o his s udy a e
p esen ed [
31
]. The sha ed objec i e was o compa e how s uden s, wo ke s and a h-
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2023,20, 6865 5 o 24
le es egula ed emo ions in he common domain o achie emen o pe o mance. In he
p esen a ion o he ins umen s, i was emphasized ha we we e asking how people man-
aged emo ions in he non-in e pe sonal and non- amily en i onmen , bu in he a ea o
pe o mance o achie emen , i.e., s udies, wo k, and compe i i e spo s.
Hypo hesis 1 (H1).
Di e ences in he equency and e ec i eness o s a egy use a e expec ed o
be ound be ween s uden s, wo ke s and a hle es.
The ela ionship be ween o ms o a ec egula ion wi h adap i e goals o emo ional
egula ion and well-being adjus men , heal h- ela ed quali y o li e pe cep ion, humo ,
emo ional c ea i i y, and c ea i i y o inno a ion in esponses gi en o ace a con lic ing
wo k si ua ion will be con as ed. I is expec ed o ind a cong uen ela ionship be ween
he use o unc ional s a egies and he analyzed a iables.
Hypo hesis 2 (H2).
Speci ically, adap i e egula ion is expec ed o be associa ed wi h s ess adjus -
men , well-being and heal h ela ed quali y o li e, as well as wi h ai c ea i i y and inno a ion— he
c ea i i y ai is expec ed o be associa ed wi h c ea i e pe o mance in he o m o inno a i e solu-
ion o a wo k con lic .
The speci ic e ec o sel and he e o- egula ion s a egies on adjus men will be examined,
wi h well-being as a dis al p edic o and he s a egies hemsel es as media ing a iables.
Hypo hesis 3 (H3).
Adap i e egula ion s a egies will media e be ween adjus men and
well-being
;
wi h a di ec ela ionship be ween bo h a iables in s uden s (see also [18]).
7. Me hod
7.1. P ocedu e and Pa icipan s
S uden s and a hle es da a was collec ed by pape and pencil scales. Fo he s udy wi h
employees, pa o ques ionnai es we e collec ed ace- o- ace and pa online. Response
ime o he scales was 30 o 40 min. Fo da a collec ed by enc yp ed mail link esponse
a e was 30%. Fo ace o ace da a esponse a e was close o 100% because hey we e
con olled samples.
Fo he s udy wi h employees (E1), pa icipan s we e ec ui ed by doc o al s uden s
and p o esso s o o ganiza ional psychology. Pa o he ques ionnai es we e collec ed
ace- o- ace and pa online. An enc yp ed email was sen o he pa icipan s who accessed
a link o answe he su ey. They could only eply once o he link ha was sen o hem—i
was no a ee access link. This s udy includes N= 687 indi iduals (wo ke s, unde g adua e
and g adua e s uden s who wo k) om ou coun ies: B azil, Chile, Spain, and U uguay,
pa icipa ed in his s udy. O hose who epo ed wo king (29%), 47% wo ked ull- ime
and 53% wo ked pa - ime. Pa icipan s epo ed being p o essionals om di e en oc-
cupa ional ields ( ou ism, compu e science, heal h ca e, eaching, adminis a i e, ci il
se an s, mechanics, HR and comme ce echnicians). 57% o he sample epo ed being
emale and 43% male, aged be ween 17 and 72 yea s (M = 30.77, SD = 10.87).
Fo he s uden ’s s udy (E2), sel - epo pape and pencil scales we e applied o
line o ace o ace collec i ely, a e eques ing in o med consen , in a single session by
he esea che ’s au ho s o young olun ee s s udying human sciences and educa ion in
di e en Spanish speaking ins i u ions, who answe ed indi idually by sel -applying he
ques ionnai e. Pa icipan s we e Spanish and La in-Ame ican uni e si y s uden s. The
s udy included 959 s uden s om Chile, Cuba, Spain, and U uguay, who epo ed ha ing
comple ed high school o highe educa ion [bachelo ’s deg ee (64%), diploma (3%), deg ee
(22%), and mas e ’s deg ee (1%)]. 72% epo ed being emale and 28% male, aged be ween
16 and 46 yea s (M = 20.67, SD = 2.87). In his s udy, he alida ion o he MARS scale was
based on a i s sample o s uden s (see [18]).
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2023,20, 6865 6 o 24
Fo he s udy wi h a hle es (E3), he sel - epo pape and pencil ins umen s we e
adminis e ed collec i ely, a e eques ing in o med consen om he a hle es who pa -
icipa ed olun a ily. The pa icipan s we e asked o answe he ques ionnai es hinking
abou he collec i e spo hey mos equen ly p ac iced and in which hey pa icipa ed
in compe i ions. N= 144 Spanish indi iduals who engaged in spo s as a p o essional
ac i i y (a hle ics, cycling, oo ball, owing, ugby, su ing, baske ball, o he s) pa icipa ed
in his s udy, 78% we e men and 22% we e women, aged be ween 17 and 43 yea s (M = 22,
SD = 4.42). The alida ion o he MARS scale in spo s was used in his s udy (see [24,37])
The inclusion c i e ion o all samples was o be o legal age and no o ha e cogni i e
limi a ions. The esea che s who sen he links o collec ed he ques ionnai es checked he
age and cogni i e compe ence o each pa icipan —who was pe sonally known in each
case. The h ee s udies we e de eloped in pa allel du ing he 2015–2016 academic yea s as
pa o a esea ch p ojec on emo ional egula ion.
7.2. Ins umen s
The ollowing igu e and able p esen s he a iables and scales applied in he s udies
(see Figu e 1and Table 1).
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2023, 20, x 6 o 25
be ween 16 and 46 yea s (M = 20.67, SD = 2.87). In his s udy, he alida ion o he MARS
scale was based on a i s sample o s uden s (see [18]).
Fo he s udy wi h a hle es (E3), he sel - epo pape and pencil ins umen s we e
adminis e ed collec i ely, a e eques ing in o med consen om he a hle es who pa -
icipa ed olun a ily. The pa icipan s we e asked o answe he ques ionnai es hinking
abou he collec i e spo hey mos equen ly p ac iced and in which hey pa icipa ed
in compe i ions. N = 144 Spanish indi iduals who engaged in spo s as a p o essional ac-
i i y (a hle ics, cycling, oo ball, owing, ugby, su ing, baske ball, o he s) pa icipa ed
in his s udy, 78% we e men and 22% we e women, aged be ween 17 and 43 yea s (M =
22, SD = 4.42). The alida ion o he MARS scale in spo s was used in his s udy (see [24];
[37])
The inclusion c i e ion o all samples was o be o legal age and no o ha e cogni i e
limi a ions. The esea che s who sen he links o collec ed he ques ionnai es checked he
age and cogni i e compe ence o each pa icipan —who was pe sonally known in each
case. The h ee s udies we e de eloped in pa allel du ing he 2015–2016 academic yea s
as pa o a esea ch p ojec on emo ional egula ion.
7.2. Ins umen s
The ollowing igu e and able p esen s he a iables and scales applied in he s udies
(see Figu e 1 and Table 1).
Figu e 1. S udy model: disposi ional a iables (psychological well-being and heal h- ela ed quali y
o li e and ai emo ional c ea i i y), media ing a iables ( egula ion) and c i e ion a iables (ad-
jus men o s ess and applied c ea i i y o inno a ion as a solu ion o a labo con lic ).
Fi s , measu es o sel - (MARS and HSQ) and he e o egula ion (EROS) we e applied.
Second, measu es o s ess adjus men and well-being (PHI). MARS and PHI we e applied
in all h ee s udies. EROS only in s uden s and a hle e’s sample. Thi d, measu es o heal h
ela ed quali y o li e (SF-36), ai c ea i i y (ECI-S) and pe o mance we e only applied
in s udy one. Fou h, s yles o humo scales (HSQ) was applied only in s udy 2. The
s udy design sough o examine he ela ionship o a ec i e egula ion o s ess adap a-
ion and well-being, as well as he ela ionship o a ec i e egula ion o ai and pe o -
mance c ea i i y.
Table 1. Va iables, scales and s udies included in he s udy.
Va iable Scale Applied in S udy
A ec egula ion scales
A ec sel egula ion MARS s a egies
1, 2 and 3 (7 i ems no
included in E3)
Figu e 1.
S udy model: disposi ional a iables (psychological well-being and heal h- ela ed qual-
i y o li e and ai emo ional c ea i i y), media ing a iables ( egula ion) and c i e ion a iables
(adjus men o s ess and applied c ea i i y o inno a ion as a solu ion o a labo con lic ).
Table 1. Va iables, scales and s udies included in he s udy.
Va iable Scale Applied in S udy
A ec egula ion scales
A ec sel egula ion MARS s a egies 1, 2 and 3 (7 i ems no included in E3)
ERQ eapp aisal and supp ession 1 and 2
HSQ Humo s yles 2
A ec He e o egula ion EROS 2 and 3
C i e ion and co a ia es a iables
Ajus men o s ess MARS-adjus men 1, 2 and 3
Wellbeing and heal h
Psychological well-being PHI 1, 2 and 3
Heal h ela ed quali y o li e SF-36 1
C ea i i y
T ai emo ional c ea i i y ECI-S 1
Emo ional c ea i i y pe o mance Solu ion o a labo con lic e alua ed by
judges in c ea i i y 1
Fi s , measu es o sel - (MARS and HSQ) and he e o egula ion (EROS) we e applied.
Second, measu es o s ess adjus men and well-being (PHI). MARS and PHI we e ap-
plied in all h ee s udies. EROS only in s uden s and a hle e’s sample. Thi d, measu es
o heal h ela ed quali y o li e (SF-36), ai c ea i i y (ECI-S) and pe o mance we e
only applied in s udy one. Fou h, s yles o humo scales (HSQ) was applied only in
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2023,20, 6865 7 o 24
s udy 2
. The s udy design sough o examine he ela ionship o a ec i e egula ion o
s ess adap a ion and well-being, as well as he ela ionship o a ec i e egula ion o ai
and pe o mance c ea i i y.
In his esea ch, ins umen s ela ed o a ec i e egula ion we e used. In his sec ion,
as a measu e o a ec egula ion, he MARS scale [
41
,
42
] was esponded o. A e sion
consis ing o 64 i ems was applied (see Tables 2–5). Pa icipan s we e asked o indica e
how o en hey pe o med he ac ions men ioned o egula e/manage s ess si ua ions in
he s udy, wo k, o spo s con ex . The esponse scale was a Like - ype scale (0 = ne e o
6 = almos always
). Howe e , in he a hle e’s s udies, i ems o Al uism, Media ion, Nego-
ia ion, Delega ion, Social pa icipa ion, Sea ch o in o ma ion and Passi e physiological
egula ion we e no included—because hey we e no ele an o his domain.
Table 2.
Reliabili ies (
α
) o he dimensions, mean, s anda d de ia ion (SD) and one-way analysis o
a iance o si ua ion modi ica ion and social ies i ems.
Measu e S udy 1
Wo ke s
S udy 2
S uden s
S udy 3
A hle es
F
(2, 1787) pη2
Di ec p oblem sol ing and planning. Ins umen al coping α= 0.76 α= 0.73 α=0.71
04. De elop a plan o deal wi h wha happened and be able o
do some hing o change he si ua ion 3.80 (1.54) 4.04 (1.45) 4.18 (1.53) 6.9 0.001 0.007
05. Ac o do some hing o sol e he p oblem ha caused
my mood 4.10 (1.39) 4.24 (1.25) 4.78 (1.39) 15.94
0.0001
0.02
(1, 1644)
06. Make plans o make a decision o a oid simila y p oblems
in he u u e 4.14 (1.32) 4.32 (1.28) n.d. 7.71
0.0056
0.005
Seeking emo ional suppo α= 0.92 α= 0.80 n.d.
52. Talking o someone abou how I eel. 3.84 (1.70) 4.10 (1.64) n.d. 9.76 0.018 0.006
53. Speak up o unde s anding and suppo 3.52 (1.78) 3.91 (1.71) n.d. 19.99
0.0001
0.012
Sea ch o ins umen al and in o ma ion suppo α= 0.88 (2, 1787)
54. Asking someone else o help in esol ing he si ua ion ha
igge ed my mood 3.10 (1.72) 3.31 (1.78) 3.40 (1.77) 3.54 0.03 0.004
55. Talking o someone who could gi e me ad ice and guidance
3.61 (1.66) 3.84 (1.67) 3.50 (1.92) 4.88 0.007 0.005
56. Ask someone who aced a simila p oblem wha hey did 3.23 (1.71) 3.34 (1.17) 4.01 (1.81) 17.16
0.0001
0.019
Beha io al a oidance and wi hd awal α= 0.72 α= 0.69 α= 0.67
07. Lea ing o lea ing he si ua ion 1.63 (1.46) 1.70 (1.38) 1.89 (1.60) 2.04 0.13 0.002
08. Ac ing as i no hing is w ong 1.62 (1.42) 1.88 (1.53) 1.71 (1.53) 6.22 0.002 0.007
09. Gi ing up o doing no hing: no ying o con ol
he si ua ion 1.15 (1.25) 1.21 (1.29) 1.15 (1.21) 0.50 0.60
0.0001
(1, 1644)
13. A oid con ac wi h people associa ed wi h he p oblem 2.74 (1.72) 2.71 (1.70) n.d. 3.96 0.046 0.002
14. Seeking o be alone 2.30 (1.76) 2.63 (1.70) n.d. 14.64
0.0001
0.009
35. T y o accep my a e, which is ine i able, i has o be
his way 2.33 (1.86) 2.70 (1.80) n.d. 16.45
0.0001
0.001
No e. n.d. = no da a a ailable in his s udy. In bold he e a squa es ha explain 1 pe cen o mo e o he a iance.
Table 3.
Reliabili ies (
α
) o he dimensions, mean, s anda d de ia ion (SD) and one-way analysis
o a iance o s a egies measu ed wi h a single i em in he Modi ica ion o Si ua ion and social
ela ionships ace .
Measu e S udy 1
Wo ke s
S udy 2
S uden s
S udy 3
A hle es
F
(1, 1644) pη2
Al uism
41. Fo ge abou my si ua ion and help someone else 2.37 (1.53) 2.45 (1.49) n.d. 1.13 0.28 0.001
Media ion
57. Ask someone o media e o in e ene in ela ion o
wha happened 1.55 (1.50) 1.64 (1.54) n.d. 1.37 0.24 0.001
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2023,20, 6865 8 o 24
Table 3. Con .
Measu e S udy 1
Wo ke s
S udy 2
S uden s
S udy 3
A hle es
F
(1, 1644) pη2
Nego ia ion
58. Talk abou wha happened wi h he people in ol ed
o nego ia e o each an ag eemen 2.92 (1.68) 3.28 (1.63) n.d. 19.03 0.0001 0.011
Ri uals (2, 1787)
P i a e
59. Pa icipa e in o o ganize a p i a e ce emony
(I w o e an e-mail abou wha happened, eo ganized
pho os, le e s)
1.00 (1.42) 0.91 (1.41) 4.09 (1.48) 325.24 0.0001 0.27
Public
60. Pa icipa e on o o ganize a public ce emony
(demons a ion, mass, commemo a ion) 0.62 (1.25) 0.65 (1.28) 1.89 (2.08) 56.99 0.0001 0.06
Social Pa icipa ion (1, 1644)
62. Ge in ol ed in poli ical o social ac i i ies 1.24 (1.53) 1 (1.55) n.d. 9.7 0.002 0.006
Delega ion
64. Pu ing mysel in he hands o o he s o sol e my
p oblem o imp o e he si ua ion 1.12 (1.32) 1.32 (1.44) n.d. 8.27 0.004 0.005
No e. n.d. = no da a a ailable in his s udy. In bold he e a squa es ha explain 1 pe cen o mo e o he a iance.
Table 4.
Reliabili ies (
α
) o he dimensions, mean, s anda d de ia ion (SD) and one-way analysis o
a iance o a en ion o ien a ion and cogni i e change i ems.
Measu e S udy 1
Wo ke s
S udy 2
S uden s
S udy 3
A hle es
F
(2, 1787) pη2
Dis ac ion α= 0.81 α= 0.78 α= 0.62
21. Doing some hing un, some hing I eally like and enjoy 4.07 (1.48) 4.28 (1.40) 3.66 (2.30) 11.92 0.0001 0.013
(1, 1644)
22. Wa ch TV, ead a book, lis en o music, e c., o
dis ac mysel 4.07 (1.55) 4.35 (1.43) n.d. 14.3 0.0002 0.009
(2.1787)
23. Wo king on some hing o keep busy o ake my mind o
my mood 3.73 (1.52) 3.75 (1.54) 3.82 (2.21) 0.19 0.83 0.0001
24. Thinking abou some hing else o dis ac me om
my eelings 3.47 (1.48) 2.37 (1.48) 4.73 (1.51) 208.85 0.0001 0.19
(1, 1644)
25. Being wi h people, alking, o o ge my mood 3.60 (1.57) 3.83 (1.56) n.d. 8.85 0.003 0.005
G a i ude and sel - ewa d α= 0.68 α= 0.71 α= 0.82 (2, 1787)
28. Do some hing special o ewa d mysel and eel be e 2.97 (1.71) 3.03 (1.68) 4.89 (1.39) 84.58 0.0001 0.086
30. T ying o hink abou hose hings ha I’m doing well a 3.60 (1.60) 3.34 (1.51) 4.69 (1.51) 48.41 0.0001 0.05
31. T ying o be g a e ul o he hings ha a e going well
in li e 3.95 (1.63) 3.84 (1.68) 4.83 (1.88) 21.82 0.0001 0.024
Spi i ual ac i i y α= 0.88 α= 0.82 n.d.
36. To p ay, o pu my ai h in God, o lean on eligious hings
2.20 (2.19) 1.59 (1.97) 3.32 (2.09) 51.18 0.0001 0.054
(1, 1644)
40. Read o do some hing eligious, spi i ual 1.87 (2.03) 1.07 (1.64) n.d. 77.94 0.0001 0.045
Rumina ion α= 0.64 α= 0.57 α= 0.76 (2, 1787)
01.Think abou how you could ha e done hings di e en ly 3.88 (1.41) 4.09 (1.29) 4.28 (1.51) 7.58 0.0005 0.008
02. T ying o unde s and my eelings by hinking abou and
analyzing hem 4.04 (1.37) 3.97 (1.48) 4.17 (1.57) 1.39 0.24 0.0015
03. Repea edly hinking abou wha happened, abou he
emo ional e ec s o he si ua ion 3.77 (1.46) 3.95 (1.48) 4.00 (1.60) 3.42 0.03 0.004
Re-e alua ion α= 0.81 α= 0.80 α= 0.77
37. T y o ein e p e he si ua ion, o ind a di e en meaning
o sense 3.40 (1.54) 3.31 (1.54) 3.91 (1.67) 9.38 0.0001 0.01
38. T ying o see hings om a b oade pe spec i e 4.04 (1.37) 3.78 (1.35) 4.41 (1.51) 16.77 0.0001 0.018
39. T ying o ind some hings good in he si ua ion 3.87 (1.49) 3.76 (1.51) 4.00 (1.60) 2.16 0.11 0.002
Social Compa ison α= 0.69 α= 0.60 α= 0.59
42.Compa ing mysel o people who a e wo se o han I am. 3.00 (2.78) 2.42 (1.71) 3.45 (1.91) 22.47 0.0001 0.025
43. Compa ing mysel o a pe son wi h mo e a means,
pe sonal esou ces and who had done be e han me. To ake
him/he as a model o imp o e my si ua ion
2.39 (2.58) 1.94 (1.62) 4.40 (1.87) 90.13 0.0001 0.092
In o ma ion sea ch n.d. n.d. n.d. (1, 1644)
61. In o m me abou my p oblem o abou he si ua ion in
o de o o e come i o do be e 2.93 (1.73) 2.78 (1.75) n.d. 2.97 0.085 0.002
No e. n.d. = no da a a ailable in his s udy. In bold he e a squa es ha explain 1 pe cen o mo e o he a iance.
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2023,20, 6865 9 o 24
Table 5.
Reliabili ies (
α
) o he dimensions, mean, s anda d de ia ion (SD) and one-way analysis o
a iance o a en ion o ien a ion and cogni i e change i ems.
Measu e S udy 1
Wo ke s
S udy 2
S uden s
S udy 3
A hle es F(2, 1787) pη2
Inhibi ion/supp ession α= 0.77 α= 0.66 α= 0.64
10. T y no o hink abou wha happened, igno e
nega i e emo ions 2.44 (1.68) 2.16 (1.44) 2.03 (1.54) 8.27 0.003 0.009
11. T y no o show my eelings, o supp ess any
exp ession o hem 2.64 (1.72) 2.32 (1.68) 2.15 (1.59) 9.33 0.0001 0.01
12. Faking o exp essing emo ion opposi e o
wha you eel 2.24 (1.73) 1.89 (1.60) 1.81 (1.50) 10.33 0.0001 0.011
Physiological egula ion
Ac i e α= 0.69 α= 0.45 α= 0.63
15. Exe cise, spo 3.02 (1.95) 2.62 (1.95) 4.40 (1.35) 56.06 0.0001 0.059
16. P ac icing elaxa ion, medi a ion 2.61 (3.05) 1.80 (1.71) 3.58 (1.45) 50.68 0.0001 0.054
Passi e α= 0.79 α= 0.63 n.d. (1, 1644)
17. Sleeping o napping 3.35 (3.15) 2.76 (1.83) n.d. 22.87 0.0001 0.014
18. Ea ing some hing o o e come my mood 3.24 (3.19) 2.61 (1.82) n.d. 25.7 0.0001 0.015
19. D inking co ee, ca eina ed be e ages o ea 2.36 (3.08) 1.77 (1.84) n.d. 23.49 0.0001 0.014
20. D inking o ge ou o a bad mood 1.56 (2.39) 1.06 (1.48) n.d. 27.34 0.0001 0.016
Emo ional discha ge α= 0.82 α= 0.78 α= 0.76 (2, 1787)
44. Le ing my emo ions come o he su ace
by discha ging 2.56 (1.58) 3.00 (1.61) 2.40 (1.73) 19.41 0.0001 0.021
45. Mani es ing my emo ion, e balizing i and
exp essing i as s ongly as possible wi h my ace,
wi h my ges u es, wi h he way I beha e
2.31 (1.69) 2.63 (1.69) 2.74 (1.73) 8.91 0.001 0.009
Con on a ion α= 0.69 α= 0.78 α= 0.71
46. Mani es emo ion o he pe son esponsible
o wha happened in o de o change hings 3.00 (1.60) 4.42 (3.17) 3.24 (1.79) 64.35 0.0001 0.067
47. Speaking wi h sa casm and i ony o he
people who p o oked he si ua ion 2.25 (1.76) 2.63 (1.75) 2.78 (1.83) 11.34 0.0001 0.012
48. Showing my discom o o he people who
p o oked he si ua ion by beha ing wi h
indi e ence owa ds hem
2.47 (1.68) 2.63 (1.71) 2.74 (1.73) 2.49 0.083 0.003
No e. n.d. = no da a a ailable in his s udy. In bold he e a squa es ha explain 1 pe cen o mo e o he a iance.
Pa icipan s also answe ed he pe cep ion o adjus men in he men ioned
episodes [17,40]
.
He e, he pe cei ed unc ionali y o he emo ional egula ion s a egies was measu ed
h ough six i ems ha asked o wha ex en he ollowing goals had been achie ed when
coping wi h s ess ul episodes a wo k: (1) dec ease he in ensi y wi h which his emo ional
expe ience was li ed, i.e., o change om high emo ional expe ience, i.e., o change om
high ac i a ion o calmness, elaxa ion calm, elaxa ion; (2) dec ease displeasu e, discom o
o unpleasan ness, i.e., change om displeasu e o g ea e pleasu e; (3) unde s and he
emo ional expe ience o he si ua ion; (4) o con ol o sol e he p oblem associa ed wi h
he si ua ion, i.e., o change o g ea e con ol o e he si ua ion; (5) o manage ela ionships
wi h o he people, o change hem o he be e , o ha e a be e ela ion (6) o imp o e
one’s sel -image. Responses we e gi en on a Like - ype scale (1 = li le o no change
o
10 = change
o a g ea ex en ). The eliabili y o he scale in he s udies was highly
sa is ac o y (α= 0.95 ×101;α= 0.84 ×102;α= 0.90 ×103).
O he scales answe ed in his sec ion by wo ke s and s uden ’s samples included he
Emo ion Regula ion Ques ionnai e (ERQ) [
43
]. This scale assess indi idual di e ences
in wo emo ion egula ion s a egies: cogni i e eapp aisal and exp essi e supp ession.
The scale consis s o 10 i ems [e.g., when I wan o eel mo e pleasan emo ions, I change
wha I am hinking] and is esponded o on a Like scale (1 = comple ely disag ee and
7 = comple ely
ag ee). The eliabili ies we e ound o be accep able in he s udies in which
i was used (α= 0.74 and 0.69 ×101;α= 0.77 and 0.78 ×102).
Pa icipan s in he s uden s and a hle e’s samples answe he emo ional in e - egula ion
EROS ins umen [
44
]. This scale o nine i ems e alua es indi idual di e ences in he egu-
la ion o o he s’ emo ions (o he e o egula ion). A i s dimension composed o six i ems
e alua es he endency o inc ease o he s’ posi i e emo ions and dec ease hei nega i e
emo ions [e.g., I did some hing pleasan o ewa ding wi h o he s]. A second dimension
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2023,20, 6865 16 o 24
95% CI [
−
0.010;
−
0.0014]. The indi ec e ec is 0.0656 and explains 42% o he o al
e ec (see Figu e 3).
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2023, 20, x 17 o 25
No e. + p < 0.10; * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.0. Emo ional c ea i i y analyzes we e pe o med on N = 104
wo ke s and c ea i i y o inno a ion in i s idea ion phase in he ace o a labo con lic on N = 55.
The humo s yle ques ionnai e (HSQ) was applied o N = 25 Chilean uni e si y s uden s. E.C = emo-
ional c ea i i y. CL = labo dispu e. AF = a ilia i e, AFF = sel -asse i e, HA = agg essi e, ADD =
sel -dep eca ing. n.d. = no da a. Dys unc ional o non-adap i e s a egies in i alics.
Suppo ing he scale’s alidi y, he e is an associa ion be ween emo ional c ea i i y
(ECI-S scale) and c ea i i y in esponse o a wo k con lic (E1). In u n, emo ional c ea i -
i y as a ai is posi i ely and signi ican ly associa ed wi h adjus men and s a egies
linked o high well-being (di ec coping, social suppo , e-e alua ion, spi i uali y, in o -
ma ion seeking, ac i e physiological egula ion, egula ed emo ional exp ession), as well
as wi h accep ance, social pa icipa ion, and i uals. I is also posi i ely associa ed wi h
non-adap i e s a egies such as umina ion, social compa ison, and discha ge, and nega-
i ely associa ed wi h supp ession. In his s udy, c ea i i y, o inno a ion in he idea ion
phase as a esponse o a wo k con lic is posi i ely and signi ican ly associa ed wi h e-
e alua ion, ac i e physiological egula ion, and in o ma ion seeking. I is nega i ely asso-
cia ed wi h supp ession. Finally, unc ional o ms o egula ion (di ec coping, nego ia-
ion, ee alua ion, ac i e physiological egula ion) a e posi i ely and dys unc ional (aban-
don, umina ion, passi e physiological, supp ession) a e nega i ely associa ed o
heal h- ela ed quali y o li e in wo ke s (SF-36 scale).
8.7. E ec o Sel -Regula ion S a egies as Media o Va iables wi h Well-Being and Adjus men
To examine H3 media ional analyses [54] we e pe o med wi h he sample o s u-
den s, using well-being as p edic o , adjus men as he dependen a iable (DV), and eg-
ula ion s a egies by a ea as media o a iables (MV). Well-being and egula ion s a egies
explain 28% o he a iance in adjus men . Well-being is posi i ely and indi ec ly associ-
a ed wi h adjus men h ough di ec coping B = 0.023, SD = 0.0052, 95% CI [0.014; 0.035]
and lowe psychological abandonmen B = 0.023, SD = 0.0073, 95% CI [0.009; 0.038]. This
associa ion is also obse ed h ough posi i e ee alua ion B = 0.017, SD = 0.004, 95% CI
[0.093; 0.028], ac i e physiological egula ion B = 0.002, SD = 0.0017, 95% CI [0.0003;
0.0073], and egula ed exp ession B = −0.0044, SD = 0.0023, 95% CI [−0.010; −0.001]. On he
o he hand, well-being is nega i ely associa ed wi h adjus men h ough accep ance B =
−0.0044, SD = 0.0023, 95% CI [−0.010; −0.001] and discha ge B = −0.0048, SD = 0.0022, 95%
CI [−0.010; −0.0014]. The indi ec e ec is 0.0656 and explains 42% o he o al e ec (see
Figu e 3).
Figu e 3. Rela ionship be ween well-being (measu ed wi h PHI) and s ess adjus men in a sample
o s uden s (E2). Emo ional egula ion s a egies a e he media o s (MARS scale). The coe icien s
Figu e 3.
Rela ionship be ween well-being (measu ed wi h PHI) and s ess adjus men in a sample o
s uden s (E2). Emo ional egula ion s a egies a e he media o s (MARS scale). The coe icien s a e no
s anda dized. The o al (and di ec ) e ec o well-being on adjus men is shown. * p< 0.05; ** p< 0.01;
*** p< 0.001.
9. Discussion
The h ee hypo heses pos ula ed in his s udy we e pa ially con i med. Di e ences
in he use and, o a lesse ex en , he e icacy o egula ion s a egies we e ound be ween
wo ke s, s uden s, and a hle es. Dys unc ional egula ion s a egies such as umina ion and
social compa ison a e maladap i e o wo ke s and s uden s bu no o a hle es, which
has also been shown in p e ious s udies [
18
]. Mo eo e , maladap i e s a egies in he
o me wo g oups such as con on a ion and supp ession do no ha e nega i e e ec s on
a hle es (H1).
The e is a cong uen ela ionship be ween he use o unc ional s a egies and ad-
jus men o s ess, well-being, and heal h- ela ed quali y o li e. This cong uence is also
ound o some ex en in humo s yles such as sel -a i ma ion, as well as in c ea i i y, bo h
emo ional and applied o inno a ion in he idea ion phase o cope wi h a con lic ing wo k
si ua ion (H2). Howe e , nega i e he e o egula ion, ha wo sens he emo ions o o he s, is
associa ed wi h well-being and pe sonal adjus men in he s uden sample. This esul may
sugges ha a emp ing o in luence he emo ions o o he s, e en c i ically, has posi i e
e ec s o he indi idual, ein o ces sel -es eem and pe sonal sel -e icacy, e en i i has
nega i e e ec s on o he s. Howe e , his conclusion mus be ela i ized because o he low
eliabili y o he scale.
Fu he mo e, i was con i med ha adap i e egula ion s a egies media e he e-
la ionship be ween well-being and adjus men o s ess (H3). I is possible o conclude
ha he use o adap i e sel - and he e o- egula ion s a egies acili a es adjus men and is
ela ed psychological well-being. Con i ming hei gene al adap i e na u e, he ollowing
s a egies we e associa ed wi h adjus men and well-being: di ec coping, social suppo ,
dis ac ion, sel - ewa d, g a i ude, eapp aisal, ac i e physiological egula ion, use o hu-
mo and a ec ion, as well as egula ed exp ession. On he o he hand, low psychological
abandonmen , low passi e physiological egula ion, and low supp ession we e associa ed
wi h adjus men and well-being. The esul s sugges ha indi iduals who know and egu-
la e hei own emo ions p ope ly can be mo e e ec i e in wo k, s udies, and spo s eams.
This is consis en wi h a ecen me a-analysis showing he ele ance o hese emo ional
p ocesses in adap i e beha io in di e en con ex s [
55
]. A s a e o high well-being has
ho izon al in luence be ween pee s, and e ical in luence h ough he leade s, helping o
c ea e a posi i e g oup clima e. Since moods end o be con agious and/o ansmi ed in
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2023,20, 6865 17 o 24
bo h wo k eams and g oups, when hey a e posi i e in a high well-being clima e, hey can
help mi iga e nega i e si ua ions in s udy, wo k, and spo s g oups [
56
]. When leade s a e
in a good mood, eam/g oup membe s a e mo e posi i e and coope a e mo e [
57
]. These
aspec s can acili a e hei c ea i i y [48,58].
In he ollowing pa ag aphs we discuss, in de ail, he di e ence in equency o use o
he s a egies be ween s uden s, wo ke s and a hle es. We hen examine hei unc ionali y
in each g oup. We di e en ia e in ou discussion he h ee phases o G oss’s model:
si ua ion modi ica ion and social bonding, a en ion eo ien a ion and cogni i e change,
and inally, expe ience modi ica ion and emo ional egula ion.
9.1. Di e ences be ween G oups on he F equency o S a egies: Modi ica ion o Si ua ion and
Social Rela ionships
Rega ding he ace o modi ica ion o he si ua ion and social ela ionships, i was
ound ha a hle es use p oblem-sol ing and social suppo -seeking s a egies (especially ins umen-
al and in o ma i e) mo e han wo ke s. The e ec size was small, o e a squa ed
0.01 o 0.02
,
equi alen o an = 0.10 o 0.14 o d= 0.20 o 0.28. These esul s could be explained by
he ac ha di ec ac ion (see i ems 04, 05 and 06 in Table 2) is possibly mo e equen in
he p o essional spo s con ex , al hough i is also expec ed o be commonly used in he
educa ional con ex and desi able in he wo kplace. Lowe use o social suppo s a egy in
he wo ke sample han in he s uden sample, is p obably explained by he ac ha he
wo k en i onmen ends o be mo e conc e e and ocused on he indi idual han ha o
spo s—especially i i is coope a i e o collec i e.
S uden s speci ically seek mo e emo ional social suppo , and exp ess and discha ge emo-
ions mo e in ensely han he o he wo g oups, as desc ibed below. This could be explained
by a mo e in o mal you h sociabili y and mo e ho izon al social ela ionships. I is possible ha
in wo k and high-pe o mance spo s con ex s, mo e egula ed in e ac ions gi e less oom
o exp essi e spon anei y.
O e all, s uden s use mo e egula ion o ms ha in ol e mobilizing social ela ionships in
line wi h mo e ho izon al and spon aneous in e ac ions ha occu in he educa ional se ing.
Speci ically, s uden s make ela i ely mo e use— han wo ke s- o nego ia ion. In u n,
a hle es make g ea e use o i uals as a egula ion s a egy han he o he wo g oups.
9.2. Modi ica ion o Si ua ion and Social Rela ionships: Sea ching Social Suppo , Al uism and
Nego ia ion as Adap i e S a egies and Media ion and Delega ion as Inadpa i e S a egies
The esul s show ha di ec coping, seeking social suppo , and low a oidance a e adap i e
emo ional egula ion s a egies. In addi ion, some o ms o social egula ion, like helping
and nego ia ing wi h o he s a e e ec i e o ms o egula ion. Al uism and nego ia ion
a e associa ed wi h adjus men and well-being in s uden s and wo ke s. This esul con i ms
ha helping o he s allows indi iduals o mo e away om egocen ism and eel e ec i e
and socially in eg a ed [
20
]. Helping o he s, e en i done “sel ishly”, is e ec i e [
19
].
Nego ia ion may be adap i e because i in ol es nego ia ing a a simila le el o s a us and
educing con lic .
O he s o ms o social egula ion, like media ion and delega ion a e nega i ely associa ed
wi h adjus men in wo ke s, bu no in s uden s. The esul s sugges ha asking o a hi d-pa y
in e en ion in he wo k con ex is no unc ional, p obably because i implies “b eaking”
de ined oles. Delega ing o o he s is also no adap i e in ei he g oup. In pe o mance
o achie emen con ex s, delega ing is associa ed wi h no di ec ly aking con ol o he
si ua ion, which can esul in low le els o e ec i eness and sel -es eem.
9.3. Social Pa icipa ion, P i a e and Public Ri uals and Adjus men ; Adap i es in S uden s and
A hle es Respec i ely
Social pa icipa ion shows a posi i e associa ion wi h adjus men and well-being
in s uden s, while in wo ke s, i is nega i ely associa ed wi h well-being. These esul s
sugges ha despi e he cu en weaknesses o he s uden mo emen , pa icipa ing in
social mo emen s has posi i e e ec s o s uden s. As o wo ke s, he low well-being in
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2023,20, 6865 18 o 24
ela ion o social pa icipa ion could be explained by he weakness o he labo mo emen
and he cos i could ha e o sala ied pe sonnel.
While i uals a e no adap i e in s uden s and show a nega i e associa ion in wo ke s, hey
a e associa ed wi h well-being and adjus men in a hle es. E idence suppo s ha he le el o
collec i e i ual and i s e ec s a e po en in spo s con ex s whe e he use o amule s, lucky
signs, coo dina ed chan s, and collec i e celeb a ions a e beha io s o high equency and
signi icance [
59
]. I has been pos ula ed ha he use o p i a e i uals is common o coping
wi h compe i ion anxie y [
60
,
61
]. This s udy con i ms his app oach, sugges ing ha using
i uals as a egula ion s a egy educes anxie y and helps o ocus on he ask, allowing o
an imp o emen in pe o mance.
9.4. Di e ences be ween G oups on he F equency o S a egies: A en ional Deploymen and
Cogni i e Change
Rega ding he aspec o a en ion deploymen and cogni i e change, i was ound ha
s uden s and a hle es epo using dis ac ion mo e o en han wo ke s as a s a egy. A hle es
use sel - ewa d, g a i ude, ee alua ion, and social compa ison mo e equen ly han he o he
wo g oups.
Wo ke s and a hle es use spi i ual ac i i ies s a egies mo e han s uden s. This shows a
g ea e secula iza ion in young people wi h highe educa ion han in o he g oups.
A hle es ee alua e and sel - ewa d mo e and ha e a highe a i ude o g a i ude han he
o he wo g oups—and he e ec size was medium high o impo an . The ac ha his
g oup uses all o ms o cogni i e change and ocus on ac i i y co obo a es wha has been
ound in o he s udies [
62
,
63
]. Al hough spo is ound o be a sou ce o g ea e sa is ac ion
and low han s udy and wo k [
64
], o he esul s quali y his asse ion [
65
]. I is possible
ha in he s udy en i onmen and some wo k con ex s, i is mo e di icul o ind and
use posi i e s imuli o ewa d onesel . Ano he explana ion is ha people may no know
how o use hese egula ion s yles in he analyzed a eas, e en hough hey a e amilia
wi h hem.
9.5. A en ional Deploymen and Cogni i e Change: Ree alua ion, G a i ude and Sel -Rewa d as
Adap i e S a egies and Rumina ion and Social Compa ison as Inadpa i e S a egies in
Wo ke s and S uden s
Ree alua ion, g a i ude, and sel - ewa d we e associa ed wi h adjus men and o e all well-
being in gene al, while dis ac ion was only associa ed wi h hese a iables in s uden s and
a hle es.Dis ac ion is no adap i e in he wo kplace p obably because he cos o edi ec ing
a en ion by igno ing p oblems ins ead o ocusing on hem o sol e hem is p obably
highe han in he o he wo a eas.
Rumina ion and social compa ison a e non-adap i e s a egies in s uden s and wo ke s,
al hough hey a e posi i ely associa ed wi h adjus men and well-being in a hle es in his and
o he s udy [
66
]. Al hough wo ke s epo using social compa ison a a mode a e le el,
i is nega i ely associa ed wi h well-being in his g oup. This las esul is also ound in
s uden s. Remembe ha in gene al, social compa ison has been shown o be a maladap i e
egula ion s a egy [
18
]. Howe e , in a compe i i e con ex such as eam spo s, umina ing
on hough s and compa ing onesel o o he s seems o mo i a e one o pe o m and eel
be e as a esul .
9.6. Di e ences be ween G oups on he F equency o S a egies: Expe ience Modi ica ion and
egula ion o Emo ional Responses
In he ace o modi ica ion o expe ience and emo ional esponse, i has been ound
ha wo ke s use mo e inhibi ion and supp ession o emo ions han s uden s and a hle es, p obably
due o he g ea e demands o emo ional sel -con ol in he wo kplace. Howe e , i is
impo an o ema k ha e ec size was small.
A hle es a e he ones who epo using ac i e physiological egula ion mo e han he o he wo
g oups, in line wi h he ac ha he ac i i y hey engage in is p edominan ly
physical—e ec
size
was s ong and explained a iance was 5% o mo e. Wo ke s use his o m o egula ion a
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2023,20, 6865 19 o 24
an in e media e le el, and also epo using passi e physiological egula ion mo e han
s uden s—e ec size was small. This las esul could p obably be explained by age and
sugges s ha wo ke s make a g ea e e o a egula ion, al hough i may no be mo e
adap i e (in he case o passi e egula ion).
S uden s and wo ke s epo engaging in mo e discha ge, bu a hle es con on mo e han
s uden s and wo ke s- e ec size we e om small o medium high. This p obably e lec s
he ela i e g ea e accep ance o exp essi eness in he s udy/wo k en i onmen and he
g ea e need o asse i eness and compe i i eness in he spo s ield.
9.7. Expe ience Modi ica ion and Regula ion o Emo ional Response: Ac i e Physiological Reac ion,
Regula ed Emo ional Exp ession as Adap i e S a egies and Passi e Physiological egula ion and
Supp ession as Inadap i e S a egy
Ac i e physiological egula ion shows i s adap i e cha ac e and passi e egula ion
shows i s dys unc ionali y as expec ed. Regula ed emo ional exp ession is adap i e in all
h ee g oups. P e ious s udies in his ield ha e shown ha sel - egula ion and egula ion
o o he s h ough supp ession a e associa ed wi h low emo ional in elligence and poo
psychological adjus men [
67
]. These esul s a e eplica ed in his s udy, excep o he case
o a hle es. While hese s a egies ha e been shown o be maladap i e in o he s udies,
i was ound ha bo h discha ge and con on a ion we e associa ed wi h egula ed exp ession o
emo ions and adjus men in he sample o wo ke s. These esul s sugges ha di ec bu non-
agg essi e exp ession o ange may be an adap i e s a egy in he wo k en i onmen [
32
].
On he o he hand, he ac ha en ing is no dys unc ional in spo s can be explained,
in pa , because an ideal emo ional p o ile in spo s included, among o he ai s, being
somewha anxious and a li le ang y, consis en wi h he me a-analysis o [
68
] on spo
psychology and pe o mance.
9.8. Modi ica ion o Response o Emo ions by Humo and A ec ion as Adap i e S a egy in
Wo ke s and S uden s
Resul s show ha he use o humo and a ec ion is associa ed wi h adjus men and well-
being in wo ke s and s uden s, al hough no in a hle es. This could sugges ha he exp ession
o humo and a ec ion plays di e en oles depending on he analyzed con ex . I is
possible ha he sense o compe i ion and commi men in spo s leads o humo being
conside ed a dis ac ion -as measu ed in his s udy- and ha demons a ions o a ec ion
a e no desi able o a e exp essed di e en ly in he con ex o compe i i e spo s, s udying,
and wo k. I is impo an o emembe , in he same ein, ha he e was less accep ance
o exp essi eness o discha ge and g ea e con on a ion in he spo s ield han among
s uden s and wo ke s. Humo s yles we e also ound o be associa ed wi h well-being.
Consis en wi h p e ious s udies [
69
], in his s udy, sel -enhancing humo was associa ed wi h
well-being. Agg essi e humo was associa ed wi h non-adap i e coping s a egies such as
con on a ion and discha ge, sugges ing a social in eg a ion cos o his s yle. Howe e ,
his humo s yle was also associa ed wi h al uism, g a i ude, and dis ac ion, which help
o ob ain social suppo . I s ambi alen na u e can be explained by he ac ha i is no
nega i ely associa ed wi h well-being. Sel -de ea ing humo , which is usually associa ed
wi h dis ess neu o icism and low wellbeing [
26
], was ound o be associa ed wi h non-
adap i e s a egies such as supp ession, passi e physiological egula ion, con on a ion,
and delega ion, which may explain i s gene al associa ion wi h dis ess. Howe e , i was
also associa ed wi h eapp aisal and ac i e physiological egula ion. The ambi alen na u e
o sel -de ea ing humo can be explained by he ac ha his s yle ocuses on in e nal
p ocesses. Laughing a onesel as a de ached c i ique can be adap i e, while coping wi h
s ess h ough in ense physical exe cise can be an ex e nalized o m o coping. Howe e ,
he limi a ions o he sample size ela i ize hese conclusions.
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2023,20, 6865 20 o 24
9.9. Adap i e Regula ion like Ree alua ion and Ac i e Physiological Regula ion A e Rela ed o
Emo ional C ea i i y and C ea i e Solu ion o Wo k Con lic
Rega ding he ela ionship be ween egula ion and c ea i i y, i was ound ha eap-
p aisal and ac i e physiological egula ion a e associa ed wi h emo ional c ea i i y as a ai and
applied o a ask. Emo ional c ea i i y ai is associa ed wi h inno a i e esponses o sol e
a labo con lic , con i ming ha i p edic s c ea i e pe o mance. The ac ha emo ional
c ea i i y is associa ed wi h egula ion s a egies ha also ela e o well-being, and ha
bo h indica o s co ela e wi h adjus men , sugges s ha c ea i i y is adap i e and helps
people o success ully coping wi h s ess and managing emo ions. The esul s indica e
ha , in a si ua ion o labo con lic , people who gi e mo e c ea i e esponses did no
choose dys unc ional egula ion s a egies such as abandon o gi ing up, o ac ing as i
no hing happened. They also do no supp ess hei emo ions and epo mo e posi i e
eapp aisal—which helps pe sonal g ow h -, use g ea e ac i e physiological egula ion,
and in o ma ion seeking. The esul s co obo a e ha low abandonmen , inding he posi i e
side o he si ua ion, physical ac i i y, high ai emo ional c ea i i y,and low supp ession make
up an op imal unc ioning p o ile o c ea i i y.
9.10. Wellbeing as Disposi ional Va iable P edic ing Adjus men h ough Adap i e
Regula ion—Di ec Coping, Low Abandonmen , Reapp aisal, Ac i e Physiological Regula ion,
and Regula ed Exp ession
The analyses con i med ha well-being p edic s an adap i e coping p o ile, and ha
hese pa ially media e be ween well-being and adjus men , explaining be ween 10 and 20%
o a iance. The speci ic s a egies ha media e be ween hese a iables a e di ec coping,
low abandonmen , eapp aisal, ac i e physiological egula ion, and egula ed exp ession.
These con i m hei cen al ole in emo ional egula ion. Well-being was associa ed wi h
g ea e accep ance and discha ge, which in u n showed a nega i e e ec on adjus men in
his analysis. Tha is, hese s a egies media ed nega i ely. The esul s sugges ha s uden s
wi h highe well-being end simul aneously o exp ess hei emo ions in ensely while also
p ac icing sel -con ol. Mul i a ia e esul s sugges ha , when elimina ing he in luence o
o he adap i e egula ion o ms, hese s a egies (discha ge and accep ance) ha e a nega i e
in luence, e.g., i he in luence o egula ed exp ession o emo ions is elimina ed, discha ge
i sel does no help adjus men . Accep ance, i he in luence o posi i e eapp aisal is
elimina ed, is no help ul ei he . These esul s we e ound wi h nuances in he o he
wo g oups (media ional analysis no shown). Fo example, in wo ke s, he e ec o
well-being on adjus men was shown o be signi ican h ough g a i ude, low discha ge,
and high eapp aisal. In a hle es, accep ance media ed posi i ely be ween well-being
and adjus men .
As s udy limi a ions, i is no ed ha his is a c oss-sec ional s udy ha p e en s mak-
ing causal s a emen s and ha he samples we e la ge bu con enience samples. Ano he
limi a ion is ha he eliabili ies o some o he scales, like EROs wo sening he e o egu-
la ion scale and a ilia i e humo scales—in some o he samples in his s udy—a e low.
MARS s a egies
such as beha io al a oidance and dis ac ion in a hle es, umina ion and
ac i e physiological egula ion in s uden s, showed eliabili ies below 0.70, al hough no as
low as he p e ious ones. This limi s he scope o he esul s o his s udy. Rega ding he
esul s o humo and c ea i i y, he small samples do no allow o gene alizing he indings,
howe e , hey a e consis en wi h p e ious s udies. Fu u e s udies need o conside hese
limi a ions when compa ing di e en na ions and explo ing whe he egula ion s a egies
a e in luenced by cul u al pa e ns.
10. Conclusions
In conclusion, i is no ed ha in gene al, an adap i e egula ion p o ile would be
o med by high di ec coping, which would help people pe cei e and alida e e ec i e
ac ions. This p o ile would also in ol e ocusing a en ion on he posi i e, sel - ewa ding,
g a i ude a i udes, dis ac ing om he mos nega i e and s ess ul aspec s, and ocusing
a en ion on ewa ding s imuli. No inhibi ing emo ions and exp essing hem in a egula ed
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2023,20, 6865 21 o 24
manne is ano he componen o he adap i e p o ile, as well as hinking posi i ely o
ee alua ing he si ua ion by dis ancing onesel om s ess and ex ac ing posi i e aspec s
om wha has happened. Rega ding he e o- egula ion, in gene al, adap i e ac ics a e
di ec coping, eapp aisal, and social suppo o managing he emo ions o o he s. Peo-
ple like hei leade s o mo i a e hem and gi e posi i e eedback o a job well done.
The men ioned p o ile o sel and he e o- egula ion can con ibu e o high well-being.
Speci ically, his p o ile should be examined in di e en samples and hei speci ici ies,
e.g., c i icism and exp ession o dissa is ac ion wi h he emo ions o o he s in he spo s
con ex a e associa ed wi h well-being, sugges ing ha in ha con ex , hey a e adap i e.
T aining and in e en ion in he a ea o a ec i e egula ion should ake in o accoun he
p edominance o unc ional emo ional social in luence on o he s, which con ibu es o
gene a ing emo ionally posi i e clima es wi h low nega i i y.
Au ho Con ibu ions:
Concep ualiza ion, S.C.D.C.D., X.O.G. and D.P.-R.; me hodology, S.C.D.C.D.
and D.P.-R.; so wa e, D.P.-R. and S.C.D.C.D.; alida ion, S.C.D.C.D., X.O.G., V.D., C.C.-D. and A.I.;
o mal analysis, S.C.D.C.D. and D.P.-R.; in es iga ion, S.C.D.C.D.; X.O.G. and D.P.-R.; esou ces,
S.C.D.C.D., X.O.G., D.P.-R., V.D., C.C.-D. and A.I.; da a cu a ion, S.C.D.C.D.; w i ing—o iginal d a
p epa a ion, S.C.D.C.D., X.O.G. and D.P.-R.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, V.D., C.C.-D. and A.I.;
isualiza ion, V.D., C.C.-D., A.I., D.P.-R., S.C.D.C.D. and D.P.-R.; supe ision, S.C.D.C.D. and D.P.-R.;
p ojec adminis a ion, S.C.D.C.D.; unding acquisi ion, S.C.D.C.D., X.O.G. and D.P.-R. All au ho s
ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding:
This wo k was suppo ed by G an o I+D p ojec s om he Minis y o Science and
Inno a ion PSI2011-26315, UFI 11/04 and PSI2017-84145-P.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen :
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : The s udy was con-
duc ed in acco dance wi h he Decla a ion o Helsinki, and app o ed by E hics Commi ee o he
UPV/EHU-CEISCH (Re e ence: INA-AFREG-VG2, CEISH/328/2015) o s udies in ol ing humans.
In o med Consen S a emen : In o med consen was ob ained om all subjec s in ol ed in he s udy.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen :
The da a a e no publicly a ailable because a con iden iali y ag eemen
was signed whe e i is explici ly s a ed ha hey will only be used by he pe sons esponsible o he
s udy o didac ic o esea ch pu poses.
Acknowledgmen s:
To all he people who pa icipa ed in one way o ano he in his wo k, conside -
ing ha i is pa o a b oad and success ul line o esea ch de eloped by Da ío Paez, he Consolida ed
G oup Cul u e, Cogni ion and Emo ion o he Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y/Euskal He iko
Uni e si a ea and en husias ically welcomed by esea che s om o he coun ies. We a e g a e ul o
he collabo a ion o colleagues, esea che s, collabo a o s, ins i u ions o o ganisa ions ha suppo ed
and acili a ed he da a collec ion.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
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au ho (s) and con ibu o (s) and no o MDPI and/o he edi o (s). MDPI and/o he edi o (s) disclaim esponsibili y o any inju y o
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